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Order Allocation Under Uncertainty Considering Suppliers' Performance: 11
A Case Study of Laminate Manufacturer
Ruengsak Kawtummachai and Pakorn Adulbhan
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in Thailand
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AbstractOne of the most important decision-makings in a supply chain is how to allocate the
order to suppliers under uncertainty. This type of problem requires much information
in order to find the best decision for the problem at hand; therefore, it is very
complicate by nature. This research focuses on how to allocate the order to a set of
selected suppliers. The uncertainties considered in this research consist of fluctuation
of raw material price, inaccuracy in forecasting, product quality, and ratio of on-time
delivery of suppliers. We have studied a case study of a laminate manufacturer in
Thailand, in which, the decision maker has to decide how to order the raw material
from suppliers while each supplier has different characteristics or different uncertainty.
The objective of this study is to assign the order allocation pattern, which minimize
the total corresponding costs. We have developed the mathematical model and
Dr. Ruengsak Kawtummachai
Associate Professor
Dean of Faculty of Business Administration
Panyapiwat Institute of Technology
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Pakorn Adulbhan
Professor
Fellow of the Royal Institute
E-mail: [email protected]
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have applied the Genetic Algorithm to develop the program for optimizing the total
cost. Then, algorithm has been tested using the data retrieved from the company
and the data from the forecasting. Moreover, we have solved the tested case by
the LINGO software in order to verify the efficiency of the proposed algorithm. The
results show that our algorithm works very well under uncertainty and can suggest
the best decision under each category of uncertainty.
Keywords: Supply Chain Management, Order allocation, Uncertainty
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Introduction
In recent year, Supply chain management
has generated much interest because of the
realization that actions taken by one member of
the chain can influence the profitability of all
others in the chain. A supply chain is a network
of facilities and distribution that are the
functions of procurement of materials, transfor-
mation to finished products, and distribute these
products to the customers. Nowadays, there have
many researches related with the supply chain
management but not many researches in field
of supply chain under uncertainty such as late
delivery, defect materials from supplier, or
unreliable suppliers. Therefore, any research
about uncertainty especially the uncertainty from
supply sources should be considered. In this
paper, we have investigated a manufacturer to
study its purchasing system and then define the
order allocation model. From the case study, we
have developed the allocation method so that
the company can minimize the total cost under
the company’s policy.
Literature Review
There are some researchers who have
researched about the supplier assignment and
order allocation. Followings are the concerned
literature.
Papers on supplier selection:
Thomas Y. C., Janet L. H. (1996) compared
supplier-selection practices based on a survey
of companies at different levels in the auto
industry. They used the survey method and then
research method in order to make the decision.
The results show that selection supplier based
on the potential for a cooperative, long-term
relationship is just as important to direct and
indirect suppliers as it is to the auto assemblers.
Ghodsypour S.H., O’Brien C. (1998) make
a trade off between these tangible and
intangible factors some of which may conflict in
order to select the best suppliers. They applied
mixed integer, goal and multi-objective
programming to solve this problem. They also
use an analytical hierarchy process and linear
programming is proposed to consider both
tangible and intangible factors in choosing the
best suppliers and placing the optimum order
quantities. This model can be applied to
supplier selection with and without capacity
constraints. A numerical example is presented
and the model advantages are discussed.
Madeleine E.P. (1998) studied the difference
between managers rating of the perceived
importance of different supplier attributes and
their actual choice of suppliers in an
experimental setting. He uses two methods: a
Likert scale set of questions, to determine the
importance of supplier attributes; and a discrete
choice analysis (DCA) experiment, to examine
the choice of suppliers. The results indicate that
although managers say that quality is the most
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��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
important attribute for a supplier, they actually
choose suppliers based largely on cost and
delivery performance.
Luitzen B., Leo van der W., Jan T. (1998)
studied about the nature of initial purchasing
decisions such as make-or-buy decision and
supplier selection usually is complex and
unstructured. They also try to solve this
problem. They used the “Outranking methods”
and the management science techniques as the
tools to solve the problems in any cases. The
results showed by means of a supplier selection
example, that an outranking approach may be
very well suited as a decision-making tool for
initial purchasing decisions.
Christopher D., David F.L, Benkatesh N.,
Madhav C.R. (1999) examined whether supplier
selection and monitoring practices affect the
association between supplier strategies and
organizational performance. They used the
empirical test to test the data from the auto-
motive and computer industries indicated that
the performance gains from supplier partnerships
practices are contingent on extensive use of
non-price selection criteria. These selection and
monitoring practices appeared to have little
effect on the performance of organizations
following arms-length supplier relations.
Choy K.L., Lee W.B., Victor L. (2002)
presented an intelligent supplier management
tool (ISMT). They used the case-based
reasoning (CBR) and neural network (NN)
techniques to select and benchmark suppliers.
The result of which is to support the
decision-making process in benchmarking
suppliers in outsource manufacturing.
Stefan M. (2003) reviewed inventory
models with multiple supply options which is
“single-stage inventory models” and discusses
their contribution to supply chain management.
He used the stochastic lead times to make the
analysis of the inventory models. Finally, issues
for future research and a synthesis of available
supply chain management and multiple supplier
inventory models are proved that it’s practical.
Toshiya K. (2003) solved the product
allocation problem by distributing the scheduled
resources based on the agent interactions in the
market. He formulated supply chain model as a
discrete resource allocation problem under
dynamic environment, and demonstrate the
applicability of the virtual market concept to this
framework. It has been confirmed that careful
constructions of the decision process according
to economic principles can lead to efficient
distributed resource allocation in SCM.
Wen-Chyuan C., Robert A.R. (2004)
addresses the interaction of purchasing and
routing for a propane gas supply chain.
Rigorous solution methods using both set
partitioning and taboo search are developed for
obtaining optimal and near-optimal solutions for
the purchasing/routing problem. The proposed
methods are applied to a real-world propane
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��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
distribution problem. The results of the study
indicate that the potential annual cost savings
through the integration of purchasing and
routing decisions can range up to millions of
dollars for large distributors.
Papers on uncertainty:
Ram G., John E.T., Yuanming G. (1999)
examined the dynamics of a supply chain that
has the option of using two suppliers one
reliable, and the other unreliable. He calculated
the expected shortages based on the normal
and discrete distributions. The results show that,
in the presence of a second supplier who’s
willing to provide a price discount, logistics
managers can potentially save on annual
inventory-logistics by placing a fraction of the
order to this cheaper supplier.
Jukka K., Kalevi K., Antti L., Markku T. (2002)
proposed a framework by which the risks
related to a customer-supplier relationship, the
service requirements by the customers and the
strategies of the supplier company can be
included in production capacity allocation and
supply chain design. They used a numerical
example and it is based on integrating the
analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and mixed
integer programming (MIP). According to the
results, the supply chain is designed on the
basis of the customers’ strategic importance and
service requirements.
Kirstin Z. (2002) investigated the supply chain
coordination with uncertain just-in-time delivery
by means of a single–period order and delivery-
planning model within a just-in-time setting. She
compared the worst cast with the best case, and
then develops a coordination mechanism. The
results displayed that the example demonstrates
that the coordination mechanism is flexible
enough to enable different allocations of these
overall cost thus allowing both parties in an
existing supply chain partnership to make a profit.
Anshuman G., Costas D.M. (2003) provided
an overview of their previously published works
on incorporating demand uncertainty in midterm
planning of multisided supply chains. They
modeled the manufacturing decisions as
“here-and-now” and used the “CPLEX” solver to
solve the model with many equations and
variables. The trade-off between customer
satisfaction level and production cost is also
captured in the model. The proposed model
provides an effective tool for evaluating and
actively managing the exposure of an enterprises
asset to market uncertainties.
Brian F., Sean B., Donna M. (2004)
developed a model of environmental uncertainty,
supply chain (SC) relationship quality and SC
performance. They used the “survey instrument”
and the statistical method to test the models.
The results provide mixed support for the model,
with the moderating role of both demand and
supply uncertainty being supported, but
technological uncertainty not supported.
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Cheng-Liang C., Wen-Cheng L. (2004)
created the multi-product, multi-stage, and
multi-period scheduling model to deal with
multiple incommensurable goals for a multi-
echelon supply chain network with uncertain
market demands and product prices. They used
the fuzzy sets as the tools to solve the models.
The results proved effective in providing a
compromised solution in an uncertain multi-
echelon supply chain network.
June Y.J., Gary B., Joseph F.P., Gintaras
V.R., David E. (2004) proposed the use of
deterministic planning and scheduling models
which incorporate safety stock levels as a means
of accommodating demand uncertainties in
routine operation. To solve the model they use
a simulation based optimization approach. The
results display that the safety stock level, which
is calculated to meet a desired level of customer
satisfaction, can be provided.
Ruengsak K., and Nguyen V.H. (2005) have
studied the effects of an order allocation
procedure in a supply chain. This supply chain
consists of a company that can order products
from multiple suppliers. They used the computer
simulation, order allocation, Excel, and
numerical test to archive their models. The
results showed that it can vary the percentage
of on-time delivery and could understand the
behavior of purchase cost.
From the above mentioned literatures, we
have observed that some researchers have
studied the order allocation under uncertainty.
However, few of them have considered the real
case that has more complexity and sometimes
the purchasing department has to follow a policy
of the company. Accordingly, in this paper we
have studied a company that purchased raw
materials from selected (or contracted
suppliers). The company has to fol low
agreement signed with the suppliers (such as
the minimum ordered quantity) while the cost of
ordering must be minimized. With more
complexity, we developed the ordering approach
that tends to optimize the cost which related to
the allocation pattern. The purposed approach
could be applied by the company with the less
effort but with high efficiency.
Problem Statements
In this paper, we have studied a case study
of Thai Laminate Manufacturer (TLM) Company
which produces a number of laminate products
to supply to electronic industries. As shown in
Figure 1, the company has ordered raw
materials from a set of selected suppliers which
all of suppliers locate abroad. The required
amount of an item (or multiple items) will be
determined by the purchasing department. An
order consists of the selected supplier, quantity
purchased, due date, price and other related
information. Our consideration is only the part of
the supplier network (inside the dot-line block in
Figure 1). Since, the company can select any
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In the ordering process the planner has to
select supplier (or suppliers) from list, then
assign the quantity and due date. However, there
Figure 1 Supplier network of the company
are many things to consider since there are many
uncertainties concerned in the process. Some
of uncertainties are depicted in Figure 2.
supplier from the list, therefore, there are many
allocation patterns while ordering and come up
with the question that which pattern is the best
pattern when the company also has to maintain
its own policy on all contract suppliers.
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Figure 2 Factors of supplier-uncertainty and demand-uncertainty
From our study, uncertainties appeared in
the order allocation process consist of:
Capacity of suppliers; in the category
each supplier has its own customers; therefore,
the capacity supply for a customer may be vary.
At the ordering time, the company has to check
the stock of suppliers, thus sometimes the
company cannot order from that supplier if the
stock level is not enough.
Price Inflation; since the price of raw
material (metal such as Copper, Zinc, etc.) has
been affected by the market therefore the
material price is unstable (both increasing and
decreasing due to the marketing condition).
Late delivery; this category always
occur since all suppliers locate abroad.
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Quality problem; the received raw
material sometimes have quality problem and
can not be detected until it has been used since
almost materials are in the coil or strip form.
Forecast inaccuracy; the approach used
by the company has less accuracy since the
order decision based on experience of the
purchasing staff.
In the demand side of the company, there
are many uncertainties appear, such as order
cancelled, rushed order, defects, and unit price
fluctuation (finished goods). But, these
uncertainties are not our concerns since they
are uncertainties in the demand side.
1. Material ordering process
TLM has to order raw materials from its
suppliers. Ordered material consists of copper
sheet, resin, etc. The concerned problem in this
research is the order allocation to the selected
suppliers. Since a kind of material can be
ordered from more than one supplier. TLM has
applied this strategy since the company wants
to reduce the risk of shortage that used to occur
in the past. As depicted in Figure 3, the order
process starts from the production plan (received
from production planning department). Then,
production plan will be breakdown to the
material order plan using BOM. From the
material order plan, the purchasing staff will
select some suppliers from list and finally
assign the quantity to each selected supplier.
The order allocation must be done in the
manner that the total corresponding cost is
minimized.
2. Order Allocation Sub-process
The quantity ordered must satisfy in order to
fulfill the requirements from production plan.
Since the company the a policy about the
purchasing that the stock must be enough for at
least one-month production when the material
price is high and at most three months when the
material price is low. This policy is based on the
production plan that will be rolled up every month
and apply the three month plan. Thus, the
possible ordering patterns are; one-month stock
ordering, two-month stock ordering, and three-
month stock ordering. One-month stock means
the ordered quantity will be used up within one
month. Therefore, the best plan will be selected
from the three plans generated (1-month, 2-moth
and 3-month). The process is described in
Figure 4.
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��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Figure 4 Ordering Allocation Sub-process
The technique used for the forecasting is
exponential smoothing or double exponential
smoothing depend on the best fit for each
material.
3. Ordering policy
The order of a material must be done in
order to minimize the total cost of material cost
(purchasing price) and correspondence
4. Mathematical Model
The objective is to minimize the following :
TCj
= MCj + PC
j (1)
Where,
TCj
= Total cost of ordering material j,
MCj
= Material cost of ordering material j,
PCj
= Purchasing cost of ordering material
j, including costs are interest paid for
the advance payment, fixed engage-
ment fee
Figure 3 Ordering Process
purchasing costs which are interest paid for the
advance payment and fixed engagement fee.
However, the cost should be optimized in such
manner that the following constraints must be
satisfied :
Reliability of the delivery must not be
less than a fixed percentage (e.g., 95%), and
Quality of the delivered material must
not be less than a fixed percentage (e.g., 95%),
Where, reliability of the delivery is the
probability that an amount ordered will be late.
For example 95% of reliability means among
100 units ordered, it is expected that 5 units will
be late and 95 units will be delivered on-time.
For the quality of delivered material, 95% means
that among 100 units delivered 5 units will be
defects and the remaining 95 units will be good
parts.
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Condition 2: Average quality score
Equation (1) must be optimized when the
following conditions are satisfied.
Condition 1: Average on-time delivery score
Where,
Rijk
= Ratio for material j related to supplier i
at month k.
ODij= Score of on-time delivery of material j
related to supplier i
means 100% on-time delivery, this data
calculated from past record. This score
is computed from the quantity that
delivered on-time over the total quantity
ordered.
QLij
= Quality of material j related to supplier i
means no defect from
supplier, calculated from past record.
This score is computed from the
quantity that are non-defect over the total
quantity ordered.
s = Number of suppliers.
However, since the material can be
purchased for each of every 1 month, 2 moths
and 3 months, therefore we have to formulate
the total cost of each case as shown below.
Proportion of total reliability for material j
TRij = OD
ij * QL
ij ; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;
for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n
Where,
TRij
= Score of reliability of material j related
to supplier
n = Number of types of materials.
Expected quantity order for material j
Dijk = D
jk * R
ijk (5)
Subject to;
(6)
(7)
for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;
for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n ;
for k = 1, 2, 3
(8)
Where,
Qijk = Quantity of material j ordered to the
supplier i at month k.
(2)
(3)
(4)
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(9)
; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;
for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n (10)
Qjk
= Quantity of material j ordered at month
k.
Dijk
= Demand for material j related to
supplier i at month k.
Djk
= Demand for material j at month k.
Rijk
= Ratio for material j related to supplier i
at month k.
Total cost for material j
Case 1: One-month plan
Case 2: Two-month plan
(11)
; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;
for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n (12)
Case 3: Three-month plan
(13)
; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;
for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n (14)
Where,
TCjm
= Monthly total cost for material j for
case m, m = 1, 2, 3.
Qijk
= Quantity of material j that is assigned
to supplier i at month k.
Pijk
= Price of material j related to supplier
i at month k.
EFk
= Engagement fee (fixed cost) at month
k.
i1
= Interest rate for LC.
i2
= Interest rate for engagement fee.
Ujm
= Unit cost of material j for case m.
Explanations of each case are as follows.
Case 1 (one-month plan, m = 1): first we
calculate the raw material cost of each month
by using the material price of each month
multiply with the quantity of that month then
change it into the future worth at month 3 with
the LC interest. The raw material cost was
summed for every supplier to get the total
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variable cost before the engagement fee which
changed to future worth was added. After that
we sum them for every month to get the total
cost of case 1. Finally, we divide the total cost
by the all expected quantity to get the unit cost
at month 3.
Case 2 (two-month plan, m = 2): we
compute raw material cost by using the total
expected quantity of first month and second
month multiply with the price at month 1 (we
have to order for covering next 2 months so the
price of ordering in next 2 months must be the
same). Then we change it into the future worth
at month 3 and sum this cost for all suppliers to
get the total variable cost. The cost was added
with the future worth of first month engagement
fee. Then the variable cost and fixed cost of
third month was calculated and changed into
the cost at month 3. After that we divide the
total cost by the expected quantity for 3 months
to get the unit cost of case 2 at month 3.
Case 3 (three-month plan, m = 3): we sum
the demand for next 3 months and multiply with
the price at the first month. Then convert this
variable cost to the future worth at month 3. The
engagement fee was added to the total cost only
once in the first month, so we converted the
engagement fee like the variable cost. Similar
with the previous two cases, we can divide the
total cost by the expected quantity for 3 months
to get the unit cost at month 3.
Finally, we compare Total cost (TCjm) or
Unit cost (Ujm) for every case m (m = 1, 2, or 3)
and select the cheapest one.
Allocation Algorithm
In this paper, we have applied Genetic
Algorithm as a tool to identify the optimum order
allocation plan. The purposed algorithm is shown
in Figure 5. Parameters and procedures for the
algorithm are set as follows:
Initial Population: Randomly generated
Crossover: Partial-mapped Crossover
(PMX) with a crossover rate of 0.2
Mutation: Pairwise adjacent scheme
with a rate of 10% mutation rate
Selection: Roulette wheel approach
The chromosome will be represented by the
integer representation. Figure 6 depicts a
chromosome that we will order material 1 equal
to 20 tons from supplier 1, 0 tons from supplier
2, and 15 tons from supplier 3.
