Edited by
Rajeev Bhat Vicente M. Gómez-López
The past few years have witnessed an upsurge in incidences relating
to food safety issues, which are attributed to a range of factors.
Today, with increased knowledge and available databases on food
safety issues, the world is witnessing tremendous efforts towards
the development of new, economical and environmentally friendly
techniques for maintaining the quality of perishable foods and
agro-based commodities. The intensification of food safety concerns
reflects a major global awareness of foods in world trade. Several
recommendations have been put forward by various world governing
bodies and committees to resolve food safety issues, which are all
mainly targeted at benefiting consumers. In addition, economic
losses and instability experienced by a particular nation or region
caused by food safety issues can be severe. Various ‘non-dependent’
risk factors can be involved with regard to food safety in a wide
range of food commodities such as fresh fruits, vegetables,
seafood, poultry, meat and meat products. Additionally, food safety
issues involves a wide array of issues including processed foods,
packaging, post-harvest preservation, microbial growth and
spoilage, food poisoning, handling at the manufacturing units, food
additives, and the presence of banned chemicals and drugs. Rapidly
changing climatic conditions also have a pivotal role with regard
to food safety issues, increasing anxiety about our ability to feed
the world safely.
Practical Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions
takes a multi- faceted approach to the subject of food safety,
covering various aspects ranging from microbiological to chemical
issues and from basic knowledge to future perspectives. This is a
book exclusively designed to simultaneously encourage consideration
of the present knowledge and future possibilities of food safety.
This book also covers the classic topics required for all books on
food safety, and encompasses the most recent updates in the field.
Leading researchers have addressed new issues and proposed novel
research directions that will affect the world in the future, while
also suggesting how these should be tackled.
This book will be useful for researchers engaged in the field of
food science and food safety, food industry personnel engaged in
safety aspects, and governmental and non- governmental agencies
involved in establishing guidelines regarding safety measures for
food and agricultural commodities.
About the editors
Dr Rajeev Bhat is Associate Professor in the Department of Food
Technology at the School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
Dr Vicente M. Gómez-López is a senior researcher in the Department
of Food Science and Technology, Centro de Edafología y Biología
Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Espinardo, Spain.
9 781118 474600
Editors
Vicente M. Gómez-López
Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura, (CEBAS-CSIC)
Murcia, Spain
This edition first published 2014 © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd
Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern
Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The
Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111
River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030–5774, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services
and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the
copyright material in this book please see our website at
www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the
publisher.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are
often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used
in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or
registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is
not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this
book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and
author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they
make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy
or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically
disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a
particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the
publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and
neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages
arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance
is required, the services of a competent professional should be
sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Practical food safety : contemporary issues and future directions /
editors, Rajeev Bhat and Vicente M. Gómez-López. p. ; cm. Includes
bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-47460-0
(cloth) I. Bhat, Rajeev, editor of compilation. II. Gómez-López,
Vicente M., editor of compilation. [DNLM: 1. Food Safety. 2. Food
Contamination. WA 695] RA601.5 363.19′26–dc23 2013046826
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats.
Some content that appears in print may not be available in
electronic books.
Cover images: Assortment of Vegetables © iStock/ vasiliki Scientist
picks up bacterial colonies © iStock/ anyaivanova Pesticide Warning
Sign © iStock/ alacatr Quality Control © iStock/ MiguelMalo Cover
design by Meaden Creative.
Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry,
India
1 2014
1 Food Safety: A Global Perspective 1 Karl R. Matthews
1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 National and global food safety events 2 1.3
Foodborne illness outbreaks: imports
and exports 3 1.4 Regulations impacting food safety 4 1.5
China’s food safety growing pains 6 1.6 Food safety and product
testing 7 1.7 Fresh fruits and vegetables safety 7 1.8 Conclusions
and future outlook 8 References 8
2 Food Safety: Consumer Perceptions and Practices 11 Anne
Wilcock and Brita Ball
2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Novel technologies and issues 13
2.2.1 Irradiation 14 2.2.2 Genetic modification 15 2.2.3
Nanotechnology 16 2.2.4 Hormone use in food animals 17 2.2.5
Organic foods 19 2.2.6 Deliberate and accidental
contamination 19 2.3 Consumer attitudes, knowledge
and behavior 21 2.3.1 Types of food safety issues 21 2.3.2
Knowledge versus behavior 22
2.3.3 Influence of consumer demographics 23
2.3.4 Knowledge and behavior 23 2.4 Conclusion and outlook 24
References 25
3 Educating for Food Safety 31 Angela M. Fraser and Cortney
Miller
3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Food safety education targeting
food handlers 33 3.3 Effective food safety education
interventions 38 3.3.1 Intervention design 38 3.3.2 Instructional
strategies 41 3.3.3 Learner assessment 43 3.3.4 Training in
languages other
than English 44 3.4 Future outlook 45 Acknowledgements 45
References 46
4 Food Safety Training in Food Services 49 Caroline Opolski
Medeiros, Suzi Barletto Cavalli, and Elisabete Salay
4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Legislation about training 50
4.2.1 European Union 50 4.2.2 United States 50 4.2.3 Mercosur 51
4.2.4 Brazil 51
4.3 Evaluation of the programs 51 4.4 Planning the training
programs 52
4.4.1 Knowing the target public 52 4.4.2 Training themes 52
Contents
vi ConTEnTS
4.4.3 Training methods 53 4.4.4 Duration of training programs 58
4.4.5 Language used in training 58
4.5 Conclusions and future outlook 58 References 59
5 Product Tracing Systems 63 Jennifer McEntire and Tejas
Bhatt
5.1 Introduction 63 5.2 Traceability: meaning and context 64
5.2.1 Tracebacks, traceforwards, and recalls 64
5.2.2 Traceability system attributes 65 5.3 International
traceability regulations 65
5.3.1 Codex 66 5.4 Private global traceability standards 67
5.4.1 International Standards Organization (ISO) 67
5.4.2 Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) 67 5.4.3 GS1 68
5.5 Country-specific traceability requirements 68 5.5.1
Traceability in developed
economies 69 5.5.2 Traceability through regulatory
consolidation 72 5.5.3 Traceability through
transformative events 72 5.5.4 Traceability in
developing
countries 73 5.6 Costs and benefits to traceability 75
5.6.1 Societal benefits 75 5.6.2 Government benefits 75 5.6.3
Industry costs and benefits 75
5.7 Challenges 76 5.7.1 Education 76 5.7.2 Technology 76 5.7.3
Commingling: a challenge
to traceability 77 5.8 The role of technology in traceability
77 5.9 Steps to achieve a global, traceable
supply chain 78 5.10 Summary and outlook 79 Acknowledgements 79
References 79
6 Linking Local Suppliers to Global Food Markets: A Critical
Analysis of Food Safety Issues in Developing Countries 83
Sapna A. Narula and Neeraj Dangi
6.1 Introduction 84 6.2 The rise of global supply chains 85
6.3 Global trade opportunities for developing countries 85
6.4 Food safety issues: traceability, certification, labelling and
phytosanitary 86 6.4.1 Traceability and certification 86 6.4.2
Labelling 87 6.4.3 Phytosanitary issues 88
