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Exercise:Calculate the permeability of a core plug
from the following test: Flow rate =2.10-6 [m3s-1], Inlet pressure = 5 [bar],Outlet pressure = 1 [bar], Length of core= 0.1 [m], Area = 1.10-4[m2], Viscosity
= 0.002 [Pa.s]
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A cylindrical core having a radius 2.54 10-2 [m]
and length of 0.3 [m], was flooded with
brine at a steady rate of 1.10-6 [m3s-1], thedifferential pressure across the core was 10
[bar]. Calculate the absolute permeability of
the core. Assume brine viscosity 0.001
[Pa.s].
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Pictures of some components
Drilling: Phases and Components
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Pictures of some components
Drilling: Phases and Components
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Drilling: Phases and Components
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Hoisting system includes thedraw works
Rotary system- includes therotary table or the top drive
Circulation system- includes mudpumps, suction/storage tanksand mud shakers
Circulation system- includes mudpumps, suction/storage tanksand mud shakers,
Power system- usually consistsof diesel generators Blow out prevention & safety
system- consists of hydraulicallyoperated rams
All the operations related to the well delivery process are formed ona drilling rig
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Screens
Mud pump
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Focus on the drilling mud cycle
Drilling: Phases and Components
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Then, steelcasing is run andcemented on theoutside to keepthe hole fromcollapsing
Next, a smaller bitis run inside thefirst casing.This bit drills outthe bottom of thecasing, and drillsnew hole
First, a large drillbit is used todrill a shortsection of a hole
Drilling processes
Drilling: How to drill a hole
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Then, this newhole is also
cased off andcemented
Again, asmaller hole is
drilled out
A smaller casingis run to keep
the hole fromfalling in
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Differences between onshore and offshore drilling
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Drilling: How to drill a hole
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Inland BargeFor drilling in water
depths from 8 to 30 ft
Jackup RigFor drilling in waterdepths from 15 ft to +/-
350 ft
Drill ShipFor drilling in waterdepths from 100 to5000+ ft
Semi-Submersible RigFor drilling in waterdepths from 100 to5000+ ft
Samples of offshore drilling rigs
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Drilling: How to drill a hole
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Drilling a well not onlyprovides an opportunity toproduce oil or gas, it is also
an opportunity to collectinformation about the
formations being penetrated
How do geologists tell if the reservoir has
oil or gas?
They run the logs across the zone. Logsare tools run on electric cable (wireline)which record the physical properties inthe rock such as resistivity, porosity,density, radioactivity, and pore pressure
Well logging
Drilling: How to drill a hole
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Sand
Shale
Siltstone
Shale
Siltstone
Dolomite
Shale
Heres an example of how a log looks like
Drilling: How to drill a hole
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Drilling: How to drill a hole
Geologists look at logs to decide whether or not to complete a well orabandon it
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GammaRadiation
200
500
3000
ElectricalResistivity Porosity
Lookslikegoodsandquality
goodresistivity
poor resistivity
good porosity
poorporosity
good porosity
poorresistivity poor porosity
good porosity
good porosity
poor porosity
and they choose where to complete the well
Drilling: How to drill a hole
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Electric wireline cable
Wireline gun carryingexplosivesSteel casing
Cement
Hydrocarbon bearingformation
Explosives detonatedcausing perforations in thecasing- that will allowhydrocarbons to flow from
the formation, into thewell bore and to thesurface
Explosive chargesused by the oilindustry must havea very high level ofheat resistance
After the well is drilled, perforation is carried out against the hydrocarbonbearing zones to enable production to begin
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Drilling: How to drill a hole
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If the well looks good onthe logs, it is possible torun a final string of casingacross the productionzone, and cement it inplace
Then, we run perforatingguns in the hole andperforate (shoot holes )in the casing across theproductive zone
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Finally, a production tubing is run into the hole
Drilling: How to drill a hole
Tubing
Packer
Production tubing isrun, with a packer to
isolate the producedzone from the casingabove
Finally, the well is
produced into a pipeline,which takes it toproduction facilities onsurface
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Well Testing Well testing involves producing a sample
of the hydrocarbons from the reservoirand analysing it to determine thefollowing:- Grade (quality)- Formation pressure- Flow rates
There are three main methods of welltesting:
- Wireline formation interval testing- Surface testing- Down hole drill stem testing (DST)
After testing and completing the well, it ishooked up to the production networkand brought on-line
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Well testing is the final conclusive step that confirms the presence andgrade of the hydrocarbons
Drilling: How to drill a hole
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Well completion and production
Production
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Well head
Production
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Underwater well head
Production
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Production
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A schematic representation of a typical crude oil processing facility| 23