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Figure 6 Chromosome Representation
(15)
1.) Number of supplier
2.) Price
3.) Minimum on-time delivery (OD) score
4.) Minimum quality (QL) score
5.) On time delivery ratio of each
supplier
6.) Quality ratio of each supplier
7.) Interest rate for LC
Interest rate for engagement fee
8.) Engagement fee
9.) Demand of material
Vary based on
type of material
Vary
0.97
0.97
0.98, 0.98, 0.96
0.97, 0.97, 0.98
5.15%/ month
1.25%/ month
$ 36 per time
Vary
Testing Value
Numerical Example
In order to test the efficiency of the purposed
approach, we have done an experiment using a
set of materials ordered from 3 suppliers. The
tested data are shown in Table 1. Here, we have
tested 2 kinds of material (Copper foil and Resin)
which their costs dominate the cost of other type
of materials. The data have been solved by the
purposed algorithm and for verifying the efficiency
these data also have been solved by Lingo. The
results from both approaches will be compared.
Total cost of the purposed algorithm and Lingo
will be compared using %RPD as shown below.
Ratio that exceeds 100 means the purposed
algorithm is poorer than the optimum solution
obtained from Lingo.
In each category, we have considered the
values of RPD that compare values of GA to the
values of LINGO. Results show that GA
provides the values that are very close to LINGO.
The RPD is higher than the optimum value
obtained from LINGO at only around 1%, or we
can say, the efficiency is about 99% of the
optimum value.
The increasing in SD results in higher RPD
values that may come up from the search spaces
that are larger. This will make GA to have a
lower performance. By the way,
Input Variables
Table 1 Testing data set
26
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Table 2 % RPD of the total cost for material type 1
(Copper Foil)
Table 3 % RPD of the total cost for material type
2 (Resin)
the benefit of the algorithm over the LINGO
is that the processing is extremely short (less
than 1 second) while LINGO must be coded and
needs several minutes to complete. Moreover,
there has no need to code the program since
the purposed algorithm is coded in C++ language
and had been compiled to be an executable
program. Data are input directly from the screen
and then the program will provide the solution.
Conclusion
As we mentioned in the first part that order
allocation is the critical task for a company to
minimize the inventory ordering cost. Especially
when there are uncertainties occur in the
ordering process. In this research, we have done
the research that concerns with the order
allocation under uncertainty using a real case
study. From the study, we can determine the
uncertainty factors in the raw material
purchasing process. The model has been
developed and the algorithm has been
constructed using Genetic Algorithm. The
purposed approach has been tested by using
the real data. The main benefits obtained from
this research are; an algorithm with sufficient
efficiency that can suggest the near-optimum
solution, appropriate forecasting techniques, and
allocation approach that works simply with high
efficiency. We do hope that this research will be
the useful reference for a company who has to
make the decision about the ordering under an
uncertainty environment.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank to Thai Laminate
27
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Manufacture (TLM) Company, for the
permission to do this research and also many
thanks to staffs at TLM for their helps.
References
Anshuman G., Costas D.M. (2003), Managing
demand uncertainty in supply chain planning.
Computers & Chemical Engineering, 27
(8-9), 1219-1227.
Brian F., Sean de B., Donna M. (2004),
Environmental uncertainty, supply chain
relationship quality and performance.
Journal of Purchasing and Supply Man
agement, 10(4-5), 179-190.
Cheng-Liang C., Wen-Cheng L. (2004), Multi-
objective optimization of multi-echelon
supply chain networks with uncertain
product demands and prices. Computers &
Chemical Engineering, 28(6-7), 1131-1144.
Choy K.L., Lee W.B., Victor L., (2002) An
intelligent supplier management tool for
benchmarking suppliers in outsource
manufacturing. Expert Systems with
Applications, 22(3), 213-224.
Christopher D.I., David F.L., Benkatesh N.,
Madhav C.R. (1999) Supplier selection,
monitoring practices, and firm performance.
Journal of Accounting and Public Policy,
18(3), 253-281.
Ghodsypour S.H., O'Brien C., (1998) A decision
support system for supplier selection using
an integrated analytic hierarchy process and
linear programming. International Journal
of Production Economics, 56-57, 199-212.
Jukka K, Kalevi K., Antti L., Markku T., (2002)
An analytic approach to production capacity
allocation and supply chain design.
International Journal of Production
Economics, 78(2), 187-195.
June Y.J., Gary B., Joseph F.P., Gintaras V.R.,
(2004) David E. A simulation based
optimization approach to supply chain
management under demand uncertainty.
Computers & Chemical Engineering,
28(10), 2087-2106.
Kirstin Z., (2002) Supply chain coordination with
uncertain just-in-time delivery. International
Journal of Production Economics, 77(1),
1-15.
Luitzen de B., Leo van der W., Jan T., (1998)
Outranking methods in support of supplier
selection. European Journal of Purchas-
ing & Supply management, 4(2-3), 109-
118.
Madeleine E.P., (1998) An analysis of the
supplier selection process. Omega, 26(6),
673-688.
Ram G., John E.T., (1999) Yuanming G. Dual
sourced supply chains: the discount supplier
option. Transportation Research, 35(1),
11-23.
Ruengsak K., Nguyen V.H., (2005) Order
allocation in a multiple-supplier environment.
International Journal of Production
28
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Associate Professor Dr. Ruengsak Kawtummachai received his B.
Eng. in Industrial Engineering (First Class Honored) from Chiang Mai
University, and Master of Mechanical Engineering and Ph.D. in
Production System from Okayama University, Japan under the
Japanese Government Scholarship. He is currently working as the Dean
of Faculty of Business Administration, Pantyapiwat Institute of
Technology. His main areas of research are Vehicle Routing, Logistics
and Supply Chain Management, Optimization, and Production Planning
and Scheduling.
Professor Dr. Pakorn Adulbhan received his Bachelor Degrees in
Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Engineering from Chulalongkorn
University. He received a Master Degree in Industrial Engineering and
Management Science from Northwestern University, Illinois and Doctor
Degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering from Georgia
Technology. He worked in many organizations such as Chulalongkorn
University, AIT, Siam Cement Group, etc. He has been served as a
Fellow of the Royal Institute.
Economics, 93-94, 231-238.
Stefan M., (2003) Multiple-supplier inventory
models in supply chain management: A
review. International Journal of Production
Economics, 81-82, 265-279.
Thomas Y.C., Janet L.H., (1996) An exploration
of supplier selection practices across the
supply chain. Journal of Operations
Management, 14(4), 333-343.
Toshiya K., (2003) Multi-agent based supply
chain modeling with dynamic environment.
International Journal of Production
Economics, 85(2), 263-269.
Wen-Chyuan C., Robert A.R., (2004) Integrat-
ing purchasing and routing in a propane gas
supply chain. European Journal of
Operational Research, 154(3), 710-729.
29
AbstractThis study aims to investigate factors affecting turnover of high performing employees
in the Electronics Industries in Thailand. Even though, some turnover studies were
conducted in past decades, but most of studies related to all employees. No studies
were able to be identified, which specially examined the turnover of high performers.
Research questions were; (a) why do high performers leave organization? (b) what
turnover model of high performers look like?
This is a qualitative approach. Telephone interviews were conducted fifty high
performers of one electronic company who resigned during 1999-2003. In-dept
interviews were conducted ten executives of five electronics companies. Turnover
model was developed and modified by the executives. Basic statistical means;
percent, frequency, were employed.
The results were found that factors affecting turnover of high performers were external
factors, organizational factors, job related factors, and personal factors. Top five
Dr. Sa-ard Banchirdrit
Director of M.B.A. Program
Panyapiwat Institute of Technology
E-mail: [email protected]
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30
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factors affected turnover of high performers were external job opportunities,
challenging job, promotion, compensation and benefits, and organizational policies.
The executives mostly agreed with factors influenced turnover of high performers.
Few items were recommended for "fine tune", not totally changed.
Turnover model also was recommended to adjust in small part of the model.
It concluded that most findings of this study agreed with literatures.
Keywords: Turnover, High performing employees, Electronics industry
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IntroductionSignificance of the Problem
The Thai Electronics Industry has developed
into a significant contributor to the economy of
Thailand over the last 30 years (Apinanmahakul,
1996). In particular, it is important in its role in
generating foreign income through exports, and
its role as major employer.
1) Export Value: The industry generates
foreign income through exports, which adds to
Thailand's foreign reserves. Thailand Exports
were 636,067.36 million Baht in 2000; 598,795.48
million Baht in 2001; 582,151.40 million Baht in
2002 and 643,200.89 million Baht in 2003
(Export Promotion Department, 2004). This made
the exports of electronic components in the top
three of all Thailand exports (Bank of Thailand,
2003).
The Electronics industry has been one of
the top five exporters in Thailand for a number
of years (Bank of Thailand, 2003). This is a key
factor to keep the financial balance of the
country.
2) Major Employer: A survey of 604 BOI
promoted companies by the Board of Investment
(BOI) found that the Electronics Industry
employed 323,231 people in 1999 (BOI Annual
Report 1999) and the 2002 figures of
employment of the industry show over 350,000
people (C&C International Venture, 2002).
Labour demand of the electronics industry
increased approximately 17 percent in 2002-
2003, which was higher than all other
industries.Various government and private
industry reports in the years 2003-2005 indicated
that demand for graduates in the technology field
continued to high and various shortages were
reported or predicted.These employment figures
indicated that the electronics industry creates
job opportunit ies, reduce the overall
unemployment rate and contribute significant
income to the country.
The Electronics Industry produces “high-
tech products” and “Export oriented products”
(Apinanmahakul, 1996). This industry is
characterized by a high rate of change, high
technology, and highly trained and highly skilled
employees (Goman, 2000). So when these
people leave the organization, this may have a
significant impact.
In 2003, the Thai economy grew by 6.7
percent, industrial production growth rate was
12.2 percent and the unemployment rate was
2.2 percent (Brooker Group, 2004). In the first
quarter in 2004, export value of the electronics
industry was 182,220.10 million Baht. The growth
rate increased from the previous year by 6.2
percent (BOI, 2004; First Quarter: Production
and Investment Report, 2004). Unfortunately, a
new trend of the labor issue is that high labor
turnover usually occurs when the economy
declines. An unpublished report of the
Electronics and Computer Employer's
Association (ECEA) shows that labor turnover
32
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of its member companies had sharply increased;
the percentage of turnover was 7.3 percent in
2000, 7.6 percent in 2001, 8.3 percent in 2002,
and 9.6 percent in 2003 (ECEA monthly record,
September, 2004). It is, therefore, considered
that this issue should be handled effectively so
that the impact can be minimized.
It is clear that the negative impact of
turnover is a cost aspect. This includes
separation cost and replacement and training
cost (Cascio, 1991). In the U.S.A., the Saratoga
Institute reports that the cost per hire averages
approximately US$ 4,000-6,000, for each
employee (Burkholder, 2004). In Thailand,
the cost of turnover of the Sony group of
Companies averages US$800 (Wateetip, 1999).
In general, the figure that will emerge will give
credence to the normally quoted turnover cost
of 1.5 to 2.5 times the annual salary level of
replaced employees (Ahlrichs, 2000). These are
costs of turnover of all employees, not just high
performing ones.
The turnover cost of a high performing
employee is obviously much higher than the cost
of losing an average performer even though the
salaries and benefits of the two may be similar
(Hendron, 2004).
Almost all employers search for talented
employees because they are a high-value-added
human capital element. McKinsey (Michaels,
2001), found in the U.S. that talents increased
productivity by 40 percent, revenue by 67
percent and profits by 49 percent from their study
on the "war for talent" in 1997 (Martel, 2002), so
high performers are in high demand from all
companies. There are three factors fuelling
talent demand in the business world:
1) The irreversible shift from the industrial
age to the innovation age,
2) The intensifying demand for high-calibre
managerial talent, and
3) The growing propensity for people to
switch from one company to another (Michaels,
2001). Even though this study took place in the
U.S.A., one would expect it also to apply
elsewhere.
Even though labour turnover studies have
been conducted in Thailand in the past, most of
the studies were about factors relating to total
labor turnover (Asamaporn Na Songkhla, 1996;
Sirinoot, 1997; Wateetip, 1999; Pengsuk, 1999;
Despradipa, 2001), and the relationship between
job satisfaction and intention to leave (Suapituck,
1998; Ratanamanee and Ketwong, 1983). There
are no studies that this researcher could find on
turnover of high performers.
The critical impact of turnover of high
performers to organizations and industries are
the high costs of replacement, it usually takes
more time to recruit high performers and there
is a lot of uncertainty about having the same
level or a higher level of performance. These
losses could affect a company's or industry's
competitive advantage (Michaels, 2001).
33
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The objective of this study then is to
investigate the turnover of high performing
employees in the Electronics Industry in
Thailand. An attempt will be made to overcome
this dearth of information in this area and to
develop a framework or model to try to
contribute towards improving this situation. This
would make a significant contribution to
Thailand's further growth.
Purpose of the Study
The objectives of this study are:
To review literatures in order to develop
a conceptual model of employee turnover,
To study factors affecting turnover of high
performing employees in one electronics
company in Thailand,
To examine and compare the general
model of labour turnover with that of high
performing employees,
To investigate retention strategy and
develop a conceptual model of this, and
To identify what retention factors should
be used to try to retain high performance
employees.
Expected Contribution of this Study
To provide results of this study to
members of the Electronics and Computer
Employer Association (ECEA) and other
interested parties,
contribute to academic knowledge and
learning in this important topic in Thailand,
To provide results of this study to HR
practitioners through the Personnel Management
Association of Thailand (PMAT), and
To provide a basic study in this area, to
help other HR personnel and HR scholars, to
study and develop this topic further.
Literature Review
The purpose of this section is to investigate
turnover of high performing employees (HPEs).
The attributes of the study are prioritized as: 1)
Definition, 2) State of the art of Employee
Turnover, 3) Turnover of High Performing
Employees, 4) Retention Strategy, and 5)
Summary.
Definitions
Definition of Turnover
These are classified into 2 categories:
1. Global Perspective: All kinds of
movements in the labour market, either flowing
into the market (Hiring) or departing from the
market (Termination of employment) are
considered as “Turnover”. This is not specific in
any particular organization. Employees moving
from one industry to another industry, or from
plant to plant, are also called turnover (Hedberg,
1967). This view has been supported by Abbasi
and Hollam, (2000), who see turnover as the
rotation of workers in the labor market, between
firms, jobs and occupations and between states
34
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
of employment and unemployment.
2. Organizational level perspective:
There are two concepts in this perspective.
The first concept views all movement in
organizations, such as Hiring, Promotion,
Inter-department transfer, and departure of
employees as labor turnover (Forbes, 1971). This
view has been supported by Price and Mueller
(1986) who further classified turnover into
voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary turnover
means turnover is initiated by the employee such
as voluntary resignation. Involuntary turnover
means turnover is initiated by the employer such
as lay-offs, and termination of employment by
disciplinary action. The second concept views
that Hiring, Transferring and promotion in an
organization are not "turnover" (Mobley, 1982).
He gives a definition of turnover that it is a
voluntary cessation of membership in an
organization by an individual who receives
monetary compensation for participating in that
organization. So it can be interpreted that
turnover components comprise: 1) the leaver
must be a regular employee; 2) the leaver must
receive financial compensation from the
organization; Volunteer employees who are not
receiving wages/salaries, such as a foundation's
employees are not classified within this
meaning; 3) The departure must be on a
voluntary basis (involuntary departure; lay-offs,
termination by disciplinary action are not regarded
as turnover).
In summary, turnover is usually regarded as
termination of employment conditions of regular
employees on a voluntary basis over a specific
period of time.
Functional/Dysfunctional Turnover (Dalton
and Todor, 1982: in Hom and Griffeth, 1995).
Employee Turnover functional turnover means
a poor
performer leaves an organization and a good
performer stays with the organization.
Dysfunctional turnover means a good
performer leaves an organization and a poor
performer stays with the organization.
A High Performing Employee means an
employee who receives an A or B rating in the
annual performance appraisal in the company
which uses A, B, C, D and E ratings, or who
was rated as "Exceeding Expectations" for the
organization using three ratings, Not meeting
expectations, Meet expectations and Exceeding
expectations.
In a broader meaning, HPEs are employees
who have demonstrated superior performance,
who have inspired others to achieve superior
performance, and who embody the core
competencies of the organization. They are role
models for success and the organization can
neither afford to lose them nor fail to take
advantage of their ability to contribute to
organizational excellence (Berger and Berger,
35
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
2004).
Talent: Talent is the sum of a person's
abilities - his or her intrinsic gifts, knowledge,
experience, intelligence, judgment, attitude,
character and drive. It also includes his or her
ability to learn (Michaels, 2001). It is similar to
the concept of "competence".
State of the art of the literature on Employee
Turnover
Mayo, (1975 reprint of 1933) was the first to
study turnover of workers in the mule-spinning
department of a textile mill near Philadelphia
(Pettman, 1975). In the initial stage of turnover
studies most saw turnover as a negative. They
believed that employee departures caused
problems for a company. It was only later that
some scholars and writers started to study and
analyse turnover and develop theories about it.
Some studies found that some aspects of
turnover were not necessarily bad (Mobley,
1982). It depends on who leaves the organiza-
tion and why. If poor performers leave and
better performers can replace them, then this is
an opportunity for the organization. If high
performers leave, it is often very difficult to
replace them with the same level of performers,
and this is considered as a lost opportunity (Hom
and Griffeth, 1995). So the consequences of
employee turnover may have either negative or
positive outcomes.
Consequences of Turnover
The consequences of turnover are divided
into two parts; consequences for the
organization and the consequences for the
individual (Hom and Griffeth, 1995).
Consequences for the Organization
Potential Negative organizational
consequences.
These may be economic costs, productivity
losses, and declines in morale.