6.5 Role of public standards 88 6.5.1 Codex Alimentarius 89 6.5.2
Global Food Safety Initiative
(GFSI) 89 6.5.3 Food safety initiatives:
Philippines 89 6.5.4 Strengthening food safety
initiatives: India 90 6.6 Role of private standards in food
supply chains 90 6.7 Challenges faced by developing
countries in food safety implementation 92 6.7.1 Development of
cold chains
in India 92 6.8 Conclusions and future outlook 93 References
96
7 Achieving Quality Chemical Measurements in Foods 99 Yiu-chung
Wong and Michael Walker
7.1 Introduction 100 7.2 Quality assurance in food analysis
101
7.2.1 Method validation 101 7.2.2 Control chart 107 7.2.3
Traceability 108 7.2.4 Measurement uncertainty 110 7.2.5 Laboratory
accreditation 111
7.3 Metrology in chemistry 111 7.3.1 Assigned values in PT
programmes 114 7.3.2 PT on melamine in milk 115 7.3.3 PT on
cypermethrin
in green tea 117 7.3.4 Insights from the two
described PT 120 7.4 Conclusions and future outlook 120
Acknowledgements 120 References 121
8 Protection of the Agri-Food Chain by Chemical Analysis: The
European Context 125 Michael Walker and Yiu-chung Wong
8.1 Introduction 125 8.2 European food and feed law 127
ConTEnTS vii
8.3 Chemical contaminants 128 8.3.1 Mycotoxins 129 8.3.2 Aluminium
in noodles 135 8.3.3 Veterinary residues: Nitrofurans 137 8.3.4
Non-regulated contaminants 138
8.4 Resolution of disputed chemical results 139 8.5 Conclusions and
future outlook 140 Acknowledgements 140 References 140
9 Pesticide Residues in Food: Health Implications for Children and
Women 145 Muhammad Atif Randhawa, Salim-ur-Rehman, Faqir Muhammad
Anjum and Javaid Aziz Awan
9.1 Introduction 145 9.2 Pesticides 146
9.2.1 Definition of pesticide 146 9.2.2 History of pesticide
production
and application 146 9.2.3 Worldwide production and
consumption of pesticides 146 9.2.4 Benefits and risks of
pesticide
application 147 9.3 Pathway of pesticide residues in the
food chain 147 9.3.1 Pesticide residues in soil
and groundwater 147 9.3.2 Plant uptake of pesticide residues
149 9.3.3 Pesticide residues in feed
and food 149 9.3.4 Pesticide residues in livestock/
animal tissues 149 9.4 Pesticide residue dissipation during
processing 150 9.4.1 Dissipation of pesticide residues
by washing with water 150 9.4.2 Dissipation of pesticide
residues
by dipping in chemical solutions 150 9.4.3 Dissipation of
pesticide residues
by heat treatment 150 9.4.4 Dissipation of pesticide
residues
by low-temperature storage 153 9.5 Pesticide residues in food
and food
products 153 9.5.1 Pesticide residues in fruits
and vegetables 153 9.5.2 Pesticide residues in milk 155 9.5.3
Pesticide residues in organic foods 155
9.6 Pesticide residues in humans 155 9.6.1 Pathways of pesticide
residues in
women 156
9.7 Health repercussions 157 9.8 Measures to combat pesticide
exposure 159 References 160
10 The need for a Closer Look at Pesticide Toxicity during GMo
Assessment 167 Robin Mesnage and Gilles-Éric Séralini
10.1 Purpose, aim and scope 168 10.2 A silent pandemic 168
10.2.1 First observations on animal and human reproduction
168
10.2.2 Endocrine and nervous disruptions due to the
aromatic structure of pesticides 169
10.3 Link between pesticides and agricultural GMOs 171
10.4 Focus on Roundup toxicity in GMOs 172 10.4.1 Adjuvants:
glyphosate is
not the major toxicant in Roundup 172
10.4.2 Glyphosate action in non-target species 173
10.4.3 Long-term effects of Roundup or its residues in GMOs
174
10.5 Agricultural GMOs producing Bt are new insecticidal plants
176
10.6 Side-effects of the genetic modification itself 177 10.6.1
Specific side effects of the
transgene expression 177 10.6.2 Insertional mutagenesis or
new unexpected/unexplainable metabolism 178
10.7 Limits and difficulties of interpretations in toxicity tests
178
10.8 The relevance of in vivo findings and length of the
nutritional tests 180 10.8.1 Insufficiencies of in vitro
tests 180 10.8.2 Limitations of 90-day-long
tests 181 10.8.3 The need for additional tests
including long-term tests 181 10.8.4 Unraveling the effects
of mixtures 182 10.9 Conclusions and future outlook 183 References
183
viii ConTEnTS
11 What Have We Learnt from the Melamine-tainted Milk Incidents in
China? 191 Miao Hong, Cui Xia, Zhu Pan, and Wu Yongning
11.1 Introduction 191 11.2 Melamine and its analogs 192 11.3
Melamine incidents 193
11.3.1 Melamine-contaminated pet food 193
11.3.2 Infant formula 193 11.4 Epidemiological studies 193
11.4.1 Emergency exposure assessment in China and WHO
194
11.4.2 Initial and later risk management responses of Chinese
government 195
11.4.3 Development of detection of melamine and its analogs in food
196
11.5 Screening methods 196 11.5.1 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay 196 11.5.2 High-performance liquid
chromatography 197 11.5.3 Capillary electrophoresis 197
11.6 Confirmatory methods 198 11.6.1 Gas chromatography mass
spectrometry 198 11.6.2 Liquid chromatography mass
spectrometry 198 11.6.3 Matrix-assisted laser
desorption/ionization mass spectrometry 199
11.6.4 Application of new technologies 199
11.7 Health effects and toxicology of melamine and its analogs 199
11.7.1 Health effects 199 11.7.2 Toxicology 200 11.7.3 Toxicity of
melamine 200 11.7.4 Toxicity of cyanuric acid 201 11.7.5 Combined
toxicity 201
11.8 Diet exposure assessment from China Total Diet Study 202
11.9 Who should be responsible for food safety in China? 203 11.9.1
Food safety is the responsibility
of the food producer 203 11.9.2 Comprehensive and found
legislation and regulation system 204
11.9.3 Effective supervision and risk management 205
11.9.4 Food safety is the responsibility of the consumer 206
11.10 Conclusions and future perspectives 206 References 206
12 Heavy Metals of Special Concern to Human Health and Environment
213 Sameeh A. Mansour 12.1 Introduction 213 12.2 Mercury 214
12.2.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 214 12.2.2 Health effects 215
12.2.3 Toxicology of mercury 216
12.3 Cadmium 216 12.3.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 216 12.3.2
Health effects 217 12.3.3 Cadmium toxicolgy 218
12.4 Lead 220 12.4.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 220 12.4.2 Health
effects 220 12.4.3 Lead toxicology 221
12.5 Chromium 223 12.5.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 223 12.5.2
Health effects 223
12.6 Arsenic 223 12.6.1 Occurrence, exposure and dose 223 12.6.2
Health effects 224
12.7 Nickel 225 12.7.1 Occurrence, use and exposure 225 12.7.2
Health effects 225
12.8 Other essential elements 225 12.8.1 Copper 225 12.8.2 Selenium
226 12.8.3 Manganese 226 12.8.4 Molybdenum 226 12.8.5 Zinc 227
12.8.6 Cobalt 227 12.8.7 Iron 227 12.8.8 Magnesium 228
12.9 Conclusions 228 References 229
13 Monitoring and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal
Contamination in Food 235 Sameeh A. Mansour 13.1 Introduction
235 13.2 Analytical methods 236
13.2.1 Colorimetric methods 236 13.2.2 Instrumental methods
237
ConTEnTS ix
13.3 Contamination levels data 237 13.3.1 Vegetables and fruits 237
13.3.2 Medicinal plants and herbs 239 13.3.3 Grains 240 13.3.4 Fish
and seafood 241 13.3.5 Miscellaneous 242
13.4 Heavy metals in non-conventionally produced crops 242
13.5 Dietary health risk assessment of heavy metals through
consumption of food commodities 246 13.5.1 Risk assessment 247
13.5.2 Daily dietary index 247 13.5.3 Daily intake of metals 247
13.5.4 Health risk index 247
13.6 Conclusions 252 References 253
14 Heavy Metal Contamination as a Global Problem and the need for
Prevention/ Reduction Measurements 257 Sameeh A. Mansour
14.1 Introduction 257 14.2 Pathway of heavy metals through
the food chain 258 14.2.1 Transfer of heavy metals from
soil to vegetables 259 14.2.2 Heavy metal transfer through
irrigation water 260 14.2.3 Heavy metals transfer
and accumulation in fish 261 14.2.4 Heavy metal
deposition
from air 263 14.3 Multiple environmental factors affecting
accumulation of heavy metals in food and impact on human
health 265
14.4 Comparative levels of heavy metals in vege tables and
fruits from different countries 268
14.5 Removal of heavy metal contamination 271 14.5.1
Vegetable/fruit
decontamination 271 14.5.2 Wastewater treatment 271 14.5.3 Plant-
and animal-derived
materials 271 14.5.4 Soil remediation 272 14.5.5 Soil
bioremediation 273 14.5.6 Soil remediation by metal
phytoextraction 273 14.6 Prevention and reduction of metal
contamination in food 274
14.7 Recent technologies for removal of heavy metal contaminants
275
14.8 Conclusion 275 References 275
15 Radionuclides in Food: Past, Present and Future 281 Rajeev
Bhat and Vicente M. Gómez-López
15.1 Introduction 282 15.2 Radionuclides in nature 282 15.3
Historical background of radioactivity 284
15.3.1 Most recent large-scale radiation release 284
15.4 Radionuclides and the food chain 286 15.5 Measurement of
radionuclides in food 289 15.6 210Po and 210Pb (polonium and
lead)