The production facility processes the hydrocarbon fluids and separatesoil, gas and water
Production
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A schematic representation of a typical crude oil processing facility| 24
The production facility processes the hydrocarbon fluids and separatesoil, gas and water
Production
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The production facility processes the hydrocarbon fluids and separatesoil, gas and water
Production
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Upstream DownstreamMidstream
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The oil and gas industry comprises of three parts
Introduction
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There is a significant distance between places where major quantity of oiland gas is extracted and places where it is consumed
As a result, for several decades now, enormous quantities of oil and gashave been transported all over the world by sea and on land
Whether oil is transported by maritime or terrestrial routes, safety, securityand environmental issues should always be the main focus
Transportation
For several decades, oil and gas have been transported all over the world
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Transportation: Introduction
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Map showingprincipalmovements of oilworldwide in2003 (millions oftones)
The main routes for the transport of crude oil are from the Middle East towards Europe and the United States viathe Cape of Good Hope to the south of Africa, or via the Suez canal, depending on the size of the vessel
Other routes exist in the direction of the Far East (Japan, China, South Korea) via the Malacca straight (betweenSumatra and Malaysia)
Oil routes
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Transportation: Oil and Gas
Production f aci l i t ies
Refinery facil i t ies
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Maritime transport as it was in the 19th century and the present day has seen a tremendous improvement incapacity and also safety
In the 19thcentury transportation of oil by sea was about few hundreds of barrels of oil, but technology permit usto transport up to 2 million barrels in a single tanker
Modern tankers are now equipped with navigational aids (ACAS), electronic control systems, automated powerplants, satellite communications and radar equipments that allow for maximum security and minimum crew
From Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission,
Drake Well Museum Collection, Titusville, PA (1864)
The transportation of oil by sea
Oil tanker in the Bosporus, Richard Seaman (2004)
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Transportation: Oil and Gas
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Overland transport, although not asimportant as maritime, still remainsvery common in particular vastcountries such as Russia. It is alsonecessary to delivery oil destined fortransport by ship, to a port.
Moreover, in the industrializedcountries, there are major pipelinenetworks transporting crude torefineries situated inland and alsohandling the finished products comingout of the refineries and destined formajor centers of consumption.
Oil pipelines are large diameter tubes
that can transport enormous quantitiesof oil, up to several tens of millions oftons per year. The oil circulates bymeans of pressure maintained bypumping stations located every 60 to100 km. The oil travels in the pipelinesat speeds of around 2m/sec (7km/h)
The transportation of oil by land
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G17BK railway internal heating heavy oil tank wagon
Finnish oil pipeline
Transportation: Oil and Gas
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Map showingprincipalmovements ofgas worldwide in2003 (millions ofcubic meters)
Overall, the problems of transport and storage of gas are the same as for oil: producer and consumer countrieshave a significant distance from each other. Unlike oil, the gas is in a gaseous state at normal pressures andtemperatures. This means that, for the same quantity of energy, it occupies a volume 600 times greater than thatof oil.
The most usual method of transportation is therefore by gas pipelines both underwater and overland
Gas routes
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Transportation: Oil and Gas
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There are underwater gas pipelines, linking Norwegian gas fields to European terminals or linking NorthAfrica to Sicily and of course, overland gas pipelines like those that bring Russian gas to the European
Union
These gas pipelines are not visible: for safety reasons and security they are buried underground West African Gas Pipeline runs offshore for about 620 km from Badagry in Lagos, Nigeria to Aboadzi in
Sekondi, Ghana with laterals to Cotonou, Lome and Tema
Underwater pipelines
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Transportation: Oil and Gas
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Transportation of gas by land has transformed from the use of bamboos by Chinese to the modern steelpipelines. This also brought increase in capacity and safety.
The amount of gas transported by Russian gas pipeline to Europe is about 120 bcm per year, supplying 80% ofEurope demand (2009)
Overland pipelines
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Transportation: Oil and Gas
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The compressed gas circulates at high speed in a gas pipeline, with the aid of compression plants positioned atregular intervals along the network
In certain cases the construction of gas pipelines is technically impossible or too expensive, for example to bringNigerian gas to Europe, or to take gas from Qatar to Japan. To resolve this problem, a method of maritime
transport based on the liquefaction of the gas (LNG, liquefied natural gas) has been introduced
LNG tanker
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Transportation: Oil and Gas
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Quiz:
1.How are the different properties of hydrocarboncompounds determined?