Economic costs
Turnover cost has been raised for
discussion among scholars and practitioners for
a lengthy period (Blakeslee, Suntrup and
Kernaghan, 1985; Cascio, 1991; Hom and
Griffeth, 1995). The organizations consider three
major cost categories: separation cost,
replacement cost, and training cost (Smith and
Watkins, 1978, in Cascio, 1987).
Turnover cost is different in terms of
position-to-position and country-to-country. For
example, the total cost in the first year of
replacing a top IT engineer can go as high as
four times of his/her salary (Goman, 2000). The
cost of replacing a special nurse at a hospital in
the USA is 156 percent of that nurse's salary
(Ahlrichs, 2000). In Thailand, turnover cost in
one study of Electronics companies shows the
cost to be approximately US$800, for
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��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
degree-level employees.
From these figures, it can be seen that
turnover costs vary considerably. So it is
difficult to identify exactly just how much the cost
of labor turnover is. Even though turnover cost
has been brought to the attention of scholars for
a long period, it would appear that relatively few
companies have paid serious attention to it. In
the U.S.A., only 16 percent of U.S. companies
track turnover cost according to one study
(Ahlrichs, 2000).
Unfortunately, the researcher was unable to
identify comparative evidence for turnover cost
of poor performers and high performers.
Various reasons have been given for
turnover and various theories or models have
been developed in an endeavour to understand
and measure turnover.
Unfortunately, in this paper, there is not
enough time or space to describe these studies
or theories in any depth.
The main studies are as follows:
Motivation Model (March and Simon,
1958) The key concepts of this model are that
perceived desirability of movement and perceived
ease of movement are the main determinants
of turnover.
In brief, there are five factors which are seen
as being correlated with turnover. These are
perceived desirability of movement, job
satisfaction, size of organization, perceived ease
of movement, and job availability.
Expanded Model (Mobley, Griffeth, Hand
and Meglino, 1979)
In the expanded model, the authors
identif ied that the quit intention as the
immediate precursor of turnover (Hom and
Griffeth 1995). They conceived intentions and
turnover as a function of: 1) job satisfaction, 2)
expected utility of the present work role, and 3)
expected utility of alternative work roles.
Labor Economic Model (Hulin, Roznowski
and Hachiya, 1985)
In brief, this model explained that job
opportunities directly influence job satisfaction
and directly affect turnover. This argument should
be investigated since job satisfaction or
dissatisfaction is based on various factors. Job
opportunit ies cannot influence satisfied
employees to become dissatisfied because
antecedents of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction vary
(Spector, 2000). Job opportunities should be
considered as a supportive factor of job
satisfaction.
Integrative Model of Turnover Determi-
nants (Hom and Griffeth, 1995)
This model has integrated empirical findings
into a turnover model by demonstrating that job
satisfaction, organizational commitment,
withdrawal cognition and expected utility of
withdrawal are key factors leading to turnover.
Organizational Commitment: Scholars of
commitment agree that commitment predicts quits
more accurately than does satisfaction (Porter,
37
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Steers, Mowday and Boulian, 1974) as
resignation implies a rejection of the company,
not necessarily of the job which can be assumed
elsewhere.
Both job dissatisfaction and lack of organi-
zational commitment can create withdrawal
cognition. In such cases, when employees have
a withdrawal cognition, i.e., they are dissatis-
fied, and then job turnover is likely to occur.
The Market-Driven approach. This was
developed by Cappelli (2001) who indicated that
the most influential factors of employee turnover
have changed from internal factors, such as job
satisfaction, compensation, promotion opportu-
nities etc., to external factors. He called these
market-driven factors. Therefore employees may
leave an organization without any dissatisfac-
tion because they received offers from outside
which are irresistible or they see opportunities
outside, which their existing organization cannot
provide. Such opportunities are likely to be
available to talented and high performing
employees even when economic conditions are
difficult.
In summary, these models may explain
turnover of average performing employees but
they may not adequately explain turnover of high
performing employees in the current environment
because high performing employees are in high
demand in the labour market (Michaels, 2001).
Job opportunities are usually always available
for them. As a result, it is now challenging to
investigate the factors which affect turnover, both
of any employee, but particularly, of high
performing employees to see whether they are
the same or different, and also to investigate or
develop retention strategies, particularly designed
to retain high performing employees.
Findings and Discussion on Factors Affect-
ing Turnover of All Employees
Factors which are seen to have an
important impact on employee turnover are:
Job satisfaction
Pay and Compensation
Job Opportunities
Organizational Policies and Procedures
Promotion Opportunities
Supervisory Issues
Relationships between employee and
supervisor
Met expectations of employees
Working Environment
Family Issues
These factors are divided as follows: 1) Job
related factors, 2) Organizational factors, 3)
Individual factors, and 4) External economy.
These key four factors are seen as playing a
major role in employee turnover.
The findings of ten authors/theorists who
have studied employee turnover indicate that 26
factors affected turnover. Very few factors were
found in the individual related factors. The top
five scores are found in nine items; these are
38
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
job satisfaction (9/10), pay and compensation/
benefit (7/10), job opportunity (6/10), policies,
procedures, rules (5/10), promotion opportunity
(5/10), supervisory issues (5/10), relationship (5/
10), meet expectations (4/10), and working
environment (4/10). These nine factors are well
recognized as factors which affect turnover of
employees.
Turnover of High Performing Employees
(HPEs)
This study represented a case study of one
the turnover of High Performing Employees in
one large Thai Electronics company.
The researched was given telephone
contact details of HPEs who had left the
company during the previous six months and he
was able to contact and obtain information from
50 of these former employees about their
reasons for leaving. .
From the literature, there appear to be a few
differences between why HPEs and other
employees might leave their organizations.
Five factors are identified from the literature,
as common. They are: 1) pay and compensa-
tion, 2) job opportunity, 3) promotion, 4) super-
vision, and 5) relationships.
Some differences, however, could be
identified, and also some focal points for HPEs.
Focal and different points for HPEs are: 1)
Challenging, Exciting work, 2) recognition, and
3) development. The findings indicate that most
of the basic needs are met for HPEs, such as
pay, promotion opportunities, etc. because of
their high level of performance. Organizations
try to cover these basic, traditional elements.
Sometimes, however, management overlook the
important motivating factors for HPEs. This
usually leads to lower motivation for HPEs and,
providing an incentive to leave their organiza-
tions. So, job satisfaction for HPEs is a critical
requirement. The basic factors, pay, etc, are
still obviously important but these motivating
factors are essential to retain HPEs. Employee
development is a critical motivating factor.
Without adequate development programs, HPEs
are likely to become dissatisfied and hence, more
likely to leave their organizations.
Conceptual Turnover Model of High Perform-
ing Employees
Having reviewed the literature of turnover,
and particularly relating this to HPEs, key
factors can be identified and applied to employee
turnover, with particular respect to HPEs. The
factors are:
Challenging/Exciting work.
Supervision
Pay and Compensation
Promotion
Training and Development
Relationships
Job opportunity
Personal Factors
39
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The study also asked respondents about the
type of organisational retention strategies the
company should try to use in an endeavour to
retain as many as possible of their HPEs.
Both from the literature and from respon-
dents comments the following retention strate-
gies were suggested.
The factors considered most important are:
Compensation
Job design
Job customization
Social Relationships
These strategies view employee turnover in
a different dimension from the old paradigm which
always focused on job-related factors such as
job satisfaction and commitment. However, this
point-of-view is quite limited, since this approach
views outside factors (labour market) as key
factors influencing employee turnover. A
challenging question is "Are job opportunities
from outside the organization influencing high
performing people to resign?"
Employee Value Proposition (EVP)
An employee value proposition (EVP) is the
holistic sum of everything people experience and
receive while they are part of a company-every-
thing from the intrinsic satisfaction of the work,
to the environment, leadership, colleagues,
compensation and more.
An employee value proposition is similar to
a customer value proposition. For more than a
century, markets have been consciously
crafting customer value proposition. Now, with
companies competing hard to win the war for
talent, they have to start applying the same kind
of marketing thinking to attracting and retaining
employees. Companies need strong employee
value propositions - a compelling answer to the
question, "why would a highly talented person
choose to work here?"
Summary - Retention Policies or Strategies
An effective retention strategy must start even
prior to hiring and matching work requirements
with individual needs. People are different so
some factors may be consistent over a number
of employees, while others are not. As indicated,
we need to determine the major needs of high
performing employees. An effective retention
strategy can and must be developed and
managed.
Importance of Model Evaluation
A model is "a representation of a system
that is constructed to study some aspect of that
system or the system as a whole" (Cooper and
Schindler, 1998, p. 48). Models differ from the-
ories. A theory's role is explanation; whereas a
model's role is that of an understood reality.
The model used in this paper is an explicative
model and it is improves our understanding of
the key concepts of turnover factors.
Kimbleton (1972) indicated that one of the
40
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
advantages of model evaluation is that it can be
an aid in conceptualizing an area of interest more
clearly. Stogdill (1970) emphasized that models
"help understand the set of events" (p. 25).
According to Lippitt (1973), a good model has
these characteristics: (a) clarifies goals and
perspectives of situations, (b) indicates variables
compelling changes, (c) provides new opportu-
nities to understand situations, (d) shows the
interrelationship of the various conflicting
factors, (e) shows different concepts and the-
ories, and (f) indicates capability to evaluate
progress, success or failure of a process.
Turnover Model of High Performing Employ-
ees in the Electronics Industry in Thailand
External Factors
Economic situation
External job opportunities
Job Related Factors
A challenging job
Organizational Related Factors
Policies/Procedures
Promotion
Compensation & Benefits
Business uncertainty
Relationships
Training & Development
Reward & Recognition
Working environment
Geographic Factors
Doing their own business
Relocation
Long distance traveling
Taking care of family
Further study
Retention programs indicate that the
findings are not much different from the turn-
over factors. Six programs are recommended
as retention strategies, namely: 1) career
development, 2) pay for performance, 3) reward
& recognition, 4) job review, 5) attractive
benefits, and 6) effective communication. Most
programs align with the literature, however some
are less clear, for example, job review, attrac-
tive benefits and effective communication. So
evaluation of these programs will be beneficial
to this study in order to improve the applicability
of the model on the turnover of high performing
employees in the Thai Electronics industry.
In addition, the research literature did not
identify any data to evaluate a model of high
performers' turnover. Therefore, this paper, by
use of a qualitative evaluation study that
incorporates the perspectives of senior
executives in the electronics industry in
Thailand, will attempt to explain the practicality
of the factors affecting the turnover model of
high performing employees in the electronics
industry in Thailand .The challenge is whether
senior and experienced persons agree with the
turnover model which was identified by former
high performers and if any recommendations
are given to further develop the turnover and
41
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
retention models further.
Research Questions
This study aims to build on an exploratory
study of turnover of high performing employees
in one electronics company in Thailand by
in-depth interviews with ten executives of one
electronics company in Thailand.
Three research questions are:
1. Do you agree with the findings from
paper two? Please provide an explanation.
2. If not, how do you think the proposed
turnover recommendations? Please give your
recommendation.
3. Do you agree with the proposed reten-
tion model? Please express your opinion.
As indicated, participants in the qualitative
evaluation are five chief executive officers and
five human resources directors from five
electronics companies who are members of
the Electronics and Computer Association of
Thailand since the studied company is a mem-
ber of the Association so opinions or sugges-
tions of executives who are working in a similar
environment are likely to be appropriate. There
were a total of 10 participants (two persons from
each company). The reasons why two persons
from each company were selected are that
human resource directors are responsible for exit
interviews of the company so they should have
some idea about why high performers left their
organizations, and executive officers oversee
policy and the overall business perspective, so
they are the resource persons who can
evaluate the total picture of employee turnover
and retention.
Participants were contacted by phone and
an individual meeting was arranged to obtain
written consent by voluntarily signing an
appropriate permission form before the interview
was conducted. Participants were then contacted
between October 1 and 15, 2005 to arrange
interviews. After the interview date was confirmed
and consent obtained, the interviews were
conducted.
All 10 participants were interviewed in
their offices for at least one hour each. Most
respondents gave a detailed perspective to the
model evaluated. Notes were taken, and the
tapes of all interviews were transcribed, coded,
and analyzed. The confidential i ty and
anonymity of the participants' responses and of
the company was assured.
Criteria for Selection
Ten executives from five electronics
companies were interviewed and asked for their
recommendations on the turnover model of high
performers in the Thai electronics industry.
Participants were recruited according to the
following criteria:
42
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
ECEA Membership
The selected companies were the top five
with lower turnover rates among ECEA's
member (30 companies) in 2003. Since those
companies were well accepted in the HR
community as good examples of managing
employees' turnover and retention.
Executives must work in the industry
Executives must be currently working in the
electronics industry in Thailand.
HR Directors
Five HR directors are responsible for
employee turnover/retention policies.
Interviews
Face-to-face interviews give advantages for
such a purpose, according to Sekaran (2000, p.
230) "the main advantage of face-to-face or
direct interviews is that the researcher can adapt
the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and
ensure that the responses are properly
understood, by repeating or rephrasing the
questions. The researcher also picks up
nonverbal cues from the respondents".
Interview questions were designed to elicit
their thorough consideration and points-of-view
in evaluating the model based on their
professional experience. The following questions
were asked: Please share your experience in
this aspect of the research seeks to confirm the
character-istics of the turnover model of high
performing employees in the electronics
industry in Thailand should look like. Whether
the proposed characteristics of the turnover and
retention models that were recommended by fifty
former high performers of one electronics
company are confirmed or not? The result of
this study will be beneficial to the industry in
retaining their high performers. To get
interviewees' views in detail, face-to-face inter
views with ten managerial personnel of the
industry were conducted. The researcher tried
to get a view on the concept and the situational
factors of turnover and retention of high
performers.
Data Collection
Each participant was asked a series of
questions prepared to yield individual and
demographic information. The record shows that
the executives are mostly male; all of them are
over 40 years of age, most of them hold
masters' degree with an engineering background
and most graduated from overseas universities.
The range of experiences was from 20 to more
than 30 years.
1. Participants were then asked a series of
in-depth managing employee turnover and
retention in overview, particularly with respect
to the turnover intentions of HPEs.
2. Do you agree with the identifying factors
43
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
influencing turnover of high performers as shown
in the proposed model? Please elaborate.
3. Do you think the proposed turnover model
should be modified or not? If yes, how? Please
explain.
4. Do you agree with the model's identifying
factors as influencing retention of high perform-
Findings
Findings are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Further Proposed Turnover Model of High Performing Employees in the Electronics industry in
Thailand (from interviews with senior executives)
ers? Please elaborate.
5. In your opinion, how do you think this
retention model should be modified? If yes, how?
Please advise.
6. What are your recommendations about
the turnover and retention of high performers in
the electronics industry in Thailand?
External Factors - Economic factors - Job Opportunity
Job related Factors- Job was not challenging- Job stressful
Organizational Factors- Policies / Procedures- Promotion- Compensation & Benefit- Business uncertainty- Relationship- Training & Development- Reward & Recognition- Working Environment
Personal Factors- Running own business- Long distance traveling- Taking care of family- Relocation- Further study
Turnover
44
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Evaluation of Factors Affecting Turnover of
High Performers
It should be noted that only ten interviews of
these senior managers were undertaken - five
CEOs and five HRM Directors / Managers. So it
is difficult to analyze substantial differences
between them, however, one difference did
emerge. The responding CEOs regarded turn-
over as a “problem” to be overcome whereas
the responding HR executives indicated that they
“live” with turnover - it is seen as a “normal” part
of their jobs. This does not mean that they are
not concerned about it nor does it mean that
they do not take action to try to improve it, but
they realize that there will still be some turnover
even with the most efficient and effective
policies and procedures to try to lessen its
impact. So there is then this slight difference in
emphasis between the two groups of senior
managers.
The findings of the in-depth interviews of the
10 respondents are summarized as follows:
External Factors
All executives accepted that external factors
most influenced turnover of high performers in
their organizations. In the search for talent
today, jobs come to people rather than people
going to jobs as in the past because all know
that good people can help a business to grow
and compete in a highly competitive world. There
are plenty of means whereby people can
access job opportunities such as newspapers,
internet, friends, recruitment agencies and head
hunters.
Most responding executives accepted that
the economic situation was a supporting factor
to encourage employees to change their jobs
especially when the economy was booming since
that situation creates many job opportunities in
the labor market. But for high performers, it
matters less as to what the economic situation
is, as they are likely to be in high demand at all
times.
These statements are in agreement with the
literature and support previous findings which
determine that external job opportunities most
influenced turnover of high performers.
Organizational Related Factors
Most responding executives see organiza-
tional factors as most affecting turnover of
high performers, because employees work
in an organization so the impact caused by
that organization is happening at all times.
Employees have different expectations from
their organizations. Employees' dissatisfaction
towards organizational factors easily occurs.
Job Related Factors
All executives agreed with the model with
respect to these factors by confirming that a
challenging job/ an exciting job was a key factor
affecting turnover of high performers.
45
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Job dissatisfaction is an additional factor
which all executives agreed was a significant
factor influencing turnover of high performers.
They advised that job dissatisfaction is caused
by several factors such as the nature of the job
itself, pay, and promotion.
Most findings on organizational factors
were similar to those in the literature and the
comments of former high performers. However
executives viewed the proposed model in the
following factors: 1) business uncertainty can't
easily be claimed as a turnover factor, 2)
training and development are likely to be a
retention factor rather than a turnover factor, and
3) job dissatisfaction was recommended to be
added to the model.
Demographic Factors
Most executives accepted that individual
factors were one part of the turnover story and
accepted that several employees claimed that
these had caused their departure so demographic
factors were recommended to be included as
part of the turnover model of high performers.
They were asked what demographic factors
should be put into the turnover model and why?
Fifty percent of executives replied that age,
education and gender were recommended to
include in the turnover factor.