in food 292 15.7 Uranium, thorium and radium 294 15.8 Other
radionuclides in food 297 15.9 Minimizing internal exposure
by
ingestion after long-scale radiation releases 298
15.10 Conclusions and future outlook 298 References 299
16 Antinutrients and Toxicity in Plant-based Foods: Cereals and
Pulses 311 Salim-ur-Rehman, Javaid Aziz Awan, Faqir Muhammad
Anjum, and Muhammad Atif Randhawa
16.1 Introduction 312 16.2 Toxicity 313
16.2.1 Accidental toxicity 313 16.2.2 Toxic compounds in
legumes
and cereal grains 313 16.3 Plant-derived allergens 313
16.3.1 Haemagglutinins, trypsin and protease inhibitors 314
16.3.2 Goitrogens 315 16.3.3 Cyanogens 315 16.3.4 Lathyrogens 316
16.3.5 Lignins and lignans 317 16.3.6 Phytate 318 16.3.7 Amylase
inhibitors 318 16.3.8 Plant phenolics 319 16.3.9 Saponins 322
16.3.10 Raffinose 322 16.3.11 Other antinutrients 322
16.4 Mechanisms of antinutritional factors 323
x ConTEnTS
16.5 Prevention and detoxification 324 16.5.1 Soaking in water 325
16.5.2 Boiling/steeping/steaming 325 16.5.3 Germination and malting
326 16.5.4 Fermentation 326
16.6 Health repercussions 326 16.7 Conclusions and future outlook
328 References 330
17 nanotechnology Tools to Achieve Food Safety 341 Jesús
Fernando Ayala-Zavala, Gustavo Adolfo González-Aguilar, María
Roberta Ansorena, Emilio Alvarez-Párrilla, and Laura de la
Rosa
17.1 Introduction 341 17.2 Types of nanotechnological devices
342
17.2.1 Nanosystems to release antimicrobial compounds
343
17.2.2 Immobilization of antimicrobial compounds using
nanocomposite materials 344
17.3 Food safety monitoring systems 345 17.3.1 Microbial growth
nanosensors 345 17.3.2 Toxin sensors 348 17.3.3 Food traceability
systems 348
17.4 Safety regulations regarding food-applied nanotechnology
349
17.5 Conclusions and outlook 350 References 350
18 Photonic Methods for Pathogen Inactivation 355 Vicente M.
Gómez-López and Rajeev Bhat
18.1 Introduction 355 18.1.1 Dosimetry 356
18.2 Comparison of CW UV and PL treatment 356 18.2.1 Advantages and
disadvantages
of CW UV light 356 18.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
of PL compared to CW UV light 357 18.2.3 Inactivation of
microorganisms
and viruses in vitro 358 18.3 Microbial inactivation mechanism
358
18.3.1 Continuous UV light 358 18.3.2 Pulsed light 359
18.4 Sublethal injury, acquired resistance and sensitization
360
18.5 Kinetics of microbial inactivation 361 18.6 Application of
photonic methods 362
18.6.1 Application to foods of vegetable origin 362
18.6.2 Application to meat products 363 18.6.3 Application to
liquids 364 18.6.4 Application to other foods 365 18.6.5
Decomposition of allergens
by pulsed light 366 18.6.6 Decomposition of mycotoxins
by pulsed light 367 18.6.7 Photosensitization 367
18.7 Concluding remarks and future work 368 Acknowledgement 368
References 368
19 Intelligent Packaging and Food Safety 375 István Siró
19.1 Introduction 375 19.2 Concepts of intelligent packaging
376
19.2.1 Time-temperature indicators 376 19.2.2 Current
technologies
and applications 377 19.2.3 State-of-the-art developments 378
19.2.4 Possibilities and limitations 379
19.3 Radio frequency identification 379 19.4 Gas indicators and
sensors 381
19.4.1 Oxygen indicators 381 19.4.2 Carbon-dioxide indicators
383
19.5 Gas composition sensors 384 19.6 Freshness or spoilage
indicators 384 19.7 Biosensors and nanosensors 385
19.7.1 Metallic nanoparticles 386 19.7.2 Quantum dots 387 19.7.3
DNA-based nanosensors 388 19.7.4 Conducting polymers 389
19.8 Conclusion and future outlook 389 References 390
20 Consumer Perception of Safety and Quality of Food Products
Maintained under Cold Storage 395 Jasmin Geppert and Rainer
Stamminger
20.1 Introduction 395 20.2 The role of refrigeration in food
quality and safety 396 20.2.1 Food spoilage processes 396 20.2.2
Microbial spoilage 396 20.2.3 (Bio-) chemical spoilage 397 20.2.4
Physical spoilage 398
20.3 Effects of temperature on food spoilage and quality
398
ConTEnTS xi
20.3.1 Temperature dependency of chemical spoilage processes
398
20.3.2 Temperature dependency of enzymatic spoilage processes
398
20.3.3 Temperature dependency of microbial spoilage processes
399
20.4 Quality and safety of frozen foods 400 20.4.1 Freezing process
400 20.4.2 Frozen storage 400
20.5 Cold storage technologies 401 20.5.1 Principles of
refrigeration 401 20.5.2 Refrigerator layout and
temperature zones 402 20.5.3 Energy label and its
influence
on cooling performance 403 20.6 Consumers’ handling of chilled
food
and home practices 404 20.6.1 Factors affecting consumer
behaviour in handling chilled foods 405
20.6.2 Food shopping habits 405 20.6.3 Food handling at home 406
20.6.4 Temperatures in domestic
refrigeration 407 20.7 Conclusions and future outlook 409
References 410
21 Foodborne Infections and Intoxications Associated with
International Travel 415 Martin Alberer and Thomas Löscher
21.1 Introduction 415 21.2 Travelers’ diarrhea 416 21.3 Etiology of
foodborne infections 418
21.3.1 Escherichia coli (E. coli) 419 21.3.2 Enterotoxigenic E.
coli (ETEC) 419 21.3.3 Enteroaggregative E. coli
(EAEC) 420 21.3.4 Enterohemorrhagic E. coli 421 21.3.5
Enteropathogenic E. coli 422 21.3.6 Enteroinvasive E. coli 422
21.3.7 Diffusely adherent E. coli 423 21.3.8 Infection by
Campylobacter spp. 423 21.3.9 Shigellosis 424 21.3.10 Salmonellosis
424 21.3.11 Infection by Aeromonas spp. 425 21.3.12 Infection by
Plesiomonas spp. 425 21.3.13 Infection by Vibrio cholerae
and Non-cholera Vibrios 425 21.3.14 Infection by
Yersinia
enterocolitica 426
21.3.15 Infection by Arcobacter spp. 427 21.3.16 Viruses as
causative agents
in the development of TD 427 21.3.17 Protozoan organisms as
cause of TD 428 21.3.18 Giardiasis 428 21.3.19 Cryptosporidiosis
428 21.3.20 Cyclosporiasis 429 21.3.21 Amebiasis 429 21.3.22 Other
intestinal parasites
as a cause for foodborne infection 430
21.4 Clinical symptoms/signs and diagnosis of TD 430
21.5 Therapy of TD 431 21.6 Prevention and Prophylaxis of TD 432
21.7 Foodborne intoxications 433
21.7.1 Staphylococcal enterotoxin intoxication 433
21.7.2 Bacillus cereus food intoxication 434
21.7.3 Clostridium perfringens food intoxication 434
21.7.4 Clostridium botulinum intoxication 434
21.7.5 Ciguatera 435 21.7.6 Tetrodotoxin poisoning 435 21.7.7
Paralytic shellfish poisoning 436 21.7.8 Neurotoxic shellfish
poisoning 436 21.7.9 Amnesic shellfish poisoning 437 21.7.10
Scombroid 437
21.8 Conclusion 437 References 438
22 Electron Beam Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens with an
Emphasis on Salmonella 451 Reza Tahergorabi, Jacek Jaczynski, and
Kristen E. Matak
22.1 Introduction 452 22.2 Food irradiation 453 22.3 Inactivation
of Salmonella with e-beam
and ionizing radiation 455 22.3.1 Application of electron beam 455
22.3.2 Comparison of e-beam, gamma
radiation, and x-ray 456 22.3.3 Mechanism of microbial
inactivation 456 22.4 Microbial inactivation kinetics
and process calculations 459
and Salmonella reservoirs 460 22.6.1 Examples of e-beam
applications
to inactivate Salmonella in food 462 22.7 US regulatory status