2.How does geologist tell if the reservoir has hydrocarbon?List four methods to achieving that.
3.What is the essence of doing well testing?
4.How many type of wells do we have? Name them5.What are the factors that rate of flow depends on?6.List the rig systems and give one example of the
component of each system.7.Explain extensively why it is necessary to treat oil and
gas?8.Define four physical properties of hydrocarbon9.Explain gravity-magnetic interpretation and seismic
prospecting.10.Why is drilling mud/fluids important.
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A distinction must be made between the owner of the ship on the one hand and the owner of the petroleumcargo on the other. The two are rarely the same
Owner of transportation is not the only one responsible for the safety conditions. The country where the ship isregistered must also verify safety conditions.
However, certain countries have low taxes for vessels registration which decreases the cost of it, on the otherhand they do not ensure serious technical controls. These countries are consequently accused of makingavailable flags of convenience
The individual or company who provides the vessel (who is often also the owner) has the responsibility for itssafety and security, as well as for its certification and regularly inspection
The same person or company providing the vessel has the responsibility for the crew ensuring its competenceand motivation
How is maritime transport organized?
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Transportation: Oil and Gas
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Agenda Day 2
1 Drilling
Phases and components How to drill a hole
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2 Production
Introduction Oil and Gas Challenges Storage Spill
4 Refining
3 Transportation
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The Sirius Star is the biggest tanker ever to be hijacked, with a cargo of 2m barrels - a quarter ofSaudi Arabia's daily output - worth more than $100m
Pirating
Transportation: Challenges
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Icebergs
Transportation: Challenges
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Icebergs can be found in the ArcticOcean, the Baltic Sea and other
ice-laden seas
Tankers are designed with doublehulls. Finland is noted for having
this kind of tankers, e.g. Wartsila
Shipbuilding Division in Helsinki
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Agenda Day 2
1 Drilling
Phases and components How to drill a hole
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2 Production
Introduction Oil and Gas Challenges Storage Spill
4 Refining
3 Transportation
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Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO)
Transportation: Storage
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The crude oil that arrives at its destination is not always immediately treated in a refinery. In addition, somecountries have realized for a long time the strategic importance of oil. They are committed to holding stocks of
petroleum products (crude and finished products) equivalent to 3 months of import quantities
Depending on the country, the strategic stocks are managed by state or private organizations (or both) Petroleum products are stocked in tanks of varying size that can often be buried underground The main concern of the managers of these centers is safety and security. Fire safety certainly; but also prevention
of the risk of pollution of land areas and water tables in the case of a leak. There are regular inspections of the
condition of the tanks and their resistance to corrosion
Oil storage
Transportation: Storage
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Salt cavern
Gas consumption is notregular throughout the year.
In France, for example,
seasonal variations go from
1 in summer to 8 in winter.
Storage of gas is therefore
essential to enable matching
of supply and demand
But the gas can be stored innatural underground
reservoirs, as if one created
an artificial gas deposit.
Suitable geological sitesmust possess good reservoir
and cap rock conditions andbe located at a sufficiently
shallow depth (around
500m), so that injection of
the gas is not too expensive
in energy terms.
Gas storage
Transportation: Storage
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LNG storage tanks
Gas storage
Transportation: Storage
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Very serious situation that can lead to losses of revenue and environmental pollution. The major causesof oil spill are bad weather, collusions with other tankers or icebergs.
Oil spill
Transportation: Spill
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T i S ill
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Skimming
Absorb ing
Control of spill
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Vacuum cleaner, that absorbs the oilwhich floats from the top of the water. It
works only in calm waters.