In summary, all executives agreed with the
majority of the factors affecting turnover of high
performers as described in the proposed model,
but a few factors were doubted such factors as
business uncertainty where, they believe that
employees know the nature of business very well,
so this factor would not be a cause of turnover,
except for newly hired employees only where it
might have some impact because they could not
adjust to get along with the normal business
phenomenon. Job dissatisfaction was highlighted
by most of the executives as a key factor
influencing turnover of high performers.
Demographic factors of age, education, and
gender were recommended to be included into
the turnover model.
Modified Turnover Model of HPEs in the
Electronics Industry in Thailand
Executives agreed individually to modify the
proposed turnover model of high performers as
shown in Figure 2.
46
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Figure 2 Modified Turnover Model of High Performing Employees in the Electronics Industry in Thailand
This model was developed from the
literature review (Hom and Griffeth, 1995;
Mobley, 1982; Porter and Steers, 1973) and from
the interviews with the 50 HPEs who had left
their positions, and, further from the interviews
with 10 senior executives.
The modifications align with the literature on
turnover. So the researcher has incorporated
them in the turnover model of high performing
employees.
Conclusions
The final result of the qualitative evaluation
was that most responding executives found that
the model was appropriate. Most retention
factors were accepted in the modified retention
model. The majority of participants cited the same
factors as influencing turnover and retention
It has much in common with my current
model of turnover.
External Factors
External Job Opportunities
Organizational Related Factors
Policies/Procedures
Promotion
Compensation & Benefits
Relationship
Job Related Factors
Challenging Job
Job Dissatisfaction
Demographic Factors
Age
Education
Sex
Intention to Leave Turnover
47
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
of high performers as those indicated in the
original model. Minor changes were recom-
mended; combining compensation and benefits
into one term and taking job review out of the
proposed model.
The responding executives viewed the
proposed model in a systematic approach, they
did not view it in a factor-by-factor way. In the
turnover model, they accepted most of the
proposed factors. However they recommended
to add "intention to leave" in a separate box
between the four factors (job related factors,
organizational related factors, job related
factors, demographic factors) and turnover. The
executives advised that intention to leave is a
determinant factor. Any single factor in
particular cannot let turnover develop without the
intention to leave of employees. So to make a
turnover model lock should be added to the
modified model. From the frame of reference,
they suggested to add "satisfaction" in the middle
box between the four retention factors (career
development, compensation and benefits, reward
and recognition, and communication) and "stay"
by further explaining that these four retention
factors lead to "employee" satisfaction that
usually results in "stay".
Responding executives view the turnover and
retention models as "process oriented", while
former high performing employees looked at each
single factor to answer the question of how that
factor affected turnover of high performers, so
there is a difference of approach of each of the
two groups, which might help to explain the
difference of perception between them.
The encouraging point is that the executives'
viewpoint regarding the turnover and retention
models has helped shape the models better and
made them more complete and more useful for
further study and analysis.
The study in its conclusions this presents a
framework for analyzing the major factors/s
reason that high performing employees might
leave their organizations.
The development and possession of this
model senior managers, especially HRM
Managers, to develop policies, procedures, and
action, designed to try to retain high performing
employees in their organization. It should also
provide a research base for further research and
for further testing of the model developed as a
result of this research, to other scholars and
researchers concerned with staff/labor turnover.
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Dr. Sa-ard Banchirdrit received his D.B.A. in Business Administration
from University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia and Master of
Public and Private Management from National Institute of Development
Administration (NIDA) and M.B.A. in International Business
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Director of M.B.A. Program, Panyapiwat Institute of Technology.
51
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AbstractThis research is to study appropriate period, program and process for efficient
internship at Seven-Eleven Shop for Panyapiwat Institute of Technology's staff. The
survey research methodology was applied using questionnaire responded by 28
staff, out of 30, who performed their internship during academic year from 2007 to
2009. The results from this study show that three-day internship period with three
different shifts work: day, afternoon, and night shift are appropriate and efficient.
Moreover, jobs during internship should be assigned based on the staff educational
level, position and their responsibility. In addition, the staff's internship should be
prior to the start date of their employment in order to avoid work interference.
Keywords: efficient internship, Seven-Eleven Shop, Panyapiwat Institute of
Technology
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Dr. Sareeya Chairattananont is a Director of Research and
Development Office at Panyapiwat Institute of Technology. She received
her Master Degree in Development Economics from National Institute
of Development Administration (NIDA) and her Doctorate (Ph.D.) in
Environmental Management from the University of Queensland (UQ),
Australia.
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70
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� ��#��� ����������$(!��� ���� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'���$"�" ��
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AbstractDespite intensive efforts to determine the nature of the relationship between the
firm-specific characteristic as firm size and the level of voluntary disclosure (VDI),
this issue is expected that the relationship is in fact more of an indirect than direct
nature. Thus, this paper attempts to delve deeper into this complex phenomenon by
employing a resource dependency perspective to hypothesize a model of mediation
as board of directors' quality index (BOQI) is moderated by a high concentration of
CEO's ownership (HCEO) as corporate governance mechanisms. The findings
suggest that the larger firm size, the higher is the BOQI and this in turn will lead to
the higher VDI. These relationships appear to be weaker when there is moderation
as HCEO, produced by the mediation process of the BOQI, and when this process
is controlled, the residual moderation of the treatment effect is reduced. Further,
board size as control variable is found to have a positive significant influence on
BOQI and VDI.
Keywords: Corporate Governance Mechanisms, Firm Size, Managerial Ownership,
Voluntary Disclosure, Listed Companies in Thailand
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porate governance mechanism)
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characteristics) 0 ���� ��"����������(�=�����"
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audit committee) �����"���2����"�������
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number of items) ����3<� )?� �2����$)��������
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0 ���� 2����$�$�#�� 2����$0��5!����(��� �$"2����$
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n ������ �� ����� (!�� (�8�� �!���"�# ��� �)"��
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2����$�=)"0 � 0 �"��� ���3�����'��0����������
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information) )?� � 16 ������ 2����$0��5!����
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�$"2����$���(��� (Financial information) )?� �
27 ������ (�����������,� �) �$"�����
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2���� ������)�����������(�� (,�2����$���
�����5) ���0��3� ���?���� 5����<�'��� �5!�
Cronbach's Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) )# �����
���5)������ ��2����$��� �����(!8��38�5���� �)��
��� �8� ��� Cronbach's Alpha coefficient )"����
�����(��������8����� �� 0.70 (Sureshchandra,
Rajendran, & Anantharaman, 2002)
�� ���� � ����" �����(�� (,�2����$���
�����5)5���������")?�� ���0��3� ���?����
(Unweighted Disclosure Index) ;<��(�=����<�'�
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/ � M (Maximum Expected Item) ����3<�
)?� �2����$����# ����� ��)"�����(�� (,�2����$
��������5)5���������")?�� 0 ���� 2����$�$�#��
2����$0��5!����(��� �$"2����$���(��� ED (Ex-
pected Disclosure) ����3<� ���'��� �)"�����
(�� (,�2����$��������5) 0 ���� 2����$�$�#��
2����$0��5!����(��� �$"2����$���(��� 5�������
��")?�� �$" n (Maximum number of items)
����3<� )?� �2����$����� ��)"�����(�� (,�
2����$��������5)5���������")?�� 0 ���� 2����$
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2����$���(���;<��)"���������� ����8�(������)?� �
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� ����8�(������)?� �2����$ 70 ������
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�#���������������� �������#�/�����/�� �#���)
���(��� ��3# ���$"�������#�������� ���������-
������$"�������� �������� ������ �$"(��/�/$��
;<�����<�'���������)"5!����'��) �"(����5��$�
�$��������� ���� ���0����� �5��$#���#���)���(���
)?� � 378 ���'�� ���(�8���)�����'��) �"(����
)?� � 61 ���'�� 0������"��������� )���
;<��(�=��� �������?��15����<�'��������� )<�)?(�=�
�� � �����������0��(���"�����)"5!� � ��� )<�5��
�� ������������)�� �!�� � ��� ������ ���2�� m
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(Hierarchical Regression Analysis) (�=����
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�$" 3 ;<����������)�� Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt
(2005) / ���������2������� �����
)<����������� ����8�(������ ���2�� n (Maximum
number of items)
;<��5��������� 1.1, 1.2 �$" 1.3 ���2�� 11;
21 �$"
32 )"����������?��1����3�������" �� .05
�$"��� 31)"��������� �����
11 / �,$��"��
�������2���� �������;��������(������ 21*
32
(2) ��� �(���"����3 3��/ �$? ��2� ��
(Hierarchical Regression Analysis) (�=����
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��������)�� Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt (2005)
/ ���������2������� �����
0 VDI 1
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;<��5��������� 2 ���2�� 43)"����������?��1����3�������" �� .05
�.���������&4����.
1. %$�������$%���@'4����������� ��$�
,����� 1 ���(4$��� �$"�� �(�����(������-��2�� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� )?� ����'���$"����$"
2�����$"$��'�"(4��"�����"���(�=� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� �� �.. 2547 �$",$���
(�����(�������(��72���$� �$�������������"(�0�� (SET) (N = 317)
�$����� ,$�-����*�� Mean SD���>&����������.4�� SET (2546)
��%$ 4������������.���@'��8�����.�
�.������� ����
BOQI �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'��
0.38 .12 ������ �8� (��������8����� ������$" 80��� �8� (����������$" 70 �������� �� 80����$�� �8� (����������$" 60 �������� �� 70��? �8� (����������$" 50 �������� �� 60 �$"��?��� �8� ����� ������$" 50
��?���
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��?
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��?���
���
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���
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58.7%
3.2%
5.7%
75.1%
89.3%
76.3%
24.9%
186
10
18
238
283
242
79
IV1
IV2
IV3
IV4
IV5
IV6
IV7
�#������"�������������'�� �8� �������������2����"����������
�$"��"����������������
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� �����������(�=�����"���� �� 50 (���(;=��2��)?� ��������������"
�#���������"!#���"����������'�� �8� ��������#��� (2����"!#�
��"����������'���#������
�#�����"��� ��#� �$"�� )������5� �8� ����� ������ )������5�
���(�=���� ������<��2�����'��
�#������"������������ )��� �8� ��"������������ )��� (�=�
�����������"
�#���������"��� ��"��������� )��� �8� ��������� )��������
���� 3 ��(�=������������"
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��"��������� )����#������
�.������� ����
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2. */�,�*"��$ ,$�-�����*"�$?
,����� 2 ���(4$��� (Mean) �� �(�����(������-�� (SD) �$"��������"�������������� (Correlations) 2���� ������
�?��1
,����� 1 ���(4$��� �$"�� �(�����(������-��2�� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� )?� ����'���$"����$"
2�����$"$��'�"(4��"�����"���(�=� �!��!�� � �#����2����"����������'�� �� �.. 2547 �$",$���
(�����(�������(��72���$� �$�������������"(�0�� (SET) (N = 317) (���)
��$�����:� $,�,�4��'���:� $,����%�4�� SET-,�.�.$����#'��������� ��8�
%$�������$%���@'4����������� ��$�
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17.0%
9.8%
21.8%
54
31
69
IV8
IV9
IV10
�#����� �����2����"��������� )��� �8� ��������� )������������
1 �� ��� ����� � ��(2��5) ��8� ����"������ ��������1!���8����(���
/ �(�=�,�������1!������#1��
�#������"�����������?�� ��������� �8� ��"�����#�������
�?�� ���������(�=������������"
�#���������"�����"��������?�� ��������� �8� �������
�� �5�1�(�=�����������0��(�=�,��������
0.37
.11
1.00
3.44
1.36
.54**
1.00
0.38
.12
.54**
.37**
1.00
0.15
.19
-.38**
-.25**
-.22**
1.00
2.38
.25
.14*
.25**
.14*
-.19**
1.00
* p < .05, ** p < .01.
VariablesVDI
(Dependent)LNTA
(Independent)LNBM
(Control)BOQI
(Mediator)HCEO
(Moderator)
Variables
Mean
SD
Correlations
VDI
LNTA
BOQI
HCEO
LNBM
84
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�����7�%��������)�7$��-46�������'
(��3����)
��� � ���2��� �����(!8��38�2���� ������
���0��3� ���?���� �� �.. 2547 5����<�'������
���5!� Cronbach's Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) ;<����
��������"� ��� .85 3<� .87 )# ����� ���5)������ ��
2����$��� �����(!8 ��38�5���� �)���� � �8� Hair,
Anderson, Tatham, & Black (1998) �$"
Sureshchandar, Rajendran, & Anantharaman
(2002) 0 �(�����" ����� Cronbach's Alpha
Coefficient 3������������ �� .60 �8� 2����$��� ��
���(!8��38���? 3������������"� ��� .60 3<� .70 �8�
2����$��� �����(!8��38�(�=����������0 � �$"3����
������� �� .80 �8� 2����$��� �����(!8��38����
������ ��#�0 � �����<�'���������2����$2���� ���
������ �����(!8��38����
����������(����/�/�����49���7�$
���(�� Multicollinearity �"� ����� �������"
�� �������;��� �� ���� �� �$"�� ���� �
�#� �����?�� ���(2�������3 3��/ �$? ��2���
/ ���)# �� ���5) ����� ��������������������
(Very High Correlation) �"� ����� �������"�$"
�� ���� ��#� ��8�(�� Multicollinearity 3��� ��
������������ .80 ��8� .90 (Field, 2000; Mangena
& Pike, 2005) (�8���� �������" �� �������;���
�� ���� ���$"�� ���� ��#�����5���� �(���"�
���3 3��/ �$? ��2������(�� Multicollinearity
)����� Tolerance ����� �� .10 (Hair, Anderson,
Tatham, & Black, 1998) �$"(�� Autocorrelation
� ���)�� Durbin-Watson 3��������"� ��� 1.65
3<� 2.35 �� � ��0��������"�������5�2����$
(Prasith-rathsint, 2005, p.129)
4. �.���������&��/%/��0%�."%$ 4$��
,����� 3 ,$��� �(���"����3 3��/ �$? ��2��� �?����� ������#��-����� 1 �$" 3 (N = 317)
Equation 1.3
Step 1 Step 2
(Criterion VDI)
Equation 1.2
Step 1 Step 2
(Criterion BOQI)
Equation 1.1
Step 1 Step 2
(Criterion VDI)
Variables
-.01
.40**
(31)
.39**
(32)
.43
.42
.15**
.02
.02
.06
.36**
(21)
.14
.14
.15**
.02
.02
.01
.54**
(11)
.30
.29
.15**
.02
.02
CV: LNBM
X: LNTA
ME: BOQI
Statistics
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Standardized Beta
85
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,����� 4 ,$��� �(���"����3 3��/ �$? ��2��� �?����� ������#��-����� 2 �$" 4 (N = 317)
,����� 3 ,$��� �(���"����3 3��/ �$? ��2��� �?����� ������#��-����� 1 �$" 3 (N = 317) (���)
Standardized Beta
Equation 1.3
Step 1 Step 2
(Criterion VDI)
Equation 1.2
Step 1 Step 2
(Criterion BOQI)
Equation 1.1
Step 1 Step 2
(Criterion VDI)
Variables
.41
110.31**
2.00
.94/.98
.02
6.82**
.12
44.08**
1.84
.94/.94
.02
7.42**
.28
122.51**
1.80
.94/.94
.02
6.82**
R Square Change
F Change
Durbin-Watson
Tolerance Min / Max
* p < .05, ** p < .01.
Standardized Beta
Step 4
(Criterion VDI)
Equation 2
Step 2 Step 3Step 1Variables
.02
.62**
.28
-.55**
(43)
.39
.38
.03
13.98**
1.89
.97/.98
.07
.53**
.29
.29
.27
120.79**
.15**
.02
.02
.02
6.82**
CV: LNBM
ME: BOQI
MO: HCEO
MEMO: BOQI x HCEO
Statistics
R Square
Adjusted R Square
R Square Change
F Change
Durbin-Watson
Tolerance Min / Max
.03
.47**
-.27**
(42)
.36
.35
.07
31.64**
* p < .05, ** p < .01.
86
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= .36 * .39 = .14 �� � �� �!��!�� � �#����2��
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(Partial Mediator Variable) ��� �)�����������#�
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Daily, Dalton, & Cannella (2003) 0 �������� ��
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Meckling (1976); Kistruck (2006); Owusu-Ansah
(1998) �$" Wiseman & Gomez-Mejia (1998)
���������,$��� �)�� �������35!���"�������
���'��(�=��� �������;����"� ���2�� 2��
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5�����'�������(�� (,�2����$��������5)(����2<��
;<����� ?(���������(�� (,�2����$��������5)
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(��������$"$ ��1��2���� ���
2. �@�����.*���,����� � 4 �����
������ �������������4��4�������8�
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�!��!� � � �#����2����"����������'�� ���
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43 = -.55 (p <
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Quasi Moderator �8� (�=�0 ������� �������"�$"
�� ���� ��(�=���� ��� �)�����������#�,$��� �)��
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96
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AbstractThis article aims to demonstrate the relationship between "cultural commodity" and
"cultural capital" within the economic crisis. The case study will be based on the
incident of Umaji village in Japan, where overcoming the economic crisis was
successfully founded by creating and consuming cultural commodity. The referred
commodity is the transformed orange juice called Yusu, which encloses the living
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and culture of the Umaji villagers. Furthermore, in this incident, the village's cultural
capital, like the rural village life, is used to motivate the consumers' need to
consume the product.
Keywords: cultural commodity, cultural capital, economic crisis, Umaji village in
Japan
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109
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Dr. Dome Kraipakorn received his Doctoral Degree in History from
Chulalongkorn University, and Master of History from Thammasat
University. He is currently Lecturer in Faculty of Liberal Arts,
Panyapiwat Institute of Technology
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AbstractThis article describes the correlation between social action and social recognition.
The paper tries to explain Social Action as A Means to Mutual Recognition: A
Sociological Perspective. by using sociological concept deriving from structural-
functional theory, self, dramaturgy, identity and habitus.
The study shows that social action which leads to social acceptance can be illustrated
in three main categories; 1. Social action emphasizing on the social construction
which perform by norms and social role 2. Social action emphasizing on agency as
active and creative actors 3. Social action resulted from the combination of structure
and agency. Each individual perceives their role in any situation properly by means of
who they are and what they should do. In addition, social action relates to the habitus
theory which means the individual performances constraint by habitus of their own
social class. Human and to imitate the habitus of other social classes.