of e-beam 462 22.8 Future direction of Salmonella
inactivation using e-beam 464 22.9 Conclusions 465 References
466
23 Inactivation of Foodborne Viruses: Recent Findings
Applicable to Food-Processing Technologies 471 Allison Vimont,
Ismaïl Fliss, and Julie Jean
23.1 Introduction 472 23.2 Physical treatments 473
23.2.1 Low-temperature-based methods 473 23.2.2
High-temperature-based
methods 474 23.2.3 UV light treatments 475 23.2.4 Pulsed light
treatments 477 23.2.5 Irradiation treatments 478 23.2.6
High-pressure treatments 479 23.2.7 Other physical treatments
480
23.3 Chemical treatments 481 23.3.1 Washing 481 23.3.2 Hypochlorous
acid 481 23.3.3 Chlorine dioxide 483 23.3.4 Ozone 483 23.3.5
Peroxyacids 484 23.3.6 Other chemical agents 485
23.4 Conclusions and future outlook 486 References 486
24 Use of Synbiotics (Probiotics and Prebiotics) to Improve
the Safety of Foods 497 Jean Guy LeBlanc, Alejandra de Moreno
de LeBlanc, Ricardo Pinheiro de Souza Oliveira, and
Svetoslav Dimitrov Todorov
24.1 Introduction 498 24.2 Probiotics 499 24.3 Prebiotics and
synbiotics 501 24.4 Production of bacteriocins
by probiotic LAB 502 24.4.1 Production of antibacterial
substances by LAB 502 24.4.2 Production of bacteriocins
by LAB 503
24.4.3 Production of bacteriocins by LAB present in fermented
cereals 504
24.4.4 Production of bacteriocins by LAB present in other
fermented foods 505
24.4.5 Effect of commercial drugs on bacteriocin production by LAB
506
24.4.6 Antibiotic resistance in bacteriocins producing LAB
507
Acknowledgements 510 References 511
25 Predictive Microbiology: A Valuable Tool in Food Safety and
Microbiological Risk Assessments 517 F.N. Arroyo-López, J. Bautista
Gallego, A. Valero, R.M. García-Gimeno, and A. Garrido
Fernández
25.1 Introduction 518 25.2 Predictive microbiology 519
25.2.1 History and definition 519 25.2.2 Steps to follow in
the
correct imple mentation of a predictive model 520
25.2.3 Choice of the medium for model development 521
25.2.4 Experimental design 521 25.2.5 Data collection 521 25.2.6
Primary modelling 522 25.2.7 Secondary modelling 522 25.2.8 Square
root models 524 25.2.9 Cardinal parameters models 524 25.2.10
Polynomial models 525 25.2.11 Probabilistic models 525 25.2.12
Neural network (NN) models 525 25.2.13 Dose response models 526
25.2.14 Dynamic models 526 25.2.15 Model validation 526
25.3 Microbiological risk assessment 527 25.4 Software packages and
web applications 529 25.5 Applications and future implications 530
Acknowledgements 531 References 531
26 Pests in Poultry, Poultry Product-Borne Infection and Future
Precautions 535 Hongshun Yang, Shuvra K. Dey, Robert Buchanan, and
Debabrata Biswas
26.1 Introduction 536 26.2 The potential risk of
contamination
in poultry 537
26.2.1 Conventional poultry 537 26.2.2 Pasture poultry 538
26.3 Major sources of pests in poultry 539 26.3.1 Premise pests 540
26.3.2 Ectoparasites 541
26.4 Important poultry-related diseases associated with pests 542
26.4.1 Salmonella and Campylobacter 542 26.4.2 Coccidiosis of
poultry
associated with pest 544 26.5 Current practices of pest control
in
poultry 545 26.5.1 Housing type and management 545 26.5.2 Waste
management 545 26.5.3 Flock management 545
26.6 Promising pest control strategies 546 26.7 Conclusion and
future outlook 547 References 548
27 Safety of Meat and Meat Products in the Twenty-first Century 553
Ian Jenson, Paul Vanderlinde, John Langbridge, and John
Sumner
27.1 Introduction 553 27.2 Where did we start? 554 27.3 Associated
risk and public health 555 27.4 Meat safety: fresh (chilled and
frozen)
red meat 556 27.4.1 Hazards associated with
fresh meat 557 27.4.2 Hygienic processing of meat 559 27.4.3 Risk
assessment 560 27.4.4 Risk management 561 27.4.5 Performance
563
27.5 Meat safety: cooked and ready-to-eat meats 564 27.5.1 Hazards
associated with
RTE meats 564 27.5.2 Processing of RTE meats 565 27.5.3 Risk
assessment 566 27.5.4 Risk management 566
27.6 Meat safety: fermented meats 567 27.6.1 Hazards 568 27.6.2
Processing of fermented meats 569
27.6.3 Risk associated with fermented meats 570
27.6.4 Microbiological criteria 570 27.7 Current status of meat
safety and future
outlook 570 References 571
28 Application of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
Principles for ochratoxin-A Prevention in Coffee Production Chain
577 Kulandaivelu Velmourougane, T.N.Gopinandhan, and Rajeev
Bhat
28.1 Introduction 578 28.2 Coffee quality and food safety 578 28.3
Mycotoxins 578 28.4 Coffee production and OTA
contamination 580 28.4.1 Harvesting 580 28.4.2 Sorting 580 28.4.3
Pulping and fermentation 580 28.4.4 Drying 583 28.4.5 Moisture
management 584 28.4.6 On-farm storage 585
28.5 Coffee waste management and OTA contamination 587
28.6 Curing factories as a source of OTA contamination 587 28.6.1
Dust control in curing
factories 587 28.6.2 Defective beans and OTA
contamination 587 28.6.3 Shipment 588
28.7 Application of GAP/GMP and HACCP principles 588 28.7.1 HACCP,
food hygiene and
food safety 588 28.7.2 Code of good practices for
OTA prevention in coffee production 589
28.8 Conclusions and future outlook 592 Acknowledgements 592
References 592
Index 597
Faqir Muhammad Anjum National Institute of Food Science &
Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
María Roberta Ansorena Grupo de Investigacion en Ingenieria en
Alimentos, Facultad de Ingenieria, Universidad Nacional de Mar del
Plata, Argentina
F.n. Arroyo-López Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la
Grasa (CSIC), Seville, Spain
Javaid Aziz Awan National Institute of Food Science &
Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Jesús Fernando Ayala-Zavala Centro de Investigacion en Alimentacion
y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Brita Ball Department of Food Science, University of Guelph,
Ontario, Canada
J. Bautista Gallego DIVAPRA, Agricultural Microbiology and Food
Technology Sector, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Turin,
Italy
Rajeev Bhat Food Technology Division, School of Industrial
Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Tejas Bhatt Institute of Food Technologists, Washington DC,
USA
Debabrata Biswas Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, Center
for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland,
Maryland, USA
Robert Buchanan Center for Food Safety and Security Systems,
University of Maryland, Maryland, USA
Suzi Barletto Cavalli Nutrition Department and Nutrition in
Foodservice Research Center (NUPPRE), Federal University of Santa
Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
neeraj Dangi Department of Business Sustainability, Department of
Policy Studies, TERI University, New Delhi, India
Laura de la Rosa Departamento de Ciencias Quimico Biologicas,
Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidad Autonoma de Ciudad
Juarez (UACJ), Chihuahua, Mexico
List of Contributors
Ricardo Pinheiro de Souza oliveira Department of Biochemical and
Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Shuvra K. Dey Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University