Oil is absorbed by an absorbent materialor it can be done manually by using
buckets or shovels
Transportation: Spill
T t ti S ill
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Burn ing
Boom
Control of spill
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The boom is used to prevent the oil spill forspreading further to the shore and it is used
when the waves are not more than 3 feet and
the wind speed not more than 20 knots
Burning will remove about 50% to 90% of oilspill, but it can only be used when it has not
formed mousse (emulsion of crude and
water)
Transportation: Spill
T t ti S ill
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Hazards of oil spill workers
Transportation: Spill
Face masks and protective clothing areimportant items that clean up oil workers
may need to be safe from hazards
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Agenda Day 2
1 Drilling
Phases and components How to drill a hole
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2 Production
Introduction Oil and Gas Challenges Storage Spill
4 Refining
3 Transportation
Refining
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Upstream DownstreamMidstream
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The oil and gas industry comprises of three parts
Refining
Refining
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REFINING
Initial material
Highly variable crude oil is named crude thanks to its extremevariability
End product
End products should meet particular requirements according to theirpurposes e.g. gasoline to power cars or fuel oil to heat homes adfeedstocks for chemicals, plastics and by-products
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In order to be used, crude oils need to be refined
Refining
Refining
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Sour Refineries
Refineries that can handle sulphurous or non-sulphurous crude
1
2
Sour crude contains 2,5% or moresulphur, whereas sweet crudecontains 0,5% or less sulphur
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There are two types of refineries
Refining
Sweet Refineries
Refineries that can handle only non-sulphurous crude
Refining
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Market conditions Market analysis Refineries activity
Refineries adjust theiractivity to marketconditions
Refineries are generallynot designed for a specificcrude oil. Thanks to thisflexibility, they can focuson the most profitablefeedstock at any giventime
Market conditions arevariable.
E.g., a momentary
tightness in the localgasoline market, resultingin a price rise forgasoline. It wouldtemporarily increase thevalue of light (highgasoline yields) crudescompare to the value of
the heavier crudes.
To select the mostprofitable feedstock atany given time, process
engineers developcomputer models of thespecific processingcapabilities at the refinery.Using detailed crudeanalyses and currentprices, sequentialcomputer simulates therefinerys yield andresulting revenues foreach crude
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Market conditions influence refineries activity
Refining
Refining
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For industriealpurposes fuel musthave known burningcharacteristics so thatit can be matched withan appropriate burnersystem
Volatility and viscosityare the importantcharacteristics indesigning burnersystems
Smaller molecules in ahydrocarbon increase
volatility and reduceviscosity and color.Conversely, largermolecules reducevolatility and increaseviscosity and color
Crude oil can not be used as a fuel itself because it contains too broadspectrum of molecular size
Splitting crude into severalfractions
Several fractions are obtained, each has a concentration of a particularrange of molecular sizes.
E.g.: one of the fractions might be light gases known as butanes and aheavier fractions known as kerosene
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Taking fractions out of crude is the first step in a refinery
Refining
Refining
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The highest valuedpetroleum productsare the whiteproducts, whichinclude gasoline,diesel, jet fuel and
heating oil
Altering molecules
Production of high-valued petroleum products is maximised followingthe conversion of the lesser-valued gases and the heavier bottom ofthe barrel materials to white products
In the initial feedstock, several types of molecules are present
Altering molecules includes following steps
POLYMERIZATION: combination of the small gas molecules into larger and middle of the
barrel, molecules
CRACKING: break up of the large, bottom of the barrel, molecules into smaller ones
ISOMERIZATION: alter the arrangement of atoms in a molecule without adding orremoving any the atoms
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Altering molecules is the process that allows the conversion of the lesser-valued gases into the highest valued petroleum products
Refining
Refining
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ATMOSPHERICDISTILLATION
It is the initial process in a refinery. Its fractionatingtowera large diameter vertical vessel withmultiple internal contractor traysthe largest inthe refinery. The crude is heated, vaporizing mostof it, then it is injected into the base of the tower.Vapours rising through ports in the trays come intocontact with condensed liquids working downwardthrough the column. This interchange continuallyvaporizes some liquid and condenses some gas,establishing an equilibrium throughout the columnwith heavier material toward the base and lightermaterial toward the top. Product cuts arecontinuously removed from the tower through sidedraws spaced along its vertical length
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Here are some examples of processes used in refineries, in order to drivethe light and heavy ends further toward the middle of the barrel (1/4)
Refining
Refining
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VACUUM FLASHING
Feedstock for this process is the residue fromdistillation. The purpose is to extract additionallighter material. Residue is heated and vacuumpulled to induce boiling. Flashing extends thedistillation process to the bottom of the barrel.If done with heat alone, the high temperaturerequired would induce cracking into lesservalued gases. By utilizing vacuum, lowertemperatures are adequate and cracking isavoided.
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Here are some examples of processes used in refineries, in order to drivethe light and heavy ends further toward the middle of the barrel (2/4)
Refining
Refining
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THERMAL CRACKING
It involves the residue from the flasher. The process aims to split large moleculesinto gasoline-range molecules. Heat varies from 493C to 549C. A full range of
products including coke is yielded by the process.
