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Nutrients and Nutrition
Nutrients are the chemical substances in food that are required for the
nourishment of an organism. They are required by every living cell in the body for
metabolic reactions that are vital to life as well as for the synthesis of othercompounds needed by the body, reproduction and the growth and repair of damaged
tissues. Examples of nutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals and
vitamins.
Nutrition, on the other hand, is the entire process by which organisms obtain
nutrients and energy from food. This includes the process of digesting food and
utilising the absorbed nutrients for growth, maintenance and the repair of damaged
tissues. Based on the strategies they deploy to obtain nutrients, living organisms
can be divided into two groups. They are autotrophs and heterotrophs.
AutotrophsAutotrophs are organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition. Autotrophs get
their name from the words auto which means self and trophos which means feed. This
means that they can synthesise their own food by processing simple inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide, water and minerals to produce nutrients such as
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins needed by the organism itself. This process is
achieved with the help of light or chemical energy.
Autotrophs can be divided into two groups. They are:
i. Photoautotrophs
ii. Chemoautotrophs
PhotoautotrophsThese are organisms that synthesise organic molecules (food) from carbon dioxide
and water using sunlight as a source of energy and the process known as
photosynthesis. Photo means light. So, photosynthesis means the synthesis using
sunlight as a source of energy. Examples of photosynthetic autotrophs are green
plants and algae.
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ChemoautotrophsChemoautotrophs are organisms that synthesise organic molecules (food) using
energy obtained by the oxidation of inorganic substances such as nitrates and
sulphides. The synthesis is called chemosynthesis which comes from the word chemo
which means chemical. So, chemosynthesis means the synthesis using chemicals as a
source of energy. Most chemoautotrophs are bacteria, such as sulphur bacteria,
which oxidise hydrogen sulphide to sulphur.
HeterotrophsHeterotrophs are organisms which carry out heterotrophic nutrition. Heterotrophs
get their name from the words hetero which means other and trophos which means
feed. These organisms are not able to synthesise their own nutrients but depend on
ready-made food such as plants and animals. Heterotrophic nutrition is then
nutrition in which energy and organic compounds (foods) are obtained by breaking
down other organisms (plant or animal tissues) which are digested and absorbed.
Heterotrophs can be divided into three groups. These are:
i. holozoics
ii. Saprophytes
iii. Parasites
HolozoicsHolozoics are organisms which feed by ingesting solid organic substances and
digesting, absorbing and assimilating them into their bodies; finally, these
substances are egested out of their bodies. The three groups that carry out
holozoic nutrition are:
a. Herbivores (herb = green crop). These organisms only eat plants.
b. Carnivores (carn = flesh). These are organisms which only eat animals.
c. Omnivores (omni = all). These organisms eat both plants and animals.
Nepenthes sp. (pitcher plants) is an example of a carnivorous plant which carries
out holozoic nutrition
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SaprophytesSaprophytism is carried out by any organism that feeds on dead and decaying
organic matter. The organism is called a saprophyte. Saprophytes are also known as
decomposers as they decompose dead organic matter into simpler molecules. Examples
are bacteria and fungi which digest the organic matter externally using digestive
enzymes before absorbing them as nutrients. Examples of saprophytes are rhizopus
(bread mould) and yeast.
ParasitesParasitism is defined as a close association wherein an organism feeds on other
living organisms to obtain nutrients. The organisms which gain from this
association are known as parasites while the losers are called the hosts. The
parasites absorb nutrients from their hosts Examples of parasites are fleas,
various bacteria, fungi and gastrointestinal worms.
Parasites can live inside or outside the bodies of their hosts. Endoparasites are
the parasites that live inside the bodies of their hosts (endo = inside). Examples
are tape worms (Taenia sp.) and round worms (Ascaris sp.).
The tapeworm is an example of a endoparasite
Ectoparasites are the parasites that live outside their hosts (ecto = outside).