of Maryland, Maryland, USA
Ismaïl Fliss Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods,
Université Laval, Québec, Canada
Angela M. Fraser Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging
Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
R.M. García-Gimeno Department of Food Science and Technology,
International Campus of Excellence in the AgriFood Sector,
University of Cordoba, Córdoba, Spain
A. Garrido Fernández Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la
Grasa (CSIC), Seville, Spain
Jasmin Geppert Section Household and Appliance Technology,
Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Bonn,
Bonn, Germany
Vicente M. Gómez-López Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del
Segura, (CEBAS-CSIC), Murcia, Spain
Gustavo Adolfo González-Aguilar Centro de Investigacion en
Alimentacion y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
T.n. Gopinandhan Analytical Laboratory, Coffee Board, Bangalore,
India
Miao Hong Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of Ministry
of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment,
Beijing, China
Jacek Jaczynski Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, USA
Julie Jean Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université
Laval, Québec, Canada
Ian Jenson Meat and Livestock Australia, North Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia
John Langbridge Australian Meat Industry Council, St Leonards,
New South Wales, Australia
Jean Guy LeBlanc Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA-
CONICET), San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
Thomas Löscher Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical
Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich,
Germany
Sameeh A. Mansour Environmental Toxicology Research Unit (ETRU),
Pesticide Chemistry Department, National Research Centre, Cairo,
Egypt
Kristen E. Matak Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, USA
Karl R. Matthews Department of Food Science, School of
Environmental and Biological Sciences, State University of New
Jersey, NJ, USA
Jennifer McEntire The Acheson Group, Frankfort, IL, USA
List of Contributors xvii
Caroline opolski Medeiros Department of Food and Nutrition, Faculty
of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil
Robin Mesnage University of Caen, CRIIGEN and Pole Risk MRSH-CNRS,
Caen Cedex, France
Cortney Miller Department of Food, Nutrition and Packaging
Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc Centro de Referencia para
Lactobacilos (CERELA- CONICET), San Miguel de Tucumán,
Argentina
Sapna A. narula Department of Business Sustainability, TERI
University, New Delhi, India
Zhu Pan Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of Ministry
of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment,
Beijing, China
Muhammad Atif Randhawa National Institute of Food Science &
Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Salim-ur-Rehman National Institute of Food Science &
Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Elisabete Salay Department of Food and Nutrition, Faculty of Food
Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil
Gilles-Éric Séralini University of Caen, CRIIGEN and Pole Risk
MRSH-CNRS, Caen Cedex, France
István Siró Chemical Works of Gedeon Richter Plc., Budapest,
Hungary
Rainer Stamminger Section Household and Appliance Technology,
Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Bonn, Bonn,
Germany
John Sumner Meat and Livestock Australia, North Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia
Reza Tahergorabi Department of Food Science, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, USA
Svetoslav Dimitrov Todorov Department of Food Science and
Experimental Nutrition, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
A. Valero Department of Food Science and Technology, International
Campus of Excellence in the AgriFood Sector, University of Cordoba,
Córdoba, Spain
Paul Vanderlinde Residues and Microbiological Policy, Department of
Agriculture, Hamilton, Queensland, Australia
Kulandaivelu Velmourougane Central Institute for Cotton Research,
ICAR, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Allison Vimont Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods,
Université Laval, Québec, Canada
Michael Walker Laboratory of the Government Chemist, Teddington,
Middlesex, UK
Anne Wilcock Department of Marketing and Consumer Studies,
University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Yiu-chung Wong Government Laboratory, Homantin Government Offices,
Hong Kong, China
xviii List of Contributors
Cui Xia Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of Ministry
of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment,
Beijing, China
Hongshun Yang Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University
of Maryland, Maryland, USA
Wu Yongning Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment of
Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk
Assessment, Beijing, China
The food system is becoming more international at an increasingly
rapid pace. Demand for fresh produce out of season and exotic
ingredients combined with perceptions of lower-cost food production
outside developed economies have contributed to the growth in
international food trade. This ground-breaking book explores the
numerous factors contributing to food safety on a global scale.
While consumers may desire a wide variety of foods at low prices,
there is an alternate movement to select local foods despite
possible higher costs. Editors Rajeev Bhat and Vicente M.
Gómez-López have recruited an international panel of experts to
address the many facets of international food safety. The first six
chapters provide broad perspectives on con- sumer beliefs,
successful food safety education programs, and product
traceability. Education is critical for the success of any tracing
system.
Few consumers understand that eating is not a risk-free activity.
Among the potential chemical risks to human health are pesticides,
heavy met- als, and radionuclides that can occur in foods due to
poor agricultural procedures or natural environmental
contamination. Genetically mod- ified foods may contribute
pesticides by their pest-control design. The melamine scandal in
China is used in this text as a case study for intentional chemical
contamination of foods and the steps needed to prevent such a
tragedy in the future. Many naturally occurring com- pounds in
plant foods have health benefits, but consumers may not be aware
that the same chemicals may impair growth in children or have other
serious health consequences. Microbial contamination of foods is
likely the foremost
safety concern of today’s consumers. An often- overlooked food
safety issue is the acquisition of foodborne infections and
intoxications during international travel. Mycotoxins represent an
unseen threat to foods and feed; this potential class of
contaminants can fortunately be con- trolled. This has been
addressed and provided as a case study in coffee.