Keyword: social action, social recognition, self, identity, habitus
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��#�(��M: ��"������� �)������!��� ��2�
����� ����.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1994. Raisons Pratiques:
Sur la theorie de I' action. Paris: Seuil.
����3<�5��#���� )��� ���!. (2552). �*'>�
����� ����. ������������ 2. ��#�(��: �?���
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Brown, David K. (2004). Social blueprints:
conceptual foundations of sociology.
New York: Oxford university press.
Gary Taylor and Steve Spencer. (2004). Social
Identities Muntidiscilinary approaches.
Great Britain: Cromwell press, 2004.
Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivationand
Personality. New York: Hsrper and Row.
Slattery, Martin. (2003) Key Ideas in Sociology.
Cheltenham: NelsonThornes Ltd. ����3<�5�
�#���� )��� ���!. (2552). ����*$�������.
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Mr. Sakorn Somsert received his Master of Arts (Sociology) from
Chulalongkorn University, his Bachelor of Arts (Politics) from
Ramkhamhaeng University and Bachelor of Arts (Social Development
Management) from Khon Kaen University. He is currently Lecturer in
Faculty of Liberal Arts, Panyapiwat Institute of Technology. He main
interests are in Sociological Theory and Thai Polit ics and
Government.
127
AbstractThe purpose of this article is to provide understanding and apply the concept of
learning organization for the high productivity improving. The initial ideas is to
eventually explore how people learn and create knowledge, together through
interaction and practices by applying the model that could increase learner's con-
sciousness about knowledge creation and knowledge sharing processes. Some
virtual modern organizations intellectually can create and transform how to develop
the human resources in the learning organization. The contributions of this article
are fourfold. First, what the definition of learning organization is, type, and level of
learning. Second, describe the subset of learning organization. Third, describe the
core fifth disciplines of learning organization, and six actions for implementation.
Fourth, People with learning, Organization with learning, and comparison between
traditional and modern organization is demonstrated.
Muenjit Phruksangkul
Lecturer in Department of Retailing
Business Management
Panyapiwat Institute of Technology
E-mail: [email protected]
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Implicit Knowledge
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IntroductionWorld business today is highly competitive.
Businesses need to develop good relationships
with their employees and customers.
Employees' knowledge issues also influence the
degree to which businesses are able to build
good relationship with shareholders, customers,
and stakeholders. However, most of Thai
businesses have less business experience,
technology, and fund. An important features of
the firm both public and private organization in
Thailand must adjust their businesses for
surviving and prosperity in the severely
dynamics environmental business. Recently,
some local and joint venture firms bankrupted
or sold out their business. One of the most
important reasons for surviving is to reduce
the exposure to risk associated with the
development of new products, process,
technologies, and cope with the crisis
economics situation nationwide. Thailand has
created more opportunities and favorable
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conditions for exploiting the internal and
external development factors, supporting human
resources learning, developing high technology,
sharing vision, working team, including
encouraging investments of different forms,
especially joint venture as one of the most
important cooperatives strategies for companies
to enter and win this rigorously competitive
emerging market. It is also focusing on
assessing the learning organization's
performances with the best practices to
sustainable means of achieving competitive
advantage. In today's rapidly changing business
environment, the ability of the organization to
adapt is considered to be the main factor in its
survival and competit ive success. Yet,
adaptation to current problems and change is
unlikely to prove sufficient, it is now suggested
that company's need to develop proactive
strategies, attempt to search the external
outsourcing, generate training courses,
or manage knowledge to develop their learning
organizations so that future trends and
environmental conditions can be predictors and
continuous modifications made.
What is the Learning Organization?
This article attempts to identify the attributes
of the learning organization in Thailand relation
to knowledge management. Learning
organization has been defined as "organizations
where people continually expand their capacity
to create the results they truly desire, where new
and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured,
where collective aspiration is set free, and where
people are continually learning to learn together"
(Senge, 2006). Learning organization has been
defined as "ability to think crucially and
creativity, the ability to communicate ideas and
concepts, and the ability to cooperate with other
human beings in the process of inquiry and
action" (Navran Associates Newsletter, 1993).
Learning organizations foster an environment
wherein people can "create the results they truly
desire", and where they can learn to learn
together for the betterment of the whole (Rheem,
1995). "The essence of the organizational
learning is the organization's ability to use the
amazing mental capacity of all its member to
create the kind of processes that will improve its
own" (Dixon, 1994). "A Learning Company is an
organization that facilitates the learning of all its
members and continually transform itself" (Pedler
Burgoyne, and Boydell, 1991: 52). The author
do agree with Watkins and Marsick that learning
organization are characterized by total employee
involvement in a process of collaboratively
conducted, collectively accountable change
directed towards shared valued or principles
(Watkins and Marsick, 1992).
Type of Learning
There are 4 types of learning that are:
Type 1 Learning facts, knowledge, process,
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and procedures (applied to known situations
where changes are minor). There are 2 types of
knowledge:
1.1 Tacit knowledge: subjective know-
ledge, personal and context specif ic.
1.2 Explicit knowledge: objective know-
ledge, codified system, formal and easy to
communicate.
Type 2 Learning new jobs skills that is
transferable to others (applied to new situations
where existing responses need to be changed,
bring outside expertise is a useful tool here).
Type 3 Learning to adapt (applied to
dynamics situations where the solution need
developing, experimentation, and lesson is the
model of learning here).
Type 4 Learning to learn (work for crea-
tivity and innovation, design the future rather than
merely adapting to it).
(David Skyrme Associates, 2008)
Subset of learning organization
Marquardt (2006) mentions that there are
five dependent subsets of learning organization,
details were shown in figure 1.
1. Learning: It can be categories into 3
levels are:
Level 1 Individual learning
Level 2 Group/team learning
Level 3 Organizational learning
(Marquardt, 2006).
2. Organization: These characteristics of the
organization are specialization, standardization,
formalization, centralization, configuration, and
flexibility. At least the organization consists of 4
dimensions; vision, culture, strategy, and
structure (Takhumthong, 2007).
3. People: Not only employees get involve
in or get the benefits from learning process, but
managers, customers, partner, alliances,
suppliers, and community did well.
4. Knowledge: knowledge is the power to
drive the job done. Knowledge management (KM)
consists of 6 steps (David Skyrme Associates,
2008).
4.1 Acquisition: the process in searching,
and collecting the internal and external
information.
4.2 Creation: the process in creative
thinking, research, or innovating new
information or existing information reasonably
apply with the context.
4.3 Storage: the process in coding the
useful information in order to increase the
accessibility.
4.4 Analysis and Data Mining: the process
in deeply analyze information structure
(knowledge), build knowledge inventory,
matching, grouping data for availability.
4.5 Transfer and Dissemination: the process
is distribute the knowledge through any tool,
techniques, network, or communication.
4.6 Application and Validation: the process
is evaluate the knowledge, and continuous
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apply the valued knowledge by people within
the workplace for development.
5. Technology: We can divide technology
using into 2 dimensions (Nonaka and Takeuchi,
1995).
5.1 For technology management - in order
to provide the right knowledge at right place and
just in right time.
5.2 For technology enhancement via
simulation, computer conferencing, computer
based system and so on.
All subsystems is the root to build learning
organization but how completed is depended on
your interdependent (these subsystems) with
your business characteristics. Established aim-
(s) before you design the shape of your
organization, what picture or atmosphere in
workplace you want to see it.
Source: Marquardt. Building the Learning Organization,
2006: 50
Figure 1 Subset of learning organization
The core fifth disciplines for Learning
Organization
The conceptual of the learning organization
is increasingly relevant to twenty-first century
management because of the increasing
complexity, uncertainly and rapidly of change of
the environmental organization. It is therefore
important to understand what a learning
organization is, what its characteristics are and
how it relates to the emerging topic of
knowledge management. It is widely accepted
that firms which consciously invest in the
creation of new knowledge through research and
development activities or through more informal
learning processes tend to do better than those
that ride on the coat-tails of knowledge created
by others. Learning does not mean acquiring
more information, but expanding the ability to
produce the results we truly want in life. It
is lifelong generative learning. Learning
organization is not possible unless they have
people at every level who practice it (Senge,
2006).
Fifth disciplines in building the learning
organization are personal mastery, mental
models, team learning, shared vision, and
systems thinking (Senge et al., 1994).
Personal Mastery applied to individual
learner, and organizations cannot learn until their
members begins to learn. Individual learning does
not guarantee organizational learning. But
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without it no organizational learning occurs. Thus,
if any firm wants to be learning organization, it
has to encourage their people to be the active
learners. Personal Mastery composed of 2
components.
First, one must fine "what one is trying to
achieve a goal" (where one is currently
functioning, what is important to us). We often
spend so much time coping with problems along
our path that we forget why we are on that path
in the first place. We have to set the objective(s)
before we start to take the actions.
Second, one must have a true measure of
how close is to the goal (where one wants to be
is referred to as creative tension, emotion
tension, structural conflict). This tension means
the difference between the objectives and the
current reality. How can we achieve our goals?
The essence of personal mastery is learning how
to generate and sustain creative tension in our
lives. Creative tension will drive the firm toward
its goals, especially: integrating reason
(objective) and intuition (subjective); continually
seeing more of our connectedness to their whole
performances in workplace.
Thus, personal mastery is a process of
continually focusing and refocusing on what one
truly wants, and how to success on one's vision.
Furthermore, wheels of learning consists of 4
quadrants; questions, ideas, tests, and
reflection (Faerman, 1996). Quadrant one: we
have the doubt, or question, so that why we
would like to find out the data. Quadrant two:
after we found the answer from quadrant one.
Quadrant three: we have to check or prove for
the information, or the fact. The last quadrant:
we have to mirror or share these learning for
others. The metaphor of the wheel makes one
think of something moving in workplace (think
out of the box). The job of the top manager in
the learning organization is to be the teacher or
coach who helps unleash the creative energy in
each individual. Organizations learn through the
synergy of the individual learners (Senge, 2006).
Mental Models is the second discipline for
the learning organization. The way of looking at
the world and it is the framework for the
cognitive processes of our mind such as
attitude, thinking pattern, believing, emotional
quotient (EQ). How we think and act the ability
of individual to make the right decision,
understand the situation clearly, mental ability
to cope with the crisis or dynamics environment
in globalization. Mental models determined not
only how we make sense of the world, but how
we take action. Practice is the essences of the
discipline of mental models. For managers this
requires both business skills and interpersonal
skills. Managers are inherently pragmatic through
training their employees in "mental modeling".
Without the interpersonal and business learning
skills, learning is not generative. Generative
learning requires people at all levels that can
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surface and challenge their mental models
before external circumstances compel people to
do so (Argyris, 2006). Mental models will not
only be improving our mental models (what we
think) but altering our ways of thinking and
shifting from mental models dominated by events
to mental models that recognize longer-term
patterns of change and the underlying structures
producing those patterns.
Nowadays, mental models used for critical
decision because these experiences, generative
ideas, believing, attitudes, norms, collected
value. Continued practicing nourished the
learners can understand, see the views,
categorized any type of important events,
arrange their own ideas for the right process,
including decide to act in any situation
appropriately. The learning organization of the
future will make key decisions based on shared
understandings of interrelationships and pattern
of change. If the organizations are to develop a
capacity to work with mental models then it will
be necessary for people to learn new skills and
develop new competency and capability, and for
their organizational changes that foster such
dynamics.
Shared vision is a vivid mental image in
the future (Senge, 2006). Generating vision
should answer these 3 questions: What, Why,
and How? What's the picture we want to see
the organization in the future? Why do we run
this business? How do we do our business to
success toward our shared visions of the
organization?
Every people have his own vision in
working. Organization also has its own vision,
but it does not work effective if the process
begins with its own self reflection, or individual's
vision does not agree with organization's vision.
Therefore, the organizational vision must build
from the interaction among employees, or
emerge from the organization's strategy
planning process rather than dictated by the
leader. The strong willed leaders need to be the
good speaker, but before they can be the good
speaker, they should be the good listener with
defined well concentration, openness, think
positive, and also challenging with the variety of
opinions. The learning organization need to
activate individual to share and reflected their
own vision, compromise between the individual
vision and improved them into a common
direction for employees. Since we should
encourage everyone understand the internal
situation, agree in the organization common long
term vision together, frame our ideas pattern into
the same shape, and attempt to make it real in
order to initiate the new learning, creative
thinking ideas, direct aimed to the same
destination of the organization. In addition, we
should proactive encourage human resource both
ones' truly committed and unity. Sharing vision
is very important for the learning organization
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because it (sharing vision) is the energy for
learning. We can say that the main task of the
leader is to design and nurture the vision of the
company because shared vision is also the
potential sources of the energy drive and foster
a commitment to the long term.
Team learning is "the process of aligning
and developing the capacities of a team to
create the results its member truly desire"
(Senge, 2006). Team learning is not only the
exchanging and sharing process in internal and
external information, new and innovated
knowledge, and various kinds of experiences
such as succession, failure, or competition, but
also diffusing these information and knowledge
to each other. We can mention that team work,
or team skill is the main tool to build the modern
organization. If we learn how to bring one's
competency, performances, and experiences
connect with others in order to increase
continuously effectiveness and efficiency of the
organization, it would be the way to develop for
creating the satisfied or attained the end results
as well. Open communication gears toward the
learning through discussing and initiating
brainstorm for many ideas and knowledge
sharing occurring continuously is the way to
innovated many organizations to be the
learning organizations in Thailand. We can
facilitate our large team work via technology or
network system; allow all level management,
including employees to contribute their own
capability to develop their performances. In
rewards system, we active to response their
strong performances with group rewards rather
than individual reward. "We" act instead of "I"
act in any activities, including group cohesive-
ness, decentralized decision making, authority
sharing, empowerment, and clear responsibility.
System thinking is ability to understand the
internal and external environmental business, and
we can interrelate each single business unit
(SBU) to the whole picture of the organization,
and also cope with these external situations. We
can forecast or predict the cause-effects
assumptions in the workplace and global
business in various dimensions such as
economics, politic philosophy, international
trading, and foreign exchange rates, cross
cultural management, and so on. When the whole
pattern was changed, we tend to know in
isolated part(s) of the system. No wondering
which part is the source of the problem(s), and
understands how to arrange the crucial sequence
of the events as well. Furthermore, this concept
is very important because it includes the ability
of carefully consider thinking pattern in term of
framework, strategy planning, contingency
planning, short term and long term proactive or
reactive of the implementation, be alert in any
information receiving, recognized in opportunity,
competitors, SWOT analysis, determine the
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practical solutions for the future. We can say
that system thinking is the process to seek the
interdependence among many things, arrange
and focus them in total system rather than
subsystem.
Watkins and Marsick (1992) explained that
organizations can implement learning
organizationin Six Actions as the following:
1. Create continuous Learning Opportu-
nities consisted of effective planning of informal
learning how to learn, and just in time learning.
2. Promote Inquiry and Dialogue consisted
of dialogue in which people is mutually explored
ideas, questions, and potential action.
3. Encourage Systems to Capture and
Share Learning consisted of medium for moving
new knowledge throughout the organization.
4. Establish Systems to Capture and Share
Leaning consisted of building organizational
capacity for new thinking embedded and shared
with others.
5. Empower people Toward a Collective
Vision consisted of participation of individual in
a collective vision
6. Connect the Organization to its
Environment consisted of interdependcies
between the organization and its internal and
external environment are acknowledged and
worked through.
The author views that learning can occur
every level in the organization. Especially, group/
team learning level would bridge the gap
between individual and organizational learning
through six actions framework in different
environmental conditions.
People with Learning
"Put the right person into the right job at the
right time and the right place"
Many people always heard this sentence
when we talk about recruitment process of
human resources department. If we consider the
number of the person who has high competency
on his own job, how many percentages of these
people will be in the workplace. Since the
organization started to open for the job
vacancies, how they screen these candidates.
Human resources department attempt to hire the
accountable, and competencies person to be the
key person who set the process, or produce the
products, or services response our customer
satisfaction as much as they can. Today many
organizations really recognized on the importance
of People as a Capital of the firm because
people are the valued factor of production, people
as the root (source) of many activities, and the
determinants who set the direction(s) and future
of the organization. So far, we open for the new
position that we called "Management Trainee".
This position is to provide the learning
opportunities for many employees to test or bring
out their hide diverse abilities through rotating in
different functions within the organization such
as Coca Cola Co., Ltd.; Johnson & Johnson Co.,
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Ltd., and P&G Co., Ltd. including multinational
corporations (MNCs) in Thailand. Purpose(s) is
to develop their technical, human and
conceptual skills, to be assured employees'
competencies suit with their positions. Some
companies initiated launched the policies on
human resources screening in many process
such as large invested in testing system, cross
questions interviewed, probation monitoring,
including terminated policies, and so on. We
strong believed that unlearned person seem as
the high fix cost of the organization.
Organization with Learning
We can't refuse that today we run the
business and face the dynamics changing
(globalization) all around us. To continued thrive
as a valued business, the organization must think
ahead, ready for tomorrow, learn to understand
the trends, live for lifelong learning, high
accessible in community response to the
professional needs of individual, group, and
organization level. Such many global and local
firms in Thailand are aware of human resources
developments which lead to the effective
organizations for example Electric (GE) Co, Ltd
(Imagination at work): large organization's vision
that Our People are GE's greatest asset, as the
company campaign "We are GE". GE uses the
tools of research in developing to create the
learning organization and invested over $ 1
billion every year on training and development
education programs for the people of GE.
Education is pervasive at all levels in workplace
such as entry level program for college students.
Experiences Leadership program offered
intensive on the job development in the areas of
Corporate Audit, Human resources and Sales
and Marketing, Jack Welth Leadership
Development Center established in 1956 served
as a powerful organization force for all level
employees with an important concept "Never
Stop learning" (General Electric Company, 2009).
