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DOI: 10.1542/pir.22-10-3492001;22;349Pediatrics in Review
Gisela Chelimsky and Steven CzinnPeptic Ulcer Disease in Children
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Peptic Ulcer Disease in ChildrenGisela Chelimsky, MD,*and Steven Czinn, MD Objectives After completing this article, readers should be able to:
1. Describe the different mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease.
2. Recognize the presenting symptoms of peptic ulcer disease and the differential diagno-
sis of those symptoms in children.
3. Clarify the role of endoscopic procedures in pediatric peptic ulcer disease.
4. Describe the role ofHelicobacter pylori in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease.
5. Review the medications and dosages commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer
disease and H pylori infection in children.
IntroductionDuring the past decade, it has been estimated that peptic ulcer disease has affected more
than 4 million people in the United States annually. For much of the last century, the
pathogenesis of this disease was believed to be due to a number of predisposing factors, the
most important of which was the hypersecretion of gastric acid. The development of
pediatric flexible fiberoptic endoscopes that allowed the gastroenterologist to obtain
gastric biopsies and identification of the microorganism Helicobacter pylorihave changed
our understanding of gastritis in children.
PathogenesisAcid-peptic inflammation is believed to occur when there is an imbalance between
cytotoxic and cytoprotective factors in the upper gastrointestinal tract. The toxic mecha-
nisms include acid, pepsin, medications such as aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs, bile acids, and infection with H pylori. The defensive or cytoprotective mechanisms
include the mucous layer, local bicarbonate secretion, and mucosal blood flow.
Acid secretion from the parietal cells can be stimulated by three secretagogues:
histamine via the paraendocrine pathway, acetylcholine via the neuroendocrine pathway,
and gastrin via the endocrine pathway. Each employs a different mode of delivery to its
target, the oxyntic cell. Acethylcholine is released at the vagal cholinergic terminals near
the oxyntic cells (or parietal cell). Gastrin is released by the G cells in the antral and
duodenal mucosa and is carried by the blood to the oxyntic cells. Histamine is released by
mast-like cells of the lamina propria of the oxyntic (acid-secreting) mucosa into the
extracellular fluid, through which it diffuses to the adjacent oxyntic cells. The final
common pathway for all acid secretion within the parietal cell is the proton pump (H/K
ATPase). With each proton (H) secreted into the gastric lumen by the proton pump, a
chloride ion also is secreted. The secretion of pepsin, enzymes that hydrolyze proteins, alsois stimulated by factors that promote gastric acid secretion. The precursor of pepsin,
pepsinogen, is secreted by the chief cells and is converted to the active form at an acidic pH
(5). Finally, medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and acetazol-
amide inhibit the bicarbonate secretion.
The primary mechanism by which the host prevents the development of peptic ulcer
disease is secretion of mucus by superficial epithelial cells and mucus cells from glands
throughout the stomach. The thick mucous layer retards the diffusion of acid from the
lumen to the gastric mucosal surface, thereby protecting the gastric epithelium. In addition
*Department of Pediatrics.Chief, Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Rainbow Babies and Childrens Hospital and Case
Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH.
Article gastroenterology
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to secretion of mucus, protection is increased by the
secretion of bicarbonate, which produces a pH gradient,with decreasing acidity on the epithelial side that mini-
mizes the deleterious effect of the low pH. The stomach
and duodenum produce bicarbonate. The mechanisms
involved in bicarbonate secretion include vagal-mediated
stimulation as well as HCO3 secretion stimulated by
acid in the lumen, both in the stomach and duodenum.
Clinical PresentationRecurrent epigastric abdominal pain is the hallmark
symptom of acid-peptic disease, and in many cases, there
is a family history of peptic ulcer disease. Other associatedbut less specific symptoms include nocturnal pain that
awakens the child from sleep, postprandial pain, oral
regurgitation, and vomiting. Less frequently, the child
may present with upper gastrointestinal bleeding, occult
blood in the feces, and weight loss. Finally, although
primarily associated with functional abdominal pain,
periumbilical abdominal pain, when seen with other
symptoms, may be a presentation of peptic ulcer disease.