Examples are mosquitoes and mites (they suck blood from other organisms).
Lice: an example of ectoparasites
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A Balanced DietA balanced diet is a diet that contains the major nutrients which include
carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water, roughage or dietary fibre and
lipids in the correct proportions. A balanced diet is essential for the healthy
growth and development of the body. The table below shows the nutrients and their
functions.
Nutrients and their functions
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The food pyramidA guide to a balanced diet can be obtained from the food pyramid. See the figure
below. A healthy diet consists of more vegetables, fruits and grain products which
are at the bottom of the pyramid. Items higher on the pyramid must be consumed
less and include fats, oils and sugar.
The food pyramidDaily Energy Requirements
Our body needs energy to carry out vital body functions such as maintaining blood
pressure and body temperature, sustaining regular heartbeats and breathing. Energy
is also required for the body to carry out the biochemical reactions that take
place at the cellular level. These include cell division, cell growth, active
transport, protein synthesis, etc. The sum of all these biochemical reactions is
called metabolism. The energy requirements for the metabolic activities are
derived from the nutrients absorbed by the body.
The energy demand of the body over a specified period of time to carry out
metabolic activities is called the metabolic rate. It is measured in kilojoule
(kJ) units. The higher the metabolic rate, the more will be the energy required
for the metabolic activities. Our metabolic rate is higher when we are running and
lower when we are sleeping.
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The energy required to carry out the biochemical reactions that keep the vital
body functions going is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR). The BMR depends on
various factors such as a persons weight, state of health, sex, age as well as
the climate. For example, the BMR of a man when sleeping is different to the BMR
of a woman when sleeping. Similarly, the BMR of a child when sleeping is differentto that of an adult when sleeping.
Generally, women have a lower BMR than men and children have a higher BMR than
adults. A person living in a cold climate has a higher BMR than a person living in
a hotter climate. There are two main factors influencing the energy requirements
of the body. These are:
i. The basal metabolic rate (BMR)
ii. Physical activities
The variables influencing the bodys energy needsFor example:
A 50kg football player training for 1.5 hours daily would require over 23,027.4 kJ
daily, whereas a 50kg female tennis player training for the same duration would
require approximately 9,838.98 kJ daily. (Source:
http://www.bestsyndication.com/?q=20080318_online_calorie_counter.htm)
The knowledge about the body energy needs can help an individual to stay healthy.
A person who takes a diet containing the calories equal to the energy needed by
the body will remain slim and healthy. If the diet contains excess energy, the
energy turns into fats and the person gains weight. On the other hand, if the diet
contains inadequate energy, the person will lose weight.
Energy Contents of FoodOur body needs energy to carry out vital body functions such as maintaining blood
pressure and body temperature, sustaining regular heartbeats and breathing. Energy
is also required for the body to carry out the biochemical reactions that take
place at the cellular level. These include cell division, cell growth, active
transport, protein synthesis, etc. The sum of all these biochemical reactions is
called metabolism. The energy requirements for the metabolic activities are
derived from the nutrients absorbed by the body.
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A food calorimeter to determine the energy value of food
The amount of energy that is produced from the oxidation of one gramme of food is
known as the energy value of the food. It is measured in joules per gramme (Jg-1).
The amount of energy in food can also be expressed as calorie
Different types of food have different energy values. The table below shows the
energy values of different types of foo
VitaminsVitamins are complex organic compounds needed in tiny amounts by humans and
animals to maintain normal good health. Vitamins are not synthesised by the human
or animal body (except vitamin D), so they are obtained from the diet. Vitamins
can be easily destroyed by heat.
General functions of vitamins
The function of vitamins is to act as coenzymes which control various metabolicreactions. Vitamins do not provide energy but are essential for efficient
metabolism, growth, protection and energy regulation in cellular respiration.