GE gets to know in making GE the world-class's
most effective business people. Although it is
difficult to find out the acknowledged people, the
organizations have to wait and invest for their
recruitment process. Until the organizations meet
the right candidates, how much the cost it is.
The organization should be pleased to
compensate for hiring these competencies as
well. On the other hands, many human resources
departments urgently accept these mismatch
candidates with their job descriptions. Low
productivity and high Turn over rate (TOR) was
the troublesome end results of unplanned
selection process of HR function.
In addition, Jack Welt also consisted in his
policy to cut, or sold out any business unit that
did not make the profit or be the cost of his
organization, including the unable employees,
or inactive people. GE Company monitors their
people with 360 degree evaluate from many
partners to assure in quality of task, moral, and
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so on. Recently, Forbes magazine ranked the
top 10 fierce boss of U.S.A; he was one among
these leaders. Jack Welt believed in his ideas
likely to hire talented person with the expensive
salary, but he will not hold or handle the
unperformed or unneeded person with low cost.
Many large organizations prefer to hire few
workers with high salary because they thought
that these people as the capital of the
organization to made or created the great ideas,
and potential performances produce the high
productivity and profit into the organizations
instead. Hiring few but right people with very
high salary better than hire many inactive people
with low salary. From GE's top management
level; thus, in currently, we can say that learning
or modern organization expect to hire talented
person mystery, invest with these people to
develop their competency, shared visions,
including knowledge dissemination with others.
Learning organization viewed that these few
human capital will drive and increase the
effectiveness of the organizations, therefore, GE
Company pleasured to treat his capital (loyalty
employees) in good corporate culture. The
author thought that the good organization should
be training school for their people to learn and
develop their competencies as well. Presently,
some companies use Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) as a strategic to gain
public support for their presence in global
markets, helping them sustain a competitive
advantage by using their social contributions to
provide a subconscious level of advertising
(Meiners, 1986).
Especially, Corporate Social Responsibility
(CSR) is the deliberate inclusion of public
interest into corporate decision-making, and the
honoring of a triple bottom line: People, Planet,
and Profit. An approach for CSR that is
becoming more widely accepted is
community-based development projects. For
example, GE is the organization focusing on the
passionate about making life's better with new
ideas and technologies by giving back to our
community in more than 140 countries
nationwide. In Thailand, GE Money also create
"Healthymagination" project. Its aim to change
the way and approach healthcare with over 1,000
innovations all focused on addressing 3 critical
needs: lowering costs, touching more lives, and
improving quality (General Electric Company,
2009).
Another example, SHIN Corporation in
Thailand is one of the private holding firms to be
recognized on the important of learning by
connecting people's visions, organization's
visions, personal mystery, team working,
system thinking, and mental models of human
resources, through technology management, and
technology enhancement, and knowledge
sharing (implicit and explicit knowledge) within
the firm. SHIN Corp hires few people (less than
70 people), but screen high competencies people
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only. SHIN Corp still concentrated on the quality
of staff and management through promotion
within the firm first in order to keep the talented
people who understand the culture of the
organization well by using ALPC model for
selecting (Attitude, Learn ability, Performances,
and Potential), including the decision making,
leadership, problem solving, future forward
looking, and task evaluation form and
questionnaire to ask their people well being
(quality of work life balances) every 6 months.
Not only talented person they want to hire, but
also moral or ethical person they did.
Consistently, SHIN Corp concept remain the
same, they want to hire both high IQ, and E.Q.
person via some knowledge sharing activities
from reading the interesting books, public
journals, traveling storyteller, or guest speaker
invitation for discussion our views altogether.
Moreover, SHIN Corp also care and responsible
to the society especially some rural students who
lack of the good opportunity in learning both in
distance schools, or limit budget to develop the
community.
Lastly, there are many profit and learning
organizations such as PTT Public Co., Ltd.; Siam
Cement Group (Thailand) Co., Ltd.; Advanced
Infor Service Co., Ltd.; Toyota Motors (Thailand)
Co., Ltd.; Honda Automobile (Thailand) Co., Ltd.;
Thai Beverage Public Co., Ltd.; Singha Corpo-
ration Co., Ltd.; Siam Commercial Bank Ltd.;
Kasikorn Bank Ltd., and so on to spend a lot of
time and allocate the resources to continue
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects
for the youth in Thailand both in education fields,
arts and literature fields, and global warming
environment fields. CSR should go along with
the business whatever, wherever, or however
they did, they should concern the health of the
society by sharing the profit through the sincere
commitment continuing to the society. Currently,
the author strongly agrees toward the completed
modern organization have to govern with the
sustainable CSR activities and 5 disciplines of
learning organization. (Fifth Disciplines: Personal
Mystery, Shared Vision, Team Work, System
Thinking and Mental Model) for the competitive
advantages. It would be demonstrated the
organization revolutions developed from the
information era (tradition organization) to the
knowledge-based society (modern organization)
was shown in table 1. Briefly, Good Health
Learning Organizations is necessary to live and
cultivate in the Good Health Society as well.
139
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Table 1 Differences between the traditional and modern organization (Stephen, Robbins, and Mary, 1999: 198)
Traditional organization Modern organization
Inflexibility Flexibility
Focus on employees Focus on skill, and performances
Quality improvement Process innovation
Learning from seminar session on the job training
Focus on R&D department Focus on outsource training
Be trainee be learner
Control management Empowerment
Job position based Job description based
Individual based Team work based
Job stable Job dynamics
Job Directing Job participation
Manager decision making Employee involvement in decision making
Regulation based Customers based
Similarity labor Diversity labor
Vertical organization structure Horizontal or Network organization structure
Think local Think global
Source: Stephen, Robbins, and Mary. Management, (1999): 198.
Conclusion
In presently, learning organization has
become an important concept of the way to
develop organization. Basically, the
organization's vision was to gain the profit, or to
be the leader in the industry, they attempted to
create competitive advantages their competitors
with any strategies to increase their market
shares only. But according to the changing
dynamics environmental business, intense
competitiveness, or globalization effects, we
tended to deeply consider our strategies again.
We found out that in the past we are so concern
with money rather than cared man power's skills,
performances, and happiness in workplace.
That's a big mistake! Because no any other
organizations can't grow up without talented
people work in. It's becoming evident that
organizational learning is more developing. A
significant moving is learning manpower
140
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
undertaken to put the learning organization (LO)
occurring. We can summarize that the
components of LO are people, organization,
knowledge management, technology, and
learning was generated with fifth rules: personal
mystery, shared vision, team building, mental
model, and system thinking. Hence, building LO
will highly influence the inevitable internal
operation. It consisted of six actions framework
to complements; f irst: create learning
opportunity, second: promote inquiry and
dialogue, third: urge team learning, fourth: share
learning, fifth: empower people, and sixth
connect organization with surrounding. Moreover,
the crucial aspect of learning organization should
come with corporate social responsibility (CSR)
activities which to contribute the benefits back
to the community as well. Likely, many modern
organizations gear toward their own
organizations with this LO framework and CSR
is ongoing continuously, to support the well
being in the healthy society, to help
organizations identify their capacities to learn and
share knowledge about evident-based practices
innovations. The KM and LO model will need
further validation and improvement through its
organizational setting and to be able to align in
the challenging future. Such the modern
organization needs to embrace this changing,
not as the tradit ional organization for
centralized top management with bureaucratic,
but as the flexible empowerment with skilled,
competent, and satisfied people instead.
Think Globally, Act Locally based on your
business. It may be applied well with the
modern learning organization that better suits
the needs of your people.
High Prosperous Learning Organization
will come with Good Quality of Work Life
Balances.
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Massachusetts: Addison Wesley.
David Skyrme Associates. (2008). Type of
learning. Retrieved November 1, 2008,
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141
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Web site: http: www.en.wikipedia.org.wiki.csr
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com/researcher/papers/var21mkm.html
Nonaka, I and Takeuchi, H. (1995). The
knowledge creating company. New York:
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Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J., and Boydell, J. (1991).
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Rheem, H. (1995). The learning organization,
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and Smith, B. (1994). The fifth discipline
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building a learning organization. New
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Senge, P. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art
& practice of the learning organization.
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Stephen, P., Robbins, C., and Mary, K. (1999).
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Takhumthong, P. (2007). Modern organization.
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learning-organization.htm
Miss Muenjit Phruksangkul received her Master of International
Business Management and Human Resources Management Degree
from Dominican University, Illinois, and Bachelor of Business Arts
Japanese Degree from Assumption University. She is currently lecturer
in Retailing department, Panyapiwat Institution of Technology.
142
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AbstractThe concept of Learning Organization is extremely important for the development of
Organizational Innovation of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) especially, in
under current dynamic of economic situation. To continually develop the
Organizational Innovation is to respond to the niche markets which, large enterprises
are not able to support perfectly. In details, the concept of Learning Organization
significantly supports the development of Organizational Innovation by encouraging
organization members to apply their knowledges in order to facilitate innovation which,
will generate benefit to an organization concretely.
Keywords: Learning organization, Organizational Innovation, Small and Medium
Enterprises (SMEs)
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Mr. Niti Rattanaprichavej received his Master of Architecture (M.A.)
from faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Thammasat University.
He is currently a D.P.A Doctoral Candidate in the Doctor of Public
Administration Program, major in Public and Private Management (PPM)
at The National Institute of Develoment Administration (NIDA). His main
interests are about Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and
Organization Theory
154
Charisopon Inthapat
Part time instructor at King Mongkut's
University of Technology Thonburi
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Ananya Tuksinwarajarn
Lecturer at King Mongkut's University of
Technology Thonburi
E-mail: [email protected]
Kunlawadee Yamket
Lecturer at King Mongkut's University of
Technology Thonburi
E-mail: [email protected]
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AbstractThis study intends to investigate how students manage difficulties in order to write
punchlines for jokes. It is beneficial for ESL teachers who like to use jokes in
language classroom. The jokes in this study were selected from the Internet
according to certain criteria concerning the length of jokes, joke contexts, language
complexity, variety of topics and situations. The subjects of this study were eight
students from the Department of Material and Tool Engineering and the Depart-
ment of Electrical Engineering at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi
(KMUTT). In writing punchlines, the subjects had difficulties cause by inappropriate
155
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length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes, insufficient language ability and lack of
creative ideas. Then, they used their techniques to cope with the difficulties. To the
techniques, subjects' punchlines were evaluated by three raters ranging from the
best to the worst punchlines.
The subjects were required to write punchlines for provided fifteen jokes. They were
asked to spend three days a week and write three punchlines a day. When they
finished each three jokes, the subjects were interviewed how they wrote their own
punchlines. To write punchlines, it is found that the subjects had difficulties caused
by inappropriate length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes, insufficient language ability
and lack of creative idea in writing. However, they had their techniques to manage
difficulties by using re-reading, connecting jokes with their own experiences,
imagining the scenes of jokes, translating, putting themselves in the situation in the
jokes and using keywords. Due to these techniques, the subjects' works were
evaluated by three raters who were studying in the programme of Master of Arts in
Applied Linguistics for English Language Teaching (ELT) at King Mongkut's
University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT) ranging from the best to the worst
punchlines with reference to relevance, communication, creativity and fun. Then,
the benefits of using jokes for language teaching and writing practice were
discussed with points to consider and recommendations for further study were
finally given.
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Keywords: Jokes, Humour, Punchlines, Writing Process, Difficulties and
Management of Writing Punchlines, Creative Ideas
156
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Background of the StudyWith reference to undergraduate curriculum
of Liberal Arts of King Mongkut's University of
Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), the university
provides four fundamental English courses (LNG
101 to LNG 104) to all students to study in the
language classroom. Most faculties require them
to study at least three English courses. All
courses aim to equip them with language and
learning skills through different tasks. The
learning tasks aim to provide chances for
students to practice four language skills, i.e.
listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Particularly, LNG 103 course mainly provides
students to practice thinking skill and creative
writing. To the course it trains students know
what creative thinking is and practices students
creative writing such as opinion task, writing
creative technological design etc. Thus, the
researcher preferred those who learned LNG
103, because it can save time to guide them.
Moreover, students have experiences in
classroom and they have known the strategies
for writing creatively.
Statement of Problems
To compare writing with other skills such as
speaking which is an output process, writing can
be more difficult for most Thai students as it
requires good command of grammar, sentence
structure and word choice (Chenoweth, 1987:
25). Moreover, the written language is shown to
be evidence to the readers, so accuracy is cru-
cial and students need to practice. To practice
writing, motivation, interesting input for
practicing and thinking processing are needed
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157
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for students. To the researcher' situation, Thai
students lack inspiration to practice writing
because of three main issues.
Motivation: To motivate students to write
on their own is not easy because they have to
spend time to compose written tasks. Besides,
they do not have much chance to write in
English in the real situation. To strengthen this
point, Chimombo, (1987: 204) said, "Reality in
writing is difficult for students to practice because
writing is not part of most students' daily lives,
so they only have a chance to practice in
classroom mostly." For those who want to be
professional writers, they should spend a
sufficient period of time to learn. Thus, it is
necessary to provide a supportive environment
and time for the students to acquire the skill
(Byrd, 2001: 6). To the researcher, what
motivates students to write may not only come
from the students themselves but also from
courses, classroom materials or the tasks
assigned.
Input for Writing: There are many materials
that can be used as the task for students to
practice writing. According to Hedge, (1989: 33-
39) "some pictures in a newspaper can be good
input for writing activity." She gives each
student the pictures and asks them to write about
the scene in a newspaper. She asks students to
imagine themselves as reporters and then write
up the news. KMUTT students also have a
chance to do similar activities in one of the
fundamental courses. They form pairs to write
about the news of their interest and then work in
groups to design their own newspapers. Although
writing newspapers is a good task for students
to practice writing skill, it is a time-consuming
task; they are required to write accurately and it
is mostly suitable for group work. By the nature
of group work, some students may not
contribute or take as much responsibility as they
should. This means that what should be input
for writing must encourage every student to
practice the skill to the fullest extent. Woolfolk,
(1993: 336-337) supports that the task that can
encourage students to write should not only be
enjoyable, interesting and stimulating but also
fun for them and it should persuade students to
share ideas freely. Therefore, if a teacher can
find the task which can provide this
phenomenon, it may motivate students to
practice writing skill either in class or on their
own. In other words, writing tasks which can
inspire them to write depends on the types of
writing that interest or challenge the students
(Indrisamo & Squire, 2000: 11).
Thinking Process: Thinking process is
another problem which students face when they
write because writing is a complex process in
which students have to spend time to improve
but they have less chance to practice. To
compose written texts, students need to
organize their thoughts into a sequence which
makes sense and they should express their ideas
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coherently. Leki, (1998: 78) said that, when
students compose the texts, they should
consider the main point or central idea of a piece
of writing. Kroll, (1991) supports that students
should link from the first to the second sentence
and so on to connect ideas. As English is not
their mother tongue, it can be difficult for KMUTT
students to write with coherence and cohesion.
Consequently, the writ ing task should
encourage them to think critically or use their
imagination creatively.
Rationale of the Study
To enhance motivation and thinking process
in writing through enjoyable tasks, the researcher
decides to use jokes because they are fun and
not too long text to read. In addition, there are
many types of jokes in various contexts.
However, the researcher chooses to focus only
on the punchlines of the jokes because the
punchline is the twisting part of the jokes that
needs creative thinking which enhances many
possible ideas as long as they fit well with the
context provided. Fischel, (1980: 30), 40
supports that it is challenging to use jokes to
enhance writing skill since it requires the
writers' imagination and enables students to
practice thinking skill.
Therefore, jokes were used in this study
because they encourage students to write
creative sentences and enables them to make
use of vocabulary and grammar in the ways that
suit their own purpose. Additionally, jokes are
proved to be useful in English language class
for the following reasons. (1) Jokes are short
and can be told or taught within the space of a
few minutes. (2) Jokes can be a mini-lesson in
grammar, vocabulary and speech pattern. (3)
There is a wide range of possible speech
patterns within the single genre of jokes. (4)
Jokes are funny and they keep students alert.
Additionally, jokes cause positive atmosphere in
classroom and lead students to have motivation
to learn the language and introduce a refreshing
change from routine language learning
procedures. (Trachtenberg, 1980: 8-13).
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate
the extent that jokes can be used for students to
practice writing and what difficulties students have
when they write their own punchlines for
provided 15 jokes and how they solve the
problems. Thus, the main research question of
the study is to answer. "How do students write
punchlines for jokes?"
Definitions and Components of Jokes
According to Collins Cobuild English
Dictionary, (1995: 904) gives the definition of a
joke as "something that is said or done to make
people laugh for example, a funny story."
Beeman, (2000: 1) and Medgyes, (2002: 1)
supported "jokes aim to create a feeling of
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enjoyment for the audiences, most commonly
manifested in a physical display of pleasure
including smiles and laughter. Additionally, jokes
are triggers of laughter including comedies, funny
stories and riddles." Trachtenberg, (1980: 9) and
Maurice, (1988: 20) add that the riddles can be
joking questions which include metaphors in the
language and have lexical ambiguity in the words
and the questions request unexpected answers
from the readers or listeners. Among all the
triggers of laughter, jokes are the most common
stimulation that people use to entertain others
and themselves (Webster, 1913: 7). Greg, (2004:
1) mentions that when joke writers write funny
stories, they normally prepare the readers for
laughing by giving the description of a
situation i.e. it tells the readers who did what or
talked with whom. Cooley, (2004: 1) agrees that
the first part of jokes usually gives the
background of the situation to the readers or
listeners. The second part of jokes is the key
part which is the punchline as it provokes
laughter with unexpected endings and demands
creative thinking to surprise the readers.
Use of Jokes in English Language Teaching
(ELT)
Humour and jokes can be used for
educational purposes and language learning in
the classroom for many reasons. For Maurice,
(1988: 24), for example, explains that the use of
jokes in language class makes students feel close
to each other because jokes create a positive
learning environment and relaxing atmosphere.