Unfortunately, the symptoms described previously may
not indicate a specific etiology of acid-peptic disease; they
also can result from other medical conditions such as
parasitic infections, pancreatitis, Crohn disease, biliary/hepatic disease, lactose intolerance, or H pyloriinfection.
In this era of medical cost containment, it is critical to
develop a systematic approach for the evaluation of a
child who has recurrent abdominal pain that can discrim-
inate between functional and organic etiologies. Dyspep-
sia is a syndrome of nonspecific symptoms related to the
upper gastrointestinal tract that are intermittent or con-
tinuous for at least 2 months duration. We have devel-
oped major and minor criteria that we believe will help
the physician determine which child who has symptoms
of dyspepsia should undergo further evaluation (manu-
script in preparation). Two major and nine minor clinical
criteria have been identified (Table 1). A child who has
abdominal pain must have a constellation of signs or
symptoms that includes either both major criteria, one
major and two minor criteria, or four minor criteria to
justify an extensive medical evaluation and possible refer-
ral to a pediatric gastroenterologist for identification of
an organic etiology. A child who has met the criteria for
the diagnosis of dyspepsia as defined previously has a
high likelihood of having an organic etiology for the
abdominal pain. Such children are ideal candidates for
referral to the pediatric gastroenterologist.
EvaluationA careful history should focus particularly on symptoms
such as epigastric abdominal pain, nocturnal pain, oral
regurgitation, heartburn, weight loss, hematemesis, and
melena. In addition, a dietary history should be obtained
in an effort to identify specific foods that increasethe pain
(fatty meals, spicy foods, lactose, and caffeine-containingbeverages). The child and family should be asked about
the use of potentially causative medications (eg, nonste-
roidal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids), alcohol,
tobacco, and acid-suppressive medications. Many chil-
dren already are being treated with over-the-counter
antacids or histamine2 (H2)-receptor antagonists. It is
important to review the doses of acid-suppressive medi-
cations being used because a lack of response may be due
to inadequate dosing or frequency of administration. On
the other hand, relief of symptoms may indicate acid-
peptic disease or functional dyspepsia. Finally, particu-
larly in teen-age females, abdominal pain, heartburn,regurgitation, weight loss, vomiting, and hematemesis
can be sentinel signs of unsuspected eating disorders.
Physical ExaminationThe physical examination begins with the vital signs and
weight and height. Anthropometric measurements
should be plotted on age- and gender-appropriate
growth curves, and current parameters compared with
previous ones if available. A funduscopic examination
should be performed in children whose predominant
complaint is emesis. Examination of the mouth and
oropharynx may demonstrate the presence of aphthous
Table 1. Major and Minor Criteriafor the Diagnosis of Dyspepsia
Major Criteria
Epigastric abdominal painRecurrent vomiting (at least 3 /mo)
Minor Criteria
Symptoms associated with eating (anorexia/weightloss)
Pain awakening the child at nightHeartburnOral regurgitationChronic nauseaExcessive belching/hiccupingEarly satietyPeriumbilical abdominal painFamily history of peptic ulcer disease, dyspepsia, or
irritable bowel syndrome
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ulcers (in some instances an early manifestation of Crohn
disease) or dental enamel erosion, a manifestation of
chronic gastroesophageal reflux in children.
Examination of the lungs can reveal wheezing (bron-
chospasm can be due to or exacerbated by gastroesoph-
ageal reflux). The abdomen should be palpated carefully
to determine areas of tenderness. The liver span should
be measured (to determine hepatomegaly) and the pres-
ence of an enlarged spleen documented (portal hyperten-
sion). A rectal examination also should be performed to
evaluate for perianal disease, a common finding in Crohndisease, and occult blood in feces. The fingers should be
examined for clubbing (Crohn disease) and for changes
associated with self-induced vomiting.
Laboratory StudiesLaboratory evaluations should be based on the present-
ing symptoms and findings on physical examination. The
initial evaluation should include a complete blood count
with differential count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate,
liver function test, measurement of electrolytes, and ex-
amination of the stool for ova and parasites. Finally,
particularly for females who have abdominal pain, aurinalysis and urine culture should be obtained. Further
tests are performed as indicated by the associated clinical
symptoms (Table 2).
When Should Endoscopy Be Performed?If dyspepsia is diagnosed based on the previous criteria,
results of initial screening tests are normal, and the child
has no history of hematemesis, melena, or occult blood
in the stool, a trial of H2-receptor antagonists may be
offered for 2 to 4 weeks. Lack of improvement or inabil-
ity to wean the medication due to relapse in symptoms is
an indication for upper endoscopy. Other indications for
endoscopy include the evaluation of gastrointestinal
bleeding or an abnormality found on upper gastrointes-
tinal radiographic series, odynophagia, refusal to eat, and
persistent unexplained vomiting. When an upper endos-
copy is performed, biopsies always should be obtained
from the esophagus, duodenum, and gastric antrum. If
the child already has been treated with H2-blockers or
proton pump inhibitors, biopsies of the body of the
stomach should be obtained to evaluate for the presence
ofH pylori. The finding of mild nonspecific inflammation
in the absence of H pylori infection should allow thephysician to diagnose nonulcer dyspepsia if the remain-
der of the evaluation is unremarkable.
Role of H pylori InfectionBased on prevalence studies, H pyloriis among the most
common bacterial infections in humans. In 1982, Mar-
shall and Warren successfully cultured H pylori from the
gastric antrum and proved the association of H pylori
infection with peptic ulcer disease. H pylori are gram-
negative, S-shaped rods that are 0.5 3.0 micrometers
in length and produce enzymes such as urease, catalase,
and oxidase. H pylori require a microaerobic environ-ment for culture, reflecting their environmental niche in
the semipermeable mucous layer overlying the gastric
epithelium. Although all children infected with H pylori
appear to develop chronic-active gastritis, most appar-
ently have asymptomatic infections, which may never
lead to clinically evident disease. Only a minority of
children develops peptic ulceration or gastric cancer, the
more severe manifestations ofHelicobacterinfection.
The method of acquisition and transmission of H
pyloriis unclear, although the most likely mode of trans-
mission is fecal-oral, which is supported by the finding of
viable H pylori in feces. Risk factors, such as minimal
Table 2. Additional Diagnostic Studies Based on the Primary Presenting
Signs and SymptomsSymptom/Signs Test Condition Evaluated
Vomiting Upper gastrointestinal series Gastric outlet obstruction, malrotationVomiting and abdominal pain Amylase and lipase PancreatitisRight upper quadrant pain Liver function tests/ultrasonography of
the liver and gallbladderHepatobiliary disease
Elevated erythrocytesedimentation rate, bloodin feces, anemia, weightloss
Upper gastrointestinal series withsmall bowel follow-through andcolonoscopy
Inflammatory bowel disease or other systemicinflammatory conditions
Bloating, increased burping,or flatus
Lactose hydrogen breath test Lactose intolerance and small bowel bacterialovergrowth
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education and low socioeconomic status during child-
hood, influence the prevalence. The mechanism bywhich H pyloricauses gastric inflammation is unclear, but
one factor that may account for the gastric damage is the
large amount of urease present in H pylori. Urease hy-
drolyzes urea to ammonia and bicarbonate at the gastric
mucosal surface. Ammonia can be directly toxic to epi-
thelial cells, and the concomitant increase in the mucosal
surface pH might interfere with gastric epithelial func-
tion, such as production of mucus. In addition to urease,
the H pylorivacuolating cytotoxin
has been the focus of intense in-
vestigation for several years.
Cytotoxin-producing strains tend
to be more virulent than toxin-
negative ones.
H pylori not only produces
chronic active gastritis and duode-
nal ulcers, but chronic coloniza-
tion ultimately may predispose an
individual to a significantly in-
creased risk of developing gastric
cancer or mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
lymphoma. H pylori has been classified as a group I
carcinogen by the World Health Organization. The rel-
ative risk of gastric carcinoma is 2.3 to 8.7 times greater
in infected adults compared with uninfected subjects.However, only 1% of H pylori-infected individuals ever
develop gastric cancer. Finally, H pylori is only one of
many risk factors in the cascade that leads to gastric
cancer and, therefore, does not yet justify the eradication
ofH pylori in early life.