Despite media stories that depict food tech- nology as a sinister
threat to food wholesomeness, emerging technologies aim to improve
future food safety. The challenge for the food industry will be to
educate the public about technologies such as nano- technology and
symbiotics. Explaining the scientific basis for the benefits of
these new tools in a con- sumer-friendly manner will be essential
to prevent the public backlash that genetically modified foods have
endured. Other processes used to reduce microbial contamination
such as cold temperature storage, electron beams, and pulsed light
are the subjects of additional chapters. The important role of
packaging in food safety is not overlooked; intel- ligent packaging
may increase consumer comfort with processed food safety. The book
concludes with practical approaches for reducing foodborne illness
risks in animal products.
I congratulate the editors and authors for pre- senting a timely
summary of the scope of interna- tional food safety issues. This
book is a must-read for educators, processors, and
regulators.
Mary Ellen Camire, PhD, CFS President-elect, Institute of Food
Technologists Professor, Food Science and Human Nutrition
School of Food and Agriculture University of Maine, Orono, ME
Foreword
The past decade has seen an upsurge in global interest of various
aspects pertaining towards enhancement of food safety and security.
With increasing knowledge of food safety, the world is
witnessing tremendous efforts in improving the well-being of
mankind. A rise in food safety concerns is a direct reflection of
major global awareness in agro-foods sectors in world trade.
Several recommendations have been made by various governing bodies
and committees to solve food safety issues, which are all mainly
aimed at benefiting consumers. In the present world scenario, note
that that economic loss and instability due to food safety issues
can have a high impact on particular nations.
Various risk factors are involved in food safety as a wide range of
commodities are involved, such as: fresh fruits, vegetables,
seafood, poultry and poultry products, and meat and meat products.
Rapid efforts are being made globally to develop novel
environmentally friendly techniques for maintaining the quality of
perishable foods and agricultural commodities. Food safety issues
involve a wide array of aspects involving: food processing,
packaging, transportation, microbial contamination, development and
application of novel technologies for post-harvest preservation,
presence of food additives and banned chemicals, functional foods,
and adoption of HACCP, GAP, and GMP approaches. Apart from these,
rapid changes in climatic conditions can also play a pivotal role
in food safety issues. To effectively manage a food safety system,
proper designing, planning, and execution of representative
laws
are vital and need to be supported by new research policy inputs.
New safety measures with impressive research themes are regularly
proposed worldwide by government and non-government organiza- tions
and policy makers. It is therefore necessary that consumers are
educated about relevant meas- ures via use of appropriate
media.
The present book was planned and designed to address the vital
issues of food safety including present concerns and the practical
application of laboratory- (desk-) generated knowledge. Leading
experts and researchers from all over the world have contributed
significantly to this book, which has a wide coverage based on
emerging and urgent topics pertaining to food safety issues.
As well as covering the classic topics required for
food safety, this book encompasses the most recent updates,
addresses emerging issues, and presents novel research findings
that can influ- ence the future world.
This multi-faceted book covers many aspects such as educating
consumers (consumer percep- tions and practices, food safety
training, product tracing systems, global food market analysis),
chemical issues (chemical measurements, pro- tection along
agri-food chain, pesticide residues and toxicity, the need for
visualizing pesticide toxicity during GMO assessment, melamine
contamination, heavy metal residues, radionu- clides,
antinutrients), application of modern preservation technologies
(nanotechnology, photonic methods, intelligent packaging, cold
storage, use of electron beams), microbiological issues
(inactivation of foodborne viruses, use
Preface
of symbiotics, predictive microbiology), and product-specific
food safety issues (poultry and poultry products, meat and meat
products, mycotoxins in coffee).
We the editors thank our distinguished authors and the staff of
Wiley Publishing for their vital contributions. Special thanks are
due to David McDade, Senior Commissioning Editor
of Wiley-Blackwell, United Kingdom for his support. We are also
grateful to our individual family members for their immense support
and patience, and we dedicate this book to them with much love and
affection.
Rajeev Bhat Vicente M. Gómez-López
Practical Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions,
First Edition. Edited by Rajeev Bhat and Vicente M. Gómez-López. ©
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd.
1
1.1 Introduction The safety of the food supply greatly influen ces
consumers globally. In developed countries consumers desire, even
demand, products year-round regardless of the growing season of
those commodities. In order to fulfill those demands, companies
source products from throughout the world. The production and pro-
cessing practices in developing countries may not achieve
appropriate safety levels however, placing consumers within that
country and throughout the world at risk of illness through export
of those commodities. Many developed countries have elaborate
standards and guidelines to enhance the safety of food produced
domestically. Human health problems arise when best practices are
not
used throughout the farm to plate continuum, regardless of where
the food is produced.
A plethora of factors come into play when attempting to ensure the
safety of the food supply. Food safety typically relates to
ensuring that food is free of pathogenic microorganisms or chemical
contaminates that can negatively impact human health. The safety of
the food supply is affected by food security and food fraud. Food
security is a social issue in developing countries; in an effort
to meet the needs of the country, food that is marginal with
respect to safety may be placed into commerce and consumed. Food
fraud does not always have food safety implications; however, most
cases of adulteration typically involve the addition of illegal
substances to food.
Summary The safety of food supply is of global concern and requires
the commitment of all coun- tries. A major reason countries import
and export food is to satisfy consumer demand. Foodborne illnesses
may be linked to the
consumption of foods whether grown and manufactured domestically or
imported. Global food safety standards are required to ensure
that food will not be injurious to health regardless of its
origin.
Food Safety: A Global Perspective Karl R. Matthews Department of
Food Science, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences,
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, NJ, USA
2 CH1 FooD SAFETY: A GLoBAL PERSPECTIVE
Government agencies strive to ensure the safety of food through
national and import monitoring programs to enforce standards.
Private organiza- tions lead by the Global Food Safety Initiative,
which has five benched-marked audit schemes (Safe Quality Food,
British Retail Consortium, Food Safety System Certification,
International Featured Standards and CanadaGAP), are accepted
interna- tionally and have emerged to bolster consumer confidence
in food supply. Ensuring safety and maintaining control of a
product means that audits must also be applied to members of the
supply chain. Low consumer confidence in the safety of food is not
confined to developed or developing countries. For example, China
is becoming a major food exporter and in recent years has
established three new government agencies: the State Council Food
Safety Commission, the Food Safety Risk Evaluation Committee and
the Food Safety Standard Examination Committee. The changes were
initiated following a litany of domestic (illegally recycled cook-
ing oil) to international (melamine in milk powder and infant
formula) food safety scares. All coun- tries continue to develop
and implement new laws and regulations, striving to keep abreast of
the changing face of the food industry.
1.2 national and global food safety events In order to gain a
perspective of the state of global food safety and the direction in
which it is heading, past events that have shaped govern- ment and
consumer response must be considered. For the most part, many of
the major food safety scares are associated with intentionally
adulter- ated or microbiologically contaminated products.
The chemical plasticizer di-(2-ethylhexyl) phtha- late (DEHP) was
found in an emulsifier used in powdered yogurt mix, fruit jellies
and some juices and drinks produced in Taiwan. Products contain-
ing the toxic chemical were exported throughout the world.
Taiwanese food regulation prohibits the use of DEHP in food.
The Chinese melamine milk scandal occurred in 2007/08,
negatively impacting human and
domesticated animal health globally. Melamine and other compounds
including cyanuric acid were added to the milk to give the
appearance of having higher protein content when tested. In China
alone, at least six infants died, 800 people were hospital- ized
and approximately 300,000 were sickened (Gale and Buzby,
2009; Ibens, 2009). In the United States, melamine-tainted wheat
gluten and rice protein imported from China and used to make pet
food caused at least 17,000 pet illnesses and 4000 dog and cat
deaths (FDA, 2009). Following con- sumption of the contaminated
food, animals developed symptoms including lethargy, vomiting, loss
of appetite and ultimately death. Kidney dam- age was apparent in
affected animals, the result of the formation of insoluble
crystal forming when combining melamine and cyanuric acid.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, food safety perceptions can
also be shaped by the popular press and lack of consumer knowledge.