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Here are some examples of processes used in refineries, in order to drivethe light and heavy ends further toward the middle of the barrel (3/4)
Refining
Refining
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CATALYTICCRACKING
It converts heavy gas oils from distillation and flasher to gasoline. It requires heat pluscatalyst (beads or powder)
GAS PLANT
It separates gas streams from distillation and other processes for particular uses. It consistsof distillation under pressure and absorption. Methane, ethane, propane, butane andisobutene are yielded. The products are all saturated (having a full complement ofhydrogen atoms). Olefin gases from crackers are separated similarly, but in a different gas
plant
ALKYLATION
Feedstock is constituted by olefins (propylene and butylenes) from cracker plus isobutenefrom gas plant. The purpose of the process is to create heavier, gasoline range moleculesfrom lighter ends. It consists of polymerization by pressure and cooling in presence of acatalyst (sulphuric or hydrofluoric acid). Alkylate and gases are the final product
HYDRO-CRACKING
It is a catalytic cracking process assisted by the presence of an elevated partial pressure ofhydrogen gas. The function of hydrogen is the purification of the hydrocarbon stream from
sulphur and nitrogen hetero-atoms. Hydro-cracking is normally facilitated by a bi-functionalcatalyst that is capable of rearranging and breaking hydrocarbon chains as well as addinghydrogen to aromatics and olefins to produce naphthenes and alkenes
Here are some examples of processes used in refineries, in order to drivethe light and heavy ends further toward the middle of the barrel (4/4)
g
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Refining
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1
2
The dehydrogenation of naphthenes to convert theminto aromatics as exemplified in the conversionmethylcyclohexane (a naphthene) to toluene (anaromatic)
The isomerization of normal paraffins to isoparaffinsas exemplified in the conversion of normal octane to2,5-Dimethylhexane (an isoparaffin)
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Focus on the reaction chemistry: the four major catalytic reformingreactions (1/2)
g
Refining
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3
4
The dehydrogenation and aromatization of paraffinsto aromatics (commonly called dehydrocyclization)as exemplified in the conversion of normal heptaneto toluene
The hydro cracking of paraffin into smallermolecules as exemplified by the cracking of normalheptane into isopentane and ethane
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Focus on the reaction chemistry: the four major catalytic reformingreactions (2/2)
g
Refining
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Blending in petroleum refining is the physical mixture of a number of different liquid hydrocarbonsto produce a finished product with certain desired characteristics
Products can be blended in-line through a manifold system, or batch blended in tanks and vessels
In-line blending of gasoline, distillates, jet fuel, and kerosene is accomplished by injectingproportionate amounts of each component into the main stream where turbulence promotesthorough mixing. Additives including octane enhancers, metal deactivators, anti-oxidants, anti-knock agents, gum and rust inhibitors, detergents, etc. are added during and/or after blending toprovide specific properties not inherent in hydrocarbons
Blending
The blending operationhas a major impact onmanaging the refinery:it determines whatfeedstocks and runvolumes are needed so
each of the variousprocesses will yield therequired volumes andspecifications ofproducts
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Blending operations are the final step of the process that takes placewithin a refinery
g
Refining
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Product End market %final demand
LPG Cooking fuel 5-10%
Naphtha Petrochemical feedstock 5-15%
Gasoline Passenger vehicles 20-30%
Diesel Passenger vehicles,commercial vehicles,emergency power generators
20-30%
Kerosene, heating oil Aviation, domestic andcommercial heating, cooking
10-15%
Lubricants Passenger and commercialvehicles
0-5%
Heavy fuel oil Bunker fuel, power generation 10-15%
Asphalt Road surfacing 0-5%
Petcoke Power generation, industrialfuel
0-5%
Lightproducts
Heavy
products
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End markets for finished oil products (1/2)
Refining
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The gaseous products can be for instance reprocessed into high-quality gasoline components, sold as
heating or transportation fuels, upgraded into higher value petrochemical products, or simply burned as arefinery fuel source
Propane and butane are both termed liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and can also be produced fromreforming and cracking. Once distilled, LPGs are liquefied and either sold in bottles for cooking fuel, usedfor gasoline blending or as ethylene steam cracker feedstock to manufacture base chemicals
Although only about 10% of the refined products of crude oil are used as chemical feedstock, it is still themost significant source of organic chemicals
Heavier products such as naphtha (essentially untreated gasoline) are primary feedstock for thepetrochemical industry in Europe and parts of Asia. In the US and Middle East petrochemical units usenatural gas as a feedstock
The output of finished products at the lightest end of the distillation rangecan vary greatly, depending on the sophistication of the refinery
End markets for finished oil products (2/2)
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