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Classification of vitaminsAltogether, 13 different types of vitamins have been identified. They can be
divided into two groups as follows:
i. water-soluble vitamins
ii. fat-soluble vitamins
- Water-soluble vitaminsWater-soluble vitamins dissolve only in water. They are circulated freely around
the body and are absorbed directly into the blood circulatory system. Excess
consumption of these vitamins will be excreted and there is no toxicity when takenin large amounts. Examples of water-soluble vitamins are vitamins B1, B2, B3, B6,
B12, folic acid, vitamin H and vitamin C.
- Fat-soluble vitaminsThese vitamins are only dissolved in oil, fat and organic solvents. They are
absorbed together with fat and bile. They are difficult to excrete and any excess
amount is stored in the body. As such, excess consumption is dangerous. Examples
of fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K. .
Deficiency in vitaminsIf a person is deficient in one or more vitamins, he/she may develop vitamin
deficiency diseases. Different types of vitamins may cause different deficiency
diseases as shown in the table below.
Sources, functions and effects of deficiency of vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B12
What are vitamins?
What are water-soluble vitamins?
What are fat-soluble vitamins?
Minerals
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Minerals are inorganic nutrients found in food or drinks. They cannot be
synthesised by the body and must be obtained from the diet. They do not provide
energy to our body but are essential for various body functions such as
biochemical reactions and developing the molecules. The minerals are classified
into two groups:
i. Macrominerals
These minerals are required by the body in relatively large quantities (major
minerals) of more than 100 mg per day Examples of these minerals are calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and chlorine.
ii. Microminerals
These minerals are required by the body in small amounts of less than 20 mg
per day. These minerals have their own specific functions. Examples are iron,
iodine, zinc and molybdenum.
Dietary FibreDietary fibre or roughage is indigestible plant matter. Basically, it is the
fibrous materials in the diet that consist mainly of the cellulose of the cell
walls of plants.
Food high in fibre contentDietary fibre is not a nutrient and the stomach cannot digest it. However, it is
still important for the digestive process as it helps the food to move through the
digestive system and hold water so that the faeces remains soft, thus easing
defecation.
In addition, the dietary fibre also lowers the cholesterol level in the blood,
reduces the risk of heart diseases and colon cancer. Dieticians recommend that
about 25-50 g of fibre should be incorporated into the diet each day to ensure
good health. Examples of foods high in fibre contents are fruits, grains, cereals,
pasta, legumens, nuts, seeds and vegetables.
Deficiency of dietary fibre can increase the risk of constipation, bowel
irregularities, haemorrhoids, diverticulosis and colorectal cancer. Constipation
occurs when the flow of the digested food in the large intestine is not smooth and
is very slow. In this case, the faeces is dry and hard because much water has been
absorbed into the body. As the result, the defaecation is difficult and painful.
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WaterA human body mass is made of 70% of water. Without water, humans only can survive
for three or four days. Water is important to the human body due to the following
reasons:
i. All metabolic reactions take place in solution, so water plays a role as a
medium for such reactions.
ii. In homeostasis, water plays the main role in thermoregulation.
Thermoregulation is the ability of the body to maintain its body temperature
at a particular level regardless of any internal or external temperature
changes in the environment. For example, on a hot day, sweat glands under the
skin secrete sweat onto the surface of the skin. When the sweat evaporates,
it cools the skin, thus maintaining the internal body temperature.
iii. As blood plasma consists of 92% of water, water plays a role as a medium for
the transportation of digested food, oxygen, excretory substances, minerals
and hormones to the entire body.
iv. Water also helps in the excretory process. Excretory wastes such as urea,
uric acid and excess minerals are removed from the body through perspiration
and urination.
v. Water is also important as a lubricant in our body. It helps to reduce
friction between the bones in the joints.
Choosing Appropriate Diets for Different Target GroupsDifferent groups of people need different diets in order to cater to the proper
nutritional needs of their bodies. Different diets are needed depending on the
age, lifestyle, health condition and specