Paper Identification 101Nic Butler, Ph.D.Charleston County Public LibrarySpecial Collections
What is Paper?
What is Paper?Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibers
What is Paper?Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibersTypically made from vegetable fibers composed of cellulose
What is Paper?Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibersTypically made from vegetable fibers composed of cellulosePaper begins as a fibrous pulp separated from wood, cotton, grass, etc., by a mechanical or chemical or process
What is Paper?Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibersTypically made from vegetable fibers composed of cellulosePaper begins as a fibrous pulp separated from wood, cotton, grass, etc., by a mechanical or chemical processPaper is an organic substance that breaks down over time and can become weak, brittle, and discolored
OutlineHandmade PaperMachine-made PaperBlue PaperNewspaperAcidic PaperKraft PaperPh TestingShameless Self-Promotion
Handmade Paper
Screening Pulp from a Vat
Drying sheets of paper
Laid Paper
Laid PaperMade one sheet at a time in a frame or mould
Laid PaperMade one sheet at a time in a frame or mouldLaid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mould
Laid PaperMade one sheet at a time in a frame or mouldLaid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mouldChain lines = Bolder parallel lines about one to two inches apart formed by thicker wires that secure the laid wires to the mould
Laid PaperMade one sheet at a time in a frame or mouldLaid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mouldChain lines = Bolder parallel lines about one to two inches apart formed by thicker wires that secure the laid wires to the mouldWatermark = Distinguishable letter, image, or symbol incorporated into paper during the manufacturing process
Laid PaperMade one sheet at a time in a frame or mouldLaid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mouldChain lines = Bolder parallel lines about one to two inches apart formed by thicker wires that secure the laid wires to the mouldWatermark = Distinguishable letter, image, or symbol incorporated into paper during the manufacturing processGrain is parallel to the chain lines
A Paper Mould
A Paper MouldLaid Lines
A Paper MouldChain LineLaid Lines
A Paper MouldChain LineLaid LinesWaterMark
Viewing a watermark
Watermark designs
1742 English Book
1742 English Book
1742 Book: laid & chain lines
1742 Book: watermark
Machine-Made Paper
Fourdrinier Machine
Fourdrinier Machine1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France
Fourdrinier Machine1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France18047: first machines built in England
Fourdrinier Machine1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France18047: first machines built in England1817: machine imitated in U.S.
Fourdrinier Machine1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France18047: first machines built in England1817: machine imitated in U.S.1827: first true Fourdrinier machine in U.S.
Fourdrinier Machine1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France18047: first machines built in England1817: machine imitated in U.S.1827: first true Fourdrinier machine in U.S.Basis of modern papermaking machines
Fourdrinier Machine, 1850s
Fourdrinier Machine, early 1900s
Rolls of modern paper
Wove Paper
Wove PaperAll machine-made paper is wove paper
Wove PaperAll machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollers
Wove PaperAll machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollersUniform wire mesh creates even density
Wove PaperAll machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollersUniform wire mesh creates even density Watermark can be created by using a dandy roll (with a soldered wire pattern)
Wove PaperAll machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollersUniform wire mesh creates even density Watermark can be created by using a dandy roll (with a soldered wire pattern)Grain is harder to determine, but is usually parallel to the length of the sheet
1816 Wove Paper
1817 Laid Paper
Dandy RollCreates a watermark on wove paper
Wove Paper Watermark (1823)
Wove Paper Watermark (1823)
Wove Paper Watermark (1823)
Blue Paper
Early Blue Paper
Early Blue PaperVenetian Blue (15th16th centuries)
Early Blue PaperVenetian Blue (15th16th centuries)Bleue Hollande (17th18th centuries)
Early Blue PaperVenetian Blue (15th16th centuries)Bleue Hollande (17th18th centuries)Prussian Blue dye introduced in early 1700s
Early Blue PaperVenetian Blue (15th16th centuries)Bleue Hollande (17th18th centuries)Prussian Blue dye introduced in early 1700sIndigo: most widespread dye in textile and paper production
Early Blue PaperVenetian Blue (15th16th centuries)Bleue Hollande (17th18th centuries)Prussian Blue dye introduced in early 1700sIndigo: most widespread dye in textile and paper production Insoluble in water, so it requires chemical additives like urine to break downIndigo dye not suited to mass production of textiles
1742 English Book . . .
. . . was bound with Blue Laid Paper
1742 Blue Laid Paper (detail)
19th Century Blue Paper
19th Century Blue PaperSpike in U.S. production, 1840s1860s
19th Century Blue PaperSpike in U.S. production, 1840s1860sRecycling of Levi Strausss denim jeans?
19th Century Blue PaperSpike in U.S. production, 1840s1860sRecycling of Levi Strausss denim jeans?No, Levis denim introduced in the 1870s
19th Century Blue PaperSpike in U.S. production, 1840s1860sRecycling of Levi Strausss denim jeans?No, Levis denim introduced in the 1870s1828: Discovery of synthetic urea in Germany
19th Century Blue PaperSpike in U.S. production, 1840s1860sRecycling of Levi Strausss denim jeans?No, Levis denim introduced in the 1870s1828: Discovery of synthetic urea in Germany1830s: Use of indigo in the textile industry expands rapidly
19th Century Blue PaperSpike in U.S. production, 1840s1860sRecycling of Levi Strausss denim jeans?No, Levis denim introduced in the 1870s1828: Discovery of synthetic urea in Germany1830s: Use of indigo in the textile industry expands rapidly1840s: Recycled indigo rags become paper
1854 Blue Laid Paper
1854 Blue Wove Paper
Newspaper
Newspaper
Newspaper17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper
Newspaper17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper1810s: European machine-made paper enables newspapers to be printed cheaply in larger quantities
Newspaper17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper1810s: European machine-made paper enables newspapers to be printed cheaply in larger quantities1850s: newspapers still +-100% rag content
Newspaper17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper1810s: European machine-made paper enables newspapers to be printed cheaply in larger quantities1850s: newspapers still +-100% rag content1880s: wood pulp largely replaces cotton pulp
1818 N.Y. Evening PostPrinted on cotton rag wove paper
1830 New York MirrorPrinted on cotton rag wove paper
Acidic Paper
Increasing Acidity of Paper
Increasing Acidity of Paper1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany
Increasing Acidity of Paper1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany1867: Use of calcium bisulfite to chemically pulp wood patented in the U.S.
Increasing Acidity of Paper1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany1867: Use of calcium bisulfite to chemically pulp wood patented in the U.S. 1874: First commercial sulfite pulping mill built in Sweden
Increasing Acidity of Paper1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany1867: Use of calcium bisulfite to chemically pulp wood patented in the U.S. 1874: First commercial sulfite pulping mill built in SwedenDominant method of pulping wood into the 1930sResults in a paper with high acid content
1864 Confederate newsprint
1864 Confederate newsprintMade with inferior materials (probably a combination of cotton rag and wood pulp)
1859 Charleston Directory contains acidic paper
and some alkaline paper ...
and some acidic color adverts
and an advert for paper
Note the variety of laid and wove paper
1914 Acidic Paper
1931 acidic French paper
Kraft Paper
Kraft Process
Kraft Process1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength)
Kraft Process1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength)1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in Sweden
Kraft Process1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength)1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in SwedenUses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulp
Kraft Process1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength)1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in SwedenUses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulpProduces stronger paper with less lignin than the sulfite process--less likely to discolor
Kraft Process1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength)1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in SwedenUses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulpProduces stronger paper with less lignin than the sulfite process--less likely to discolorBy 1940 is dominant method of pulping wood
Kraft Process1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength)1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in SwedenUses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulpProduces stronger paper with less lignin than the sulfite process--less likely to discolorBy 1940 is dominant method of pulping woodWell suited to pulping resinous wood like pine
Ph Testing
Ph Testing PensResults are often difficult to interpret
Ph Testing KitUse with clean, Ph neutral, distilled water
1799 Document
1799 document = Acidic
Two 1801 documents
Two 1801 documentsThe chemical make up and storage history of each document has produced different aging characteristics
100% Rag PaperDoesnt necessarily mean Acid-Free!
Why Does Paper Break Down?
Why Does Paper Break Down?Acids present in 18th century paper, too
Why Does Paper Break Down?Acids present in 18th century paper, tooLignin (an organic polymer) present in old papers, too, but more common in wood pulp paper
Why Does Paper Break Down?Acids present in 18th century paper, tooLignin (an organic polymer) present in old papers, too, but more common in wood pulp paperConservators now think its the sizing
Sizing Agents
Sizing AgentsSize: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finish
Sizing AgentsSize: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finishHard sized paper = writing paperWeak sized paper = newsprintUnsized paper = blotter paper
Sizing AgentsSize: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finishHard sized paper = writing paperWeak sized paper = newsprint Unsized paper = blotter paperGelatin (animal) sizing used for centuries
Sizing AgentsSize: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finishHard sized paper = writing paperWeak sized paper = newsprint; Unsized paper = blotter paperGelatin (animal) sizing used for centuriesRosin sizing introduced in 1820s
Sizing AgentsSize: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finishHard sized paper = writing paperWeak sized paper = newsprint; Unsized paper = blotter paperGelatin (animal) sizing used for centuriesRosin sizing introduced in 1820sAlum (acidic) sizing introduced in 1870s
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