In 2012 in the US, reports that ‘pink slime’ was being added to
ground beef resulted in a public outcry followed by United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) statements assuring the public
that the product was safe (Stevens, 2012). The product is actually
lean finely textured beef (LFTB) that is made from beef
trimmings treated with ammo- nium hydroxide. The LFTB is pink in
colour and has a thick viscous texture. Consumers focused only on
‘slime’ and ‘ammonium’ and perceived the product to be unsafe. The
USDA Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS) and the US Food and Drug
Administration (USFDA) consider ammo- nium hydroxide as a
‘Generally Recognized As Safe’ food additive.
The safety of imported products is questioned by consumers
throughout the world. Products produced using acceptable production
practices in their home country may be rejected by an import- ing
country which has stricter food safety regula- tions. Regulatory
agencies screen imported products to ensure they meet standards of
that country. The US imports approximately 80% of all seafood
consumed in the US. Fish farming is a growing industry,
encompassing commodities from shrimp to tilapia. Integrated fish
farming is practised in some countries where, for example, poultry
are
1.3 FooDBoRnE ILLnESS oUTBREAKS: IMPoRTS AnD EXPoRTS 3
raised in structures floating on or over fish pounds. The poultry
faeces drop into the water and serve as feed for the fish. The
faeces may contain patho- genic bacteria that present a human
health risk. Depending on production practices, antibiotics may be
included in the water or feed provided to the poultry, which may
precipitate the selection of anti- biotic-resistant bacteria. The
shipments of such farm-raised fish to the US checked by the FDA are
frequently contaminated (Buzby et al., 2008; Gale and Buzby,
2009).
Innovative measures are often employed to ensure safety and reduce
the likelihood of human illness associated with consumption of a
given commodity. In 2012, the USFDA urged restau- rants and food
outlets to stop selling all fresh, frozen and canned oysters, clams
and mussels from South Korea since such products may have been
exposed to human faecal waste and con- taminated with noro-virus.
The shellfish are grown in natural inlets along the southern coast
of South Korea. The workers on those fish farms live on boats and
were releasing sewage into the production water. In response, South
Korea developed floating toilets to be used by workers on the
seafood farms. In this instance, the nation’s food safety agencies
worked with the shellfish industry to develop methods that would
improve the safety of the product, preserving the industry and
export potential of the product.
1.3 Foodborne illness outbreaks: imports and exports Depending on
the type of foodborne illness out- break, the emergence of a new
food safety risk may be signalled. The large 2011 Escherichia coli
O104:H4 outbreak that was centred in Germany resulted in more than
4000 illness, over 850 cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome and 54
deaths (Frank et al., 2011). The outbreak was linked to the
consumption of fenugreek sprouts; the epide- miological
investigation suggested the seeds were contaminated with the
pathogen which grew during sprout production. The fact that sprouts
were linked to the outbreak was not
remarkable. Seed sprout production practices are conducive to the
growth of enteric pathogens. The pathogen E. coli O104:H4 had only
been linked previously to one foodborne outbreak of limited
magnitude. This outbreak may represent the emergence of a new
foodborne pathogen.
Approximately three decades ago in the US, a large outbreak was
associated with the consump- tion of undercooked ground beef. The
causative agent was E. coli O157:H7, which had not been previously
recognized as a foodborne pathogen. Now E. coli O157:H7 is a major
food safety concern in the US and globally.
A devastating Listeria monocytogenes outbreak occurred in the US in
2011, causing 146 cases and 43 deaths (CDC, 2012). The outbreak was
linked to the consumption of cantaloupe, although no previous L.
monocytogenes outbreaks in the US had resulted from cantaloupe. A
clear determina- tion in how the cantaloupe became contaminated was
not made. However, the outbreak underscores that a food may become
contaminated with a pathogen even although that pathogen may not be
traditionally associated with that food.
Consumer interest in the safety of imported foods increases when
outbreaks occur, even when those foodborne illness outbreaks are
associated with domestically produced commodities. The importation
of food continues to increase in the US and other developed
countries. In 2009, imports accounted for 17% of the food consumed
in the US. In the US approximately 80% of the fish and shellfish
consumed is imported, while nearly 34% of fruits and vegetables
consumed are imported (USDA ERS, 2012). The continued increase in
imports is associated with growing ethnic diversity and consumer
preference for a wider selection of food products such as premium
coffee, cheeses, processed meats and tropical fruit (USDA ERS,
2012). Tropical products (bananas, cocoa, spices), olive oil and
cashew nuts are nearly 100% imported since domestic-produced
products is close to 0%. In the US, imports of poultry meat, eggs,
milk and pork is low; indeed, only 3% of head lettuce is imported.
A similar import pattern has emerged in the European Union (EU)
(Jaud et al., 2013).
4 CH1 FooD SAFETY: A GLoBAL PERSPECTIVE
Seafood, poultry, beef and eggs were the food categories linked to
most outbreaks in the US based on analysis of 4638 illness
outbreaks between 1998 and 2007 (CSPI, 2009).
In some countries imports account for the majority of food
consumed; South Korea imports approximately 70% of its food
products. Under these circumstances, the South Korean public
is extremely anxious when food safety issues develop in
countries from which they import foods. Tens of thousands of
concerned South Korean citizens demonstrated when the govern- ment
reversed a ban on the importation of US beef in 2008. The ban was
implemented in 2003 when the US announced it detected the prion
responsible for bovine spongiform encephalopa- thy (BSE) in beef
cattle.
A ten-fold increase in the importation of sea- food occurred from
1988 to 2007 in South Korea. South Korea imported seafood products
from about 80 countries worldwide, with much of that seafood being
produced in China (AAFC, 2011; USDA FAS, 2012). The safety of food
from China is scrutinized by many countries; South Korean officials
found that ink and intestines from a small octopus (‘nakji’ in
Korean) imported from China had levels of the heavy metal cadmium
above acceptable standards. These events underscore the scepticism
that consumers, regardless of the coun- try, express over the
safety of imported foods.
1.4 Regulations impacting food safety Consumers are constantly
seeking new and exciting foods and foods of ethnic origin.
Multi-component products, even those that are apparently simple,
can have an extremely complicated supply chain. A
product such as a snack mix may contain less than 10 main
components (almonds, sunflower seeds, coconut, dried apricots,
spices, etc.), but these ingredients may be sourced from several
different countries. Those components will all have different
supply chains from harvest, storage, production and transport.
Contamination or adulteration could occur at any step in the
supply chain of a component,
placing the public at risk. Should a single compo- nent, for
example dried apricots, be sourced from two countries (e.g. Turkey
and Uzbekistan) then the food safety risk increases as
production and processing practices in both countries must now
be considered. The globalization of the food system now means
that a greater number of countries are sources of food
products than ever before, plac- ing an even greater burden on the
government agencies that are responsible for the inspection of
imported foods.
In 2012 the US FDA (FDA, 2012b) inspected 2.3% of imported food. In
determining which products to inspect, the US FDA relies on risk-
based criteria and data on products and manu- facturers with a
history of violating US import regulations. A means to highlight
food safety problems associated with imported foods is to analyse
import refusals. The USDA Economic Research Service analysed FDA
food-related import refusals and found that fruits and fruit
products, vegetables and vegetable products, and fishery and
seafood products accounted for approximately 12%, 21% and 20%,
respectively, of total violations (Buzby et al., 2008; Gale
and Buzby, 2009). Adulteration or safety violations ranged from
less severe (such as an insect in cooked soup) to immediate severe
risk (such as botulinum toxin in canned foods). The study included
45,941 adulteration violations, which comprised 15.3% pathogens,
25% chemical and 59.7% other sanitary violations. The vegetables
and vegetable products group had the most vio- lations for chemical
contamination, while fishery and seafood products had the most
violations for pathogen adulteration.