The association of H pylori and recurrent abdominal
pain is more controversial. With the exception of one
study, there does not appear to be an association between
H pylori infection and an increased prevalence of recur-
rent abdominal pain. Therefore, routine evaluation for H
pylori in patients who do not have symptoms of acid-
peptic disease is not warranted. There is no clear evidencethat treatment of H pylori will alleviate symptoms in
children who have recurrent abdominal pain and H pylori
gastritis.
Diagnostic Tests for H pylori InfectionSeveral enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based
commercial kits that measure anti-H pyloriserum immu-
noglobulin G (IgG) antibody titers are available for
adults. The sensitivity and specificity of these tests in
children are variable and seem to depend on the test
used. Children younger than age 10 years seem to have
more false-negative serologies. Therefore, a negative se-
rology does not rule out infection in young children.
Serology also is not useful for demonstrating successfuleradication ofH pylori infection.
The 13C-urea breath test offers some important ad-
vantages over the serologic tests. It is noninvasive, easy to
perform, and easy to repeat to evaluate response to
treatment. This test measures bacterial colonization in
gastric mucosa. It currently is not approved by the
United States Food and Drug Administration for the
pediatric population.
Recently, guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment
of H pylori infection in children were endorsed by
the American Academy of Pediatrics and published
(Drumm, 2000). Based on the current available data,
these guidelines do not recommend the use of serologyor urea breath test for diagnosis of H pylori infection in
children. The guidelines only recommend endoscopy
with biopsy for the evaluation of children who have
symptoms consistent with peptic ulcer disease. The pur-
pose of the endoscopy is to identify organic etiologies for
the dyspepsia, not simply to screen for H pylori.
Treatment of Acid-Peptic DiseaseTreatment and dosing of medications are listed in Table
3. The medications prescribed for acid-peptic disease
include H2-receptor antagonists, proton pump inhibi-
tors, cytoprotective agents, and anticholinergic agents.The first-line drugs used are H2-blockers, and proton
pump inhibitors are prescribed when the patient has no
response to H2-blockers. Cytoprotective agents are use-
ful if mucosal lesions are present. Anticholinergic medi-
cations seldom are used.
H2
-Receptor AntagonistsThe most commonly used agents are cimetidine, raniti-
dine, and famotidine. These agents are highly selective,
reversible, competitive antagonists to the action of hista-
mine on H2-receptors. They decrease the volume of
gastric secretions as well as the amount of gastric acid
Recent guidelines for the diagnosisof H pylori infection in children onlyrecommend endoscopy with biopsy forevaluation of those who have symptomsconsistent with peptic ulcer disease.
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secreted. Possible side effects of cimetidine are diarrhea,
rash, myalgias, confusion, neutropenia, gynecomastia,
elevated liver function tests, and dizziness. Ranitidine
may produce headache, gastrointestinal disturbance,
malaise, insomnia, sedation, arthralgia, and hepatotoxic-
ity. Famotidine may cause headache, dizziness, constipa-
tion, diarrhea, and drowsiness.
Proton Pump InhibitorsThe proton pump inhibitors, omeprazole and lansopra-
zole, are irreversible inhibitors of H/KATPase. They
are potent inhibitors of gastric acid secretion. Potential
side effects include headache, diarrhea, nausea, and vom-
iting for omeprazole and headache and diarrhea for
lansoprazole.
Cytoprotective AgentsSucralfate is a sucrose octasulfate and polyaluminum
hydroxide complex that acts as a cytoprotective agent. It
forms a sticky gel that adheres to injured mucosa at a pHof less than 4. In the duodenum, where the pH is greater
than 4, sucralfate maintains its adherent properties. It is
contraindicated in children who have renal failure.
Anticholinergic AgentsAtropine and related anticholinergic agents have been
used for decades in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease,
but they usually are not effective as single agents. Low-
dose anticholinergic agents in adults augment the effect
of the H2-receptor antagonists on food-stimulated acid
secretion in those who have duodenal ulcers. Piranzepine
is a muscarinic antagonist agent that has selectivity for
gastric secretion but no effect on the cardiovascular
system in doses required for the treatment of acid hyper-
secretion. Imipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant agent
that has anticholinergic effects, also has been used to
inhibit gastric acid.