Tosta, (2001: 27) adds that the use of jokes
increases interaction among teachers and
students and the jokes are a useful tool to get
students' attention as they create enjoyment and
thus motivate students to learn. Moreover,
Trachtenberg, (1980: 9, 11) gives reasons why
teachers use jokes in an English language class:
(1) Jokes are funny and keep students alert. (2)
Hence, jokes make a refreshing change from
routine language learning procedures. (3) It is
possible to use jokes in teaching because they
are short and can be told or taught within a few
minutes and jokes can be used as an
introduction activity. (4) Jokes can be a
mini-lesson in grammar, vocabulary and speech
patterns. (5) There is a wide range of possible
speech patterns within a single genre of jokes.
Pecnik, (2001: 2) adds more ideas about the
use of jokes in ELT, "jokes can be used as a
starting point of a discussion, creative activity or
project work and help to relax the students."
Qualities of Good Jokes
Although jokes can be exploited in the
language classroom, it does not mean that any
joke can be used for teaching. To help teachers
select proper jokes, Pupipat, (2004: 87) says,
"The simple criterion for selecting jokes is that
the jokes should be appropriate for students in
terms of language (e.g. words and discourse)."
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He continues that students' problems with jokes
are usually idioms because students have
limitation in language, so they may not
understand jokes clearly. Therefore, these
problems can be solved by informative support
in which teachers analyze the selected jokes after
they have got them from the sources to
anticipate what can be difficult and what help
students need to comprehend the jokes. For
instance, teachers should consider the level of
language in the jokes and the students' level of
proficiency. In cases where some words in jokes
are too difficult for the students, Pecnik, (2001:
1-3) suggests that teachers can simplify the
words, use synonyms or provide the definitions
of those words. Additionally, they can give
emphasis on the keywords that the students are
not familiar with because it helps them to know
the whole story. She adds that it is important for
teachers to extensively prepare themselves for
a joke-telling activity and they should be
sensitive and prepare students as early as
possible by training them to be familiar with jokes
such as to know parts of jokes and how jokes
are written. This activity helps students to have
the idea to create their own jokes or punchlines.
Pupipat, (2004: 88) also suggests that in
selecting jokes teachers should be aware of
culture bias. This means, the selected jokes
should not be oriented to only one particular
culture or fit well with a particular social context
because students in other cultures or fields of
study may misinterpret the jokes. Pecnik, (2001:
3) adds that teachers should introduce jokes
which closely relate to students' culture because,
if the jokes are far from their social context, they
may not be able to comprehend. Thus, selected
jokes should generally provide comprehensible
situations for students such as jokes about
teachers & students, doctors & patients, family
or animal jokes.
Criteria for Joke Selection
1. There should be no culture bias in the
jokes. This means that the selected jokes are
not restricted to a particular culture because such
jokes may be too difficult for the subjects.
Furthermore, the jokes should be based on
general situations where subjects in every field
of study are familiar with, for example, school
jokes, family jokes, animal jokes, patient and
doctor jokes.
2. Each joke should not contain more than
two idioms because it would be too difficult for
the subjects to understand.
3. The length of each joke should not be
more than half a page.
4. If there are too many difficult words, the
jokes should be simplified or definitions of the
words may be given.
5. All the jokes should cover a variety of
topics and situations.
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Materials
Twenty jokes were used in this study. They
were divided into three groups. The first group,
which included three jokes, was the jokes to
introduce subjects know parts of joke which are
story and punchline (see Appendix A). The
second group, which included two jokes, was
the jokes for training the subjects to write
punchlines (see Appendix B). For these two
jokes, their punchlines were deleted so that they
have the same pattern as the third group. The
third group, which included fifteen jokes, was
the jokes for data collection (see Appendix C).
For these fifteen jokes, they were simplified and
the meanings of some difficult words were
provided. These jokes were further divided into
five groups and each group contains three jokes
for subjects work for a time.
Research Instruments
Subjects' Punchlines
The punchlines were the parts that the
subjects wrote by themselves after reading the
first part (the situation) of the provided jokes. All
together, there were fifteen punchlines written
by each subject for the data analysis. The
subjects could put ideas freely and wrote as many
sentences as they wanted for each punchline.
Semi-Structured Interview
This research instrument was a set of twelve
questions to ask the subjects how they wrote
the punchlines and factors affected their writing.
The interviews, which were recorded by tape
recording, were conducted five times for each
subject after they wrote their own punchlines for
each of the three jokes (see Appendix E).
Methodology
Pre-Experimental Procedure
In this stage, three introducing jokes were
shown to subjects (see Appendix A) and the
subjects learned about the characteristics and
components of jokes. Then, training jokes were
given to subjects to write punchlines. They were
required to read the stories and completed the
punchlines by themselves. After they finished
writing punchlines for the training jokes, the
subjects' punchlines were compared what they
wrote with one another to enable them to see
how each subject got the idea to write the
punchlines and discussed which punchlines were
relevant to the given jokes. This was to help
subjects to learn and see various ways of
writing punchlines for the same jokes. This
activity aimed to elicit the subjects' ideas to
create their own punchlines and prepare them
for the data collection procedure.
While-Experimental Procedure
In the while experimental or data collection
stage, three jokes were provided to the subjects
at a time. Each subject wrote punchlines
individually and then the punchlines were
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collected. When they finished each set of three
jokes, each subject was separately interviewed.
This process was repeated every other day.
Altogether, they met for five times until all
subjects finished all fifteen jokes. To ensure that
the subjects could create proper punchlines, the
researcher requested three raters who were
studying for their MA in English Language
Teaching programme to read all the jokes and
evaluate the subjects punchlines by using the
evaluating checklist. According to this stage, the
researcher explained to the raters how to score
the punchlines based on four criteria; relevance,
communication, creativity and fun (See
Appendix D). The aim of the evaluation was to
find out the qualities of punchlines.
Data Analysis
The punchlines produced by the subjects
(see Appendix C) and the data from semi-
structured interview were analyzed in order to
answer the research question. The scores given
to each punchline were calculated by rating rule:
Finding
Subjects' Difficulties
Though the subjects could compose quality
punchlines for all the 15 jokes, the data obtained
from the semi-structured interviews suggested
that the subjects had difficulties concerning lack
of creative ideas, inappropriate length of jokes,
unfamiliarity with jokes and insufficient language
ability. The examples of subjects' answer show
bellows.
Lack of Creative Ideas: Creative ideas in
this study are needed for subjects in writing
punchlines. It is concerned with understanding
the context in the first part and the situation of
the provided jokes. Then, the subjects had to
react to the situation and to create ideas for the
punchlines. It was found that their creative ideas
were probably affected by other difficulties.
According to the data from the semi-structured
interviews, inappropriate length of jokes and
unfamiliarity with jokes are causes that affected
the subjects' creativity. Firstly, if the first part of
jokes was too long and had a lot of detail, the
situation of the provided jokes would confuse
the subjects.
"…joke number 12 provided a lot of detail, I
was confused, so I did not have creative idea to
write a punchline."
(Subject 1, Interview 4)
On the other hand, if the jokes were too short,
they did not provide enough information for the
subjects to read and to imagine the situation.
Moreover, too short jokes did not give clear
illustration to subjects and they affected them in
creating punchlines. These excerpts support.
"Joke number 1, 2 and 3 were too short and
did not provide enough information to imagine
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along the situation. Consequently, I did not have
clear illustration and creative idea to compose
punchlines."
Inappropriate Length of Jokes: There are
two aspects of the length of jokes i.e. it is either
too long or too short. To define the subjects'
problem with the length of joke, data from the
semi-structured interviews and the number of
words of each joke were analyzed. Actually, the
length of jokes is counted from the first word of
the joke to the last word before the punchline.
The jokes that the subjects indicated as the long
ones were joke 10 (54 words), joke 11 (68 words),
joke 12 (95 words), joke 13 (77 words), joke 14
(92 words) and joke 15 (137 words). Moreover,
the subjects said that these jokes had more
detail and required them to imagine the scene
while they were reading the jokes. The scene
confused the subjects and it was hard for them
to compose punchlines for these jokes. The
following excerpts from the interview support this
point.
"…..joke number 12 was difficult because the
information was long and I had to think a lot along
about the situation in the joke…"
(Subject 3, Interview 4)
It can be concluded that long jokes can
confuse the subjects when they try to
understand the context or the situation provided.
On the other hand, the subjects reported that
some jokes, such as joke 1 (25 words), joke 2
(28 words) and joke 3 (30 words), which were
much shorter, were also difficult for the subjects
to imagine the scene of the jokes. The subjects
informed that some jokes were so short that there
was not enough information for them to think of
the situation. The data from the semi-structured
interviews below illustrate the ideas that this
difficulty obstructed them from composing their
own punchlines.
"….joke number 1, 2 and 3 were difficult
because they didn't give enough information to
read and to imagine."
(Subject 1, Interview 1)
According to the data, the jokes that are too
long or too short directly cause the subjects
difficulty to understand the joke stories. The
reason is that the long jokes could have several
details and they require the subjects to think
more about the situations while reading. On the
opposite, too short jokes do not provide enough
information for them; thus, they had not enough
clues to guide them. The data also show that
the subjects did not have problems with the length
of joke 6 (35 words), joke 7 (33 words), joke 8
(51 words) and joke 9 (31 words). Therefore,
these jokes may be considered as the moderate
length. This may imply that length of jokes could
affect the subjects in composing punchlines (see
4.3.1). However, joke 4 (26 words), which can
be considered as a short joke, did not cause
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any difficulty to the subjects. This makes the
researcher realize that the number of words might
not be the only factor that causes difficulty to
students, as will be described further.
Unfamiliarity with Jokes
Unfamiliarity with jokes in this study means
that the subjects had never read, heard or been
in the same or similar situation to the provided
jokes. When they participated in this study, it
was the subjects' first time to learn about some
of the joke stories. Familiarity seems to be
beneficial to the subjects to comprehend the
jokes. However, unfamiliarity can cause
difficulties either in understanding or writing
punchlines.
Unfamiliarity with jokes that causes
difficulty while reading: While reading the jokes,
if the subjects were not familiar with the context
in the jokes, they could not comprehend the
situation clearly. The data from the semi-
structured interview support this idea.
"Joke number 6 was difficult because I have
never read or told the story or never met the
situation likes joke 6, so I didn't understand the
situation easily."
(Subject 5, Interview 2)
The data suggested that unfamiliarity with
jokes had certain effects on the subjects'
comprehension in reading the jokes.
Consequently, they could not figure out the
situation of these jokes and this could affect
their writing of punchlines.
Unfamiliarity with jokes that causes
difficulty while writing: Actually, the subjects
used their familiarity with the jokes to help them
think about ideas for writing punchlines. On the
contrary, if the subjects were not familiar with
the situation in any joke such as they have never
read or met the situation in the provided jokes,
they would find that it was difficult to compose
punchlines. The data from the semi-structured
interview verify this idea.
"….I have never met the situation or read the
same joke like joke number 1, as a result, I didn't
know what to put in the punchline."
(Subject 3, Interview 1)
These excerpts indicate that unfamiliarity with
jokes is likely to affect the subjects' creativity.
Surprisingly, this finding is not always true as
one subject (subject 1) mentioned that the
content of jokes, which is very close or very
familiar to him, did not challenge him to
compose punchlines. In this case, the subject's
difficulty was influenced by his familiarity, i.e. he
just copied down the punchlines which he had
previously heard or read. From the semi-
structured interviews, this subject informed that
he always told or shared jokes with his friends
and he had heard the provided jokes before.
Therefore, the situation of the jokes was not chal-
lenging for him as he reflected in the following
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excerpts.
"…since I was very familiar with the context
of joke number 5, I kept thinking about the same
old punchline."
(Subject 1, Interview 2)
Insufficient Language Ability: It is worth
noting that the problem with language ability was
the least difficulty the subjects had. However,
their proficiency has some impacts on their
comprehension and creativity while they worked
on the jokes. In other words, the subjects may
have had difficulty with language in reading and/
or writing stage as presented below.
Insufficient language ability that causes
difficulty while reading: The knowledge of
vocabulary or keywords enables the subjects to
understand the main idea of the stories that they
read. On the other hand, if they did not know
keywords, they could be confused with the
stories and could not understand the jokes. The
data from the semi-structured interview verify that
the subjects' language competence could affect
their reading comprehension.
"…I didn't know some words such as
impressive in joke 1 and pills in joke 3."
(Subject 4, Interview 1)
From the excerpts above, the subjects'
insufficient language proficiency could affect their
comprehension of the jokes. This problem can
also affect the writing stage, as further discussed.
Insufficient language ability that causes
difficulty while writing: The subjects' difficulty
with language due to the lack of vocabulary and
knowledge of grammar could happen even after
they had some ideas to create punchlines.
According to the semi-structured interviews, the
subjects informed that they could not express
their ideas into written language and use
vocabulary appropriately. The following data
illustrate what they reflected about this problem.
"I couldn't write the punchlines of joke
number 6 because I didn't know how to make
sentence correctly."
(Subject 8, Interview 2)
The information above reveals that, even
though the subjects had ideas to create
punchlines, they were limited by their language
abilities. They could not make sentences or use
vocabulary in the punchlines appropriately.
How Subjects Manage Difficulties
To write punchlines for jokes, the subjects
had four main difficulties affected by lack of
creative ideas, inappropriate length of jokes,
unfamiliarity with jokes and insufficient language
ability. To overcome these difficulties, they used
a variety of techniques which can be classified
into two main categories: techniques while
trying to understand jokes and composing
punchlines. The following table shows the
subjects' report of how they coped with the
difficulties.
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Table 1 How Subjects manage Difficulties
After eight subjects wrote their own
punchlines (each subject wrote punchlines for
each 15 jokes), the total numbers and the
percentages of subjects' management of
difficultuies show the overview of reported
frequency of the techniques that the subjects
used to deal with difficulties while trying to
understand jokes were re-reading (15.26%),
connecting jokes with own experiences (10.84%),
imagining the scene of the jokes (14.06%), and
translating (4.02%). The ways the subjects
managed their difficulties while composing
punchlines by re-reading (10.12%), connecting
jokes with their own experiences (19.68%),
putting themselves in the situations in the jokes
(7.63%), translating (2.47%) and using keywords
(16.06). Concerning problems while composing
punchlines, the most frequently reported
difficulty in this part was lack of creative ideas.
To manage this problem, the subjects used
keywords, connecting jokes with their own
experiences, re-reading and putting themselves
in the joke with frequencies of 34, 31, 14 and
10, respectively. However, insufficient language
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ability and unfamiliarity with the jokes also
affected the subjects when they composed their
own punchlines. Hence, when the subjects had
difficulty with language ability, they connected
jokes with own experiences, translated, used
keywords, put themselves in the jokes and
re-read. These techniques were reported 8, 6,
6, 3 and 2 times, respectively. Moreover, when
the subjects were unfamiliar with the jokes, they
still used connecting jokes with own experiences,
re-reading and putting themselves in the jokes.
The reported frequencies of these techniques
were 10, 9, and 6, respectively. Each technique
is described in more detail as follows.
Re-reading
The subjects used re-reading to manage their
difficulties both trying to understand jokes and
composing punchlines. However, they had
different purposes in the use of re-reading; they
revealed the reasons why this technique was
used to manage their difficulties, as follows. The
subjects used re-reading while trying to
understand jokes when they met the difficulties
about length of jokes and unfamiliarity with the
content. The subjects could re-read the jokes
more than one time. The example from the
semi-structured interview illustrates this point.
"I never read joke number 10-12 both in Thai
and English….so I read them two to three times.
By reading the first time, I read to know the whole
stories. In the second and the third times, I read
to find the main idea of the jokes…"
(Subject 1, Interview 4)
The purpose of re-reading while composing
punchlines is not the same as the purpose of
re-reading to comprehend the first part of the
jokes. In fact, the subjects re-read in order to
remind themselves and review what they had
understood about the jokes. Moreover, the
subjects said that, if they were unfamiliar with
the situation of the jokes and had not enough
language ability to write the punchlines, re-
reading could help them to cope with their
problems. The example is presented below.
"…joke number 8 was difficult…I solved…
by re-reading the story. It helped me to relate the
joke with my experience to write the punchline."
(Subject 6, Interview 3)
Connecting Jokes with Own Experiences
Connecting the jokes with own experiences
in this study means when the subjects did not
have exactly similar knowledge as the provided
jokes, but they had some personal experience
which might not be directly relevant to the jokes.
Then, they used their own experiences to help
them to cope with the difficulties as presented
below.
The subjects connected the jokes with their
own experiences to understand jokes when they
found that they were not familiar with the
provided joke i.e. the subjects have never been
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in the same situation, read or listened to the
same or similar jokes. Therefore, they linked their
experiences from different situations to the
provided jokes to help them comprehend the
stories.
"When I read joke 4-6, I had to link the
situation of jokes with my own experience which
was not the same as the provided jokes but it
enabled me to understand the jokes."
(Subject 3, Interview 2)
Then, more than half of the subjects used
their own experiences to manage their
difficulties while they were writing the punchlines.
It is also clear that the use of own experiences
helped the subjects to create their own
punchlines. In this case, this technique was
mostly used to solve the problem about lack of
creative ideas.
"…I solved the problem by linking joke
number 12 with my own experience. In order to
compose creative punchline, I linked the joke to
what I read about a party and applied to write
punchline, so I used word swinging."
(Subject 4, Interview 4)
Imagining the Scene of Jokes
Imagining the scene of jokes in this study
means the subjects made illustration and the
scene of the joke stories in their heads to see
the events in jokes. This solution was only used
in the stage while trying to understand the
provided jokes. As shown in the excerpt below,
subject used this technique to understand what
happened in the stories appropriately when they
were unfamiliar with the jokes.
"…I had to imagine the situation in jokes 1, 2
and 3 because it helped me to understand
what happened in the stories appropriately...."
(Subject 1, Interview 1)
Translating
The researcher discovered that the subjects
used their L1 to comprehend the first part of
jokes and compose the punchlines when they
had insufficient language ability. The data
below present the students' solution. The use of
translation in trying to understand the jokes in
this study means that the subjects used L1 as
an aid to process L2. Actually, this technique
was used when subjects had insufficient
language ability. Translating into Thai could help
them understand the jokes more easily.