A total of 63% of the pathogen adulteration violations were
associated with Salmonella, with Listeria ranked second at 24.8%.
Fishery and sea- food products accounted for 67.6% (3007 of 4445)
Salmonella violations, whereas approximately 50% of violations for
Listeria were associated with cheese and cheese products. Most of
the vio- lations for chemical residues were associated with
unregistered pesticide residues than for volatile residues that
exceed US tolerance levels. In the US the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
1.4 REGULATIonS IMPACTInG FooD SAFETY 5
licences pesticide products and establishes maxi- mum allowable
limits (tolerances) for pesticide residues in food and animal feed.
Products that have a poor food safety record will more likely be
subject to intensified surveillance, especially if those products
originate from a country with a suspect violation record.
Similarly to the US, the EU has strict import standards. Stricter
regulations have been shown to hinder the trade in seafood (Anders
& Caswell, 2009). Consumer demand for seafood has resulted in a
doubling of global seafood trade from 1998 to 2008. Most of
the seafood is produced in devel- oping countries, in which
producers find it diffi- cult to meet the increasingly stringent
regulatory barriers imposed by developed countries. Food import
refusals can result in trade deflection, generally to other
high-income countries. Such deflection is not necessarily
associated with prod- uct refused because of potential health
violations (Baylis et al. 2010). Stricter EU sanitary and
phytosanitary (SPS) standards may reduce the number of countries
that can export to the EU (Jaud et al., 2013). Meeting the
initial costs to comply with the standard is difficult, but more
troublesome is the recurring costs associated with sustained
traceability, certification or quality inspection. Countries
including Iran and Vietnam experience a disproportionate number of
notifi- cations (violations associated with imported products)
compared to their relatively low import shares. The US, Canada and
Norway are large exporters to EU countries, but are subject to
relatively few notifications (Jaud et al., 2013). The study by
Jaud and her colleagues (2013) suggest that a two-tier distribution
is occurring where a small numbers of suppliers dominate with
a fringe of marginal suppliers. Although the port- folio of
suppliers is increasing, the orders are concentrated to a few
suppliers of each commod- ity. This has the potential to be
disastrous should food safety concerns for one or more of those
suppliers develop.
International efforts are required to ensure safety of the food
supply. Organizations including the World Health Organization
(responsible for public health), Food and Agricultural
Organization
(responsible for food security and some aspects of food
safety) and the Codex Alimentarus com- mission (which supports WHO
and FAO by developing standards and guidelines) function at the
international level to foster food safety. Countries generally have
one or more agencies involved in ensuring the safety of that
nation’s food supply, for example: the Republic of Korea has the
Korea Food and Drug Administration and the Minister for food,
agriculture, forestry and fisheries of Korea; China has the
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and
Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, China Food and Drug
Administration; Japan has the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare
and the Food Safety Commission; the United Kingdom has the Food
Standards Agency; Canada has the Canadian Food Inspection Agency
and Health Canada; and the EU as a whole has the European Food
Safety Authority. Each country may have slightly different
approaches to food safety and has established different tolerances
for agents that, when found in food, may present human health
risks. This variability can present significant challenges in the
export and import of food.
The Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) was developed a decade
ago. The GFSI was launched to bolster consumer confidence in the
safety of food supply following a number of food safety crises. The
GFSI has developed definitions of food safety requirements across
the industry and the entire food supply chain. Private auditors can
gain GFSI recognition through meeting GFSI benchmarks and being
recognized as science- based, contemporary and rigorous. GFSI
recog- nized schemes include Global Red Meat Standard (GRMS),
Canada GAP (Good Agricultural Practices) and British Retail
Consortium (BRC) Global Standards. Food processors utilize these
companies to conduct audits to ensure that best industry practices
are being achieved and receive certification. The GFSI benchmarked
food safety schemes require food production and manufac- turing
plants to identify their internal risks to food safety and
establish a process to mitigate, reduce and ideally eliminate those
risks. A major factor in the non-conformance of companies is
6 CH1 FooD SAFETY: A GLoBAL PERSPECTIVE
failure to train new employees and failure in test- ing and
training verification. Companies seeking to conduct business in the
global market must now meet food safety standards established
within GFSI guidance documents. This may be burden- some,
especially for companies in developing countries that have limited
resources. Tying into these stricture food safety standards are
revisions and the updating of national food safety laws.
The FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) was signed into law in
the US in January 2011. Similar measures aimed at tightening food
safety laws have been enacted by other countries, but this
discussion will focus on the US FSMA. The law will require
development and use of food safety plans, based on the Hazard
Analysis and Critical Point Control (HACCP) model, through- out the
food industry. The law will impact foreign food suppliers, relying
on foreign supplier verifi- cation program and third-party
certification for imported foods. The importer must verify that a
foreign supplier has all controls in place, the same as expected of
a domestic supplier. The FDA now has the authority to suspend the
registration of a food facility; in essence, to effectively
shut down a food facility if foods produced present a reason- able
probability of causing illness or death if they are consumed. Under
the law, the FDA will also have the task of defining which
facilities and foods fall into the high-risk category.
The framework has been established under section 201 of FSMA and
the newly created section 421 of the Food Drug and Cosmetic Act.
The costs associated with implementation of this type of inspection
program are not trivial. A 2012 report released by FDA indicated
that costs associated with inspection of domestic high-risk and
non-high-risk food facilities was $21,100 and 14,200, respectively,
per inspection (FDA, 2012b;
http://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/fsma/ ucm315486.htm).
The costs increase to $24,800 per inspection of foreign
high-risk food facilities. Collectively, the FSMA and other
existing laws should increase the safety of food produced in the US
for domestic use and export and the safety of imported foods. The
FDA has established offices in countries exporting to the US to
inspect facilities
overseas. The FDA now maintains offices through- out the world
including, but not limited to, three offices in China (Beijing,
Guangzhou and Shanghai), Italy (Perma), Chile (Santiago), Costa
Rica (San Jose), South Africa (Pretoria) and India (Mumbai and New
Delhi) (http://www.fda.gov/International
Programs/FDABeyondOurBordersForeignOffices/ default.htm).
1.5 China’s food safety growing pains China’s food manufacturing
sector and growth as a food exporter has increased dramatically in
the past decade, presenting significant challenges for China’s
regulatory agencies. Indeed, Chinese food safety is a significant
issue for the Chinese people and the rest of the world. The food
safety issues encompass both chemical (melamine) and bacterial
(Salmonella) hazards affecting the Chinese people and consumers
throughout the world. A 2011 report estimated that in China more
than 94 million cases of bacterial food- borne illness occur each
year, resulting in approx- imately 3,400,000 hospitalizations and
8500 deaths annually (Mao et al., 2011). China is now the
third-largest source of imported food and aquatic products in the
US, and a leading exporter of those products around the world
(Acheson, 2007; Becker, 2008). This has lead to greater foreign
scrutiny of China’s food safety and pres- sure to conform to
international standards. The spotlight on China’s food safety
problem lead to the enactment of the Food Safety Law (FSL) in 2009
by the Chinese government. The Food Safety Law replaced the
outdated Food Hygiene Law, but the law is only as good as the
measures taken to ensure that it is implemented. Notwith standing,
the FSL contains measures designed to prevent and eliminate
future food safety problems. More specifically, the law provides
a starting point for a new regulatory scheme governing food
safety: increased inspections, mandatory recalls and a risk-based
approach to determining foodborne illness threats. The
Chinese administrative authorities that have