Table 4. Three RecommendedCombination EradicationTherapies for H pylori-associatedDisease in Children
Medications DoseDuration ofTreatment
Amoxicillin 50 mg/kg per daydivided bid
14 days
Clarithromycin 15 mg/kg per day
divided bid
14 days
Proton pump inhibitor 1 mg/kg per daydivided bid
1 month
Amoxicillin 50 mg/kg per daydivided bid
14 days
Metronidazole 20 mg/kg per daydivided bid
14 days
Proton pump inhibitor 1 mg/kg per daydivided bid
1 month
Clarithromycin 15 mg/kg per daydivided bid
14 days
Metronidazole 20 mg/kg per daydivided bid
14 days
Proton pump inhibitor 1 mg/kg per daydivided bid
1 month
Table 3. Medications Used in the Treatment of Acid-Peptic Disease
Medication Pediatric Dose How Supplied
H2
-receptor AntagonistsCimetidine 20 to 40 mg/kg per day up to 400 mg
twice dailySyrup: 300 mg/5 mL; Tablets: 200, 300,
400, and 800 mgFamotidine 1 to 1.2 mg/kg per day up to 20 mg
twice dailySyrup: 40 mg/5 mL; Tablets: 20 and 40 mg
Ranitidine 2 to 4 mg/kg per day up to 150 mgtwice daily
Syrup: 75 mg/5 mL; Tablets: 150 and300 mg
Proton Pump InhibitorsLansoprazole 0.8 mg/kg per day Capsules: 15 and 30 mgOmeprazole 0.8 mg/kg per day, effective dosage
range of 0.3 to 3.3 mg/kg per 24 hrhas been reported
Capsules: 10 and 20 mg
Cytotoprotective AgentsSucralfate 40 to 80 mg/kg per day up to 1 g
four times/daySuspension: 1 g/5 mL; Tablets: 1 g
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Treatment of H pylori Infection
Compliance is a very important factor in achieving erad-ication of H pylori in children. Several regimens have
been published, including 1-week therapy with colloidal
bismuth subcitrate, clarithromycin, and metronidazole
(eradication in 21/22 children [95%]) and 1-week treat-
ment with lansoprazole, amoxicillin, and clarithromycin
(eradication rate of 87%). Treatment for 2 weeks with
metronidazole, clarithromycin, and omeprazole was
successful in 93% of children treated. Although con-
cerns have been expressed about the use of bismuth
salts in children, none of the potential side effects has
been reported when used for the treatment ofH pylori
infection. Table 4 summarizes the three recommended
eradication therapies for H pylori-associated disease in
children.
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gastroenterology peptic ulcer disease
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PIR QuizQuiz also available online at www.pedsinreview.org
6. A 6-year-old boy has had intermittent periumbilical abdominal pain for the past 2 months. The pain hasawakened him frequently at night and has been associated with nausea and loss of appetite. Thesefindings are least suggestive of a diagnosis of:
A. Acid-peptic disease.B. Biliary tract disease.C. Crohn disease.D. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis.E. Functional abdominal pain.
7. A 9-year-old girl is diagnosed with dyspepsia without hematemesis, melena, or occult blood in the stool.
Results of screening tests are normal. The most appropriate next step is:A. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy.B. Trial of omeprazole.C. Trial of ranitidine.D. Trial of sulcralfate.E. Upper gastrointestinal radiographic series.
8. Helicobacter pylori infection in a child is most likely to result in:
A. Chronic active gastritis.B. Duodenal carcinoma.C. Gastric carcinoma.D. Nonulcer dypepsia.E. Peptic ulcer.
9. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, H pylori infection in children is diagnosed mostaccurately by:
A. Biopsy.B. Hydrogen breath test.C. Serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies.D. Serum IgM antibodies.E. Urea breath test.
10. Triple therapy recommended for childhood H pylori infections always includes:
A. Aminoglycosides.B. Beta-lactams.
C. Histamine2 blockers.D. Macrolides.E. Proton pump inhibitors.
gastroenterology peptic ulcer disease
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DOI: 10.1542/pir.22-10-3492001;22;349Pediatrics in Review
Gisela Chelimsky and Steven CzinnPeptic Ulcer Disease in Children
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