"…I had to think in Thai when reading joke 1,
2, 3… ."
(Subject 1, Interview 1)
The use of translating while composing
punchlines was employed when the subjects
already had an idea of how to complete the
punchlines, but could not express their idea in
English. They, therefore, translated what they
thought in L1 as illustrated in the following
excerpt.
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"…I didn't know how to express my idea to
write the punchlines for joke number 1, 2 and 3. I
solved the problem by thinking in Thai first and
translated the words into English."
(Subject 2, Interview 1)
Putting Oneself in the Situation in the Jokes
For some subjects who did not have any
experience that could be related to the situation
in the jokes, they put themselves in the jokes to
write the punchlines. This technique was only
used in the stage of composing punchlines in
order to manage the difficulty of unfamiliarity,
insufficient language ability and lack of
creativity. As a subject said in the example in
the excerpts below, he put himself in the
situation and considered what they would say in
the punchlines.
"….I solved the problem by supposing that I
was in that situation, like in joke number 1 and
thought what I would say, if I were that person."
(Subject 3, Interview 1)
Using Keywords
The use of keywords from the first part of
the jokes was only used in the stage of
composing punchlines and it was another
technique that the subjects used to manage the
difficulty of insufficient language ability and lack
of creative ideas. According to the data from
semi-structured interviews, this is what a
subject said.
"…I used keywords which are the main words
such as…clever and sweet in joke 3 as a part in
the punchlines…."
(Subject 1, Interview 1)
To conclude, all of the subjects could write
punchlines for jokes by trying to comprehend
the situation in the jokes before they went through
the writing process. However, they perceived that
writing punchlines is difficult because of four
difficulties: lack of creative ideas, inappropriate
length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes and
insufficient language ability. They dealt with the
difficulty by re-reading the jokes, connecting jokes
with their own experiences, imagining the scene
of the jokes, translating the jokes, putting
themselves in the situation in the jokes and used
keywords.
Subjects' Writing Process
The subjects used writing process, i.e.
planning, drafting, revising and editing when they
attempted to write the punchlines for 15 jokes
as presented in table 3.
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Table 2 Eight Students' Writing Process in Writing Punchlines
It is clear that all the subjects always used
planning and drafting and some of them used
rewriting, i.e. editing and revising. The detail of
each writing process is described as follows:
Planning
In this study, planning was the first stage
and it refers to setting rough ideas for the
punchlines before starting to write. All subjects
knew that the joke readers expect enjoyment
when they read jokes, so jokes should have a
twist to motivate them to laugh. Therefore, the
subjects had a planning stage since they would
like to write funny punchlines. As a punchline is
usually short compared with other written texts,
the subjects revealed that they did not write an
outline of a punchline. In fact, they simply planned
in their mind what they would put in their own
punchlines. Here are some examples of what
subjects mentioned.
"After I had read the first part of jokes, I tried
to understand what they stories were about,I
Eight Subject's Writing Process
Planning
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
120
Editing
2
2
2
3
3
2
0
3
2
0
0
1
2
2
1
25
Revising
2
2
1
2
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
0
0
23
Drafting
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
120
Re-writing
Joke 1
Joke 2
Joke 3
Joke 4
Joke 5
Joke 6
Joke 7
Joke 8
Joke 9
Joke 10
Joke 11
Joke 12
Joke 13
Joke 14
Joke 15
Total of frequency of Writing Process
used by Each Subject
Jokes
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organized the idea…and how I would write the
punchlines…I didn't write any plan actually
before writing punchlines because it was very
short…"
(Subject 4, Interview 2)
It can be implied that the subjects did plan
what to write bout they did not actually write any
word or notes when they organized their ideas
for the punchlines.
Drafting
After the subjects planned to write punchlines
in the previous stage, they wrote their own
punchlines immediately. They said that the
punchlines were short, so they could write what
they had had in mind. The data from semi-
structured interview support this idea.
"…I only thought of what I wanted to say or
what would happen and I wrote immediately."
(Subject 2, Interview 4)
However, the full process of drafting was
not clearly shown in the subjects' writing
process because the punchlines were short
sentences but the subjects actually had process
of drafting for their punchlines after planning to
write.
Revising
After the subjects wrote the punchlines, some
of them checked whether they needed to clarify
the ideas or re-organize any words in the
punchlines. To do so, the subjects imagined
themselves as the joke readers so that they may
know what and how to change what they had
written, as the excerpts below show.
"After I wrote punchlines, I had to check
whether the punchlines were relevant to the
stories or not. Moreover, it was a chance to
re-organize my idea and add some words in my
punchlines…after I finished to write the
punchlines, I supposed that I was a reader and
read my punchlines. I thought that, if it made me
laugh, other readers would laugh."
(Subject 1, Interview 1)
It can be concluded that revising helps the
subjects to re-organize the ideas in their
punchlines. It is noteworthy to say that all
subjects were concerned about their readers and
they not only knew the purpose of writing but
also tried to reach the writing objectives.
Editing
It is found that the subjects edited their
punchlines by focusing on grammar mistakes,
spelling, and sentence structure because they
cared about the accuracy of language. Some
illustrations are quoted below.
"I changed grammar mistake and spelling in
joke 4 and 5 when I finished writing the
punchlines."
(Subject 4, Interview 2)
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The findings indicate that the subjects
attempted to look for their own grammatical
mistakes which are one step of self-directed
learning. This might be because they knew that
their punchlines would be read and checked by
other readers. Having a real reader can be an
inspiration for re-writing. However, the subjects
revealed that they did not use revising and
editing with every joke, because they thought
that their punchlines were already suitable.
It was evident that the subjects engaged in
several stages in the writing process; planning,
drafting, revising and editing to write their own
punchlines. Therefore, it means that their
writing process in writing punchlines for jokes
was similar to the typical writing process for other
types of written texts.
Implication and Recommendations
To enable the subjects to understand jokes
and write punchlines on their own, the following
points should be taken into account.
Length of Jokes: With reference to the
result of this study, it is found that too long jokes
may contain too many new or unfamiliar words
and unfamiliar contexts. Consequently, it was
not easy for the subjects to understand some of
the joke stories and to write proper punchlines
This is supported by Walakanon, (2002: 76) as
he says that too long jokes demotivate subjects
to read through the passage. In addition, he
continues that short jokes were more favourable
to most of his subjects and made them feel
interested to read. However, the findings of this
study indicate that too short jokes can also cause
difficulty to the subjects due to insufficient
information for the subjects to read and imagine
the situation of jokes and thus they could
neither understand nor create punchlines. To
lessen their difficulty caused by inappropriate
length of jokes, teachers who select jokes to
use in a language class should be aware of the
number of words in the jokes. However,
considering only the proper number of words is
not enough to select the jokes because there
are other factors such as types of jokes and
language complexity in jokes which the
teachers should consider, as will be described
further.
Type of Jokes: Although there are several
types of jokes like family jokes, school jokes,
doctor and patient jokes, the jokes selected for
ELT should not include the situations which the
students hardly come across such as business
jokes and political jokes because unfamiliar
contexts will obstruct their comprehensibility.
Alderson, (2000: 46), Carrell, (1988: 245) and
Pupipat, (2004: 88) support that, when teachers
select jokes for their language class, they should
consider that their context should not be too far
from the students' background knowledge.
Another possible way is to encourage students
to choose the jokes that they find funny and not
difficult to understand in terms of context;
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teachers can ask students to create new
punchlines (Pecnik, 2001: 3). With reference to
this study, the proper types of jokes that are
easy for students to understand are animal jokes,
family jokes, school jokes, doctor and patient
jokes and daily life jokes. However, these jokes
should also be considered in terms of language
complexity, as discussed in the following topic.
Language Complexity of Jokes: Another
factor to consider whether the jokes are difficult
to understand or not is the language complexity
or the use of vocabulary and sentence
structures in jokes. Words of high frequency and
uncomplicated structure are appropriate to
students who do not have experience in reading
jokes in English. In case that there are too many
difficult words, teachers should simplify those
words by using synonyms or providing
definitions (Pupipat, 2004: 88), otherwise
students might ignore those words which may
be the keywords of the jokes (Walakanon,
2002: 76). However, too much simplification may
distort the use of language. Therefore, it is
better for the teachers to anticipate their
students' difficulty in comprehending jokes
concerning the language.
Language Preparation: Another way to
solve the problem of language proficiency is to
have language preparation especially for weak
students. Teachers should teach students
reading strategies such as reading for main ideas,
finding keywords and guessing meanings from
context clues. Alternatively, teachers can have
students work together to share ideas about the
jokes before they create the punchlines
individually. To do this, students should have
enough time for the reading stage before they
write the punchlines. Moreover, language
complexity should be simplified.
Recommendation for Further Studies
This study reveals that some students had
language difficulties such as vocabulary and
sentence structure, which are common problems
among Thai students. Therefore, it is interesting
for other researchers to investigate whether jokes
can be used to train students to get the
meaning of unknown words by using context
clues. Moreover, it is interesting to find out what
other possible problems the students might
encounter and how they solve the problems.
Another interesting research study is whether
we can encourage students to learn culture
through jokes. In this study, many types of jokes
such as political jokes and ethnic jokes were not
included since these jokes contain cultural bias.
These jokes may be difficult for students to
understand. However, it is interesting to find out
whether these jokes can be used with advanced
learners to see how they gain the knowledge of
social and cultural aspects of other countries.
Conclusion
This study aims to investigate how students
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write punchlines for jokes. The study was done
with a group of undergraduate students at King
Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi
who had learned about writing and creative
thinking in their compulsory English course while
undertaking this study. Eight subjects were
selected by voluntary basis and trained in the
components of jokes and how to write punchlines.
Then, fifteen jokes were used in the real
procedure. When the subjects finished writing
the punchlines for each three jokes, they were
interviewed about how they wrote their
punchlines individually. According to the findings,
the subjects went through the writing process:
planning, drafting, revising and editing for
writing punchlines. They, however, had some
difficulties in trying to comprehend the jokes and
in writing the punchlines. The data gained
reveal that most of their difficulties were
interrelated and they used various techniques.
However, it can be suggested that jokes are
interesting materials for language teaching such
as they provide funny and relaxing contexts.
Furthermore, jokes can be exploited to motivate
students to promote their thinking skill. Finally, it
is recommended that the use of jokes to teach
context clues and cultural aspects can be
further studied.
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in ESL", English Teaching Forum, Vol. 18,
No. 4, pp. 9, 11.
Walakanon, S., 2002, Using jokes to Raise Thai
University Students' Awareness Of
Multiple-meaning of Vocabulary in
English, Master of Arts, Applied Linguistics
for English Language Teaching, School of
Liberal of Arts, King Mongkut's University of
Technology Thonburi, pp. 1, 39, 76, 78.
Webster, 1913, Webster's Dictionary, [Online],
Available: www.google.com, [2004, June 8],
p. 7.
Woolfolk, A. E., 1993, Educational Psychology,
Allyn and Bacon, Boston, pp. 336-337.
Appendix A: Jokes for Introducing Punchlines
Joke 1
One Sunday, a preacher told his congre-
gation, "I have good news and bad news." The
good news is that we have enough money to
pay for your new building program. "The bad
news is that it is still out there in your pockets."
www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html
preacher is someone whose job is to give
religious speeches or lead religious ceremonies
in some Christian churches.
congregation is a group of people gathered
together for a religious service.
Joke 2
Lunch
The teacher of the Earth Science class was
lecturing on map reading.
After explaining about latitude, longitude,
degrees and minutes the teacher asked,
176
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
"Suppose I asked you to meet me for lunch at
23 degrees, 4 minutes north latitude and 45
degrees, 15 minutes east longitude...?"
After a confused silence, a voice volunteered,
"I guess you' d be eating alone."
www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html
Joke 3
Jane: Do you like this cake?
Sally: OK! Where did you buy it?
Jane: I made it by myself. Is it delicious?
Sally: I think, if it's possible, you should buy it.
Jane: Why?
Sally: "You taste your cake first."
www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html
Appendix B: Jokes for Training writing
punchlines
Joke 1
Elephant keeper: "My elephant isn't well. Do
you know a good animal doctor?"
Zookeeper"……………….………………
………………………………………………..…"
www.justjoking.com
Joke 2
Sam: "Can you see the movie screen clearly?”
Pam: "Yes, thank you."
Sam: "No one is blocking your view?”
Pam: "Oh no, I can see perfectly."
Sam: "And you're comfortable?"
Pam: "Very comfortable."
Sam "…………………………...……………
………………………………....................……"
www.justjoking.com
Appendix C: Examples of Jokes for Data and
Subjects' Punchlines
Joke 3
Brother: "Why are you so clever?"
Sister: "I take clever pills."
Brother: "Let me have some, then."
Sister: "Take two of these."
Brother: "These aren't pills-they're just sweets."
Sister: "……………………….....……………
……………………………………………………"
www.justjoking.com
pill is a small piece of solid medicine that
you swallow with water: sleeping/contraceptive/
vitamin pills.
Students' punchlines
Subject 1 Oh! My brother! you are clever
already. You know, it is only sweet.
Subject 2 "Oh! You are still stupid, it is not
sweet, but it's sour."
Subject 3 "Now, you are clever, you know, it is
candy."
Joke 4
Teacher: John, how do you spell "crocodile"?
John: "K - R - O - K - O - D - A - I - L"
Teacher: No, that's wrong.
John: Maybe it's wrong, but "…...………
………………….………………………………."
177
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
www.lotsofjokes.com
Students' punchlines
Subject 1 Maybe it's wrong, but "If I didn't spell
like this, how I know, it's wrong."
Subject 2 Maybe it's wrong, but "It's still
CROCODILE."
Subject 3 Maybe it's wrong, but "KROKODAIL"
is new species."
Joke 7
Little Johnny was playing in the garden and
looking angrily into the sunlight with half-shut
eyes.
His mother came out and said "Why don't
you move out of the sun?"
Johnny answered…………….....………..
….............………………………………………"
www.jokepalace.com/main
Students' punchlines
Subject 1 "I think, I don't need to escape,
because I came first."
Subject 2 "No", "Why didn't the sun escape me
first?"
Subject 3 "I am not dead walker, I am not afraid
the sun."
Joke 8
A man was walking down the street when
he saw a little boy with a dog.
"Does your dog bite?" he asked.
"No", said the boy.
The man bent down to pat the dog and was
immediately bitten.
"I thought you said your dog didn't bite", he
complained.
The boy said, "…………......……………...…
………………………………….....………………"
www.jokepalace.com/main
Students' punchlines
Subject 1 "Sure", it is not my dog", "I don't know
whose' s dog?"
Subject 2 "The dog didn't bite but I didn't say
you can touch its head."
Subject 3 "My dog never bite but it isn't my
dog."
Appendix D: Form of Evaluation of Punchlines
Criteria to evaluate punchline for the joke
Evaluator 1 2 3 Subject number ……..
Score
5 = the most 4 = more 3 = average
2 = less 1 = the lest
Give the score for subjects' punchline by
following the criteria below.
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��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Appendix E: Questions of Semi-Structured
Interview
1. Have you ever read the provided jokes
in Thai or English before? If so, please tell the
number of jokes. Did you think, if you have read
the provided jokes, it has the effect with writing
punchlines?
2. How many times did you read the first
part of jokes before you completed them? Why?
3. Did you imagine the scene when you
read the jokes? How does this behavior help
you? Why? Please tell the number of jokes.
4. Did you organize the idea before you
write punchlines? How?
5. Did you note down or write what you
want before you write the punchlines? Please
explain.
6. Did you think in Thai before you
complete the jokes? Please tell the number of
jokes.
7. Did you use vocabulary, phrase or
sentence to be a part of punchlines? Please
explain.
8. From the provided jokes, did you think
what numbers of jokes were difficult for you?
Why? How could you manage the difficulties in
Relevance Communication Creativity Fun
Punchline of Joke
Number 1 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
2 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
3 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
4 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
5 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
6 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
7 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
8 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
9 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
10 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
11 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
12 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
13 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
14 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
15 ________ _____________ ________ ___________
Criteria
179
��������������� PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL
Charisopon Inthapat received his Master Degree in Applied Linguis-
tics in English Language Teaching from King Mongkut's University of
Technology Thonburi and Bachelor Degree in Business Administration
in Accounting of Siam University. Present, he is part time instructor at
King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, South-East Asia
University and Sripatum University (Chonburi). In part, he was part time
instructor at Bangkok University and Panyapiwat Institute of Technology
Dr. Ananya Tuksinwarajarn received her B.Ed. (SWU), M.Ed. (SWU),
Cert. (Talkbase, AIT) Ph.D. Education-TESOL (The University of
Mississippi.). She is currently a lecturer at King Mongkut's University of
Technology Thonburi.
Kunlawadee Yamket received her B.A. (CU), M.Ed. (CU), M.Sc.
(Aston U. in Birmingham, UK.). She is currently a lecturer at King
Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi.
writing punchlines?
9. Did you relate the situation and your
previous experience when you read the jokes?
Please explain.
10. Did you re-read or check the stories
when you finished punchlines? Why?
11. (From item 10) Did you change or
re-write your punchlines after you complete
jokes? How?
12. Did you think, what make you laugh,
when you read the jokes? How can you make
the jokes in order to motivate the readers to
laugh?
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183
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Dr. Dome Kraipakorn received his Doctoral Degree in History from
Chulalongkorn University, and Master of History from Thammasat
University. He is currently Lecturer in Faculty of Liberal Arts,
Panyapiwat Institute of Technology
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Wolfe, Christopher & Loraas, Tina. (2008). Knowledge sharing: the effects of incentives, environment,
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Treeson, Lauren. (2009). Exploring a KM process for retaining critical capabilities. Retrieved February
11, 2009, from KM Edge: Where the Best in KM Come Together Web site: http://kmedge.org/
2009/03/knowledge-management-process-retaining-critical-capabilities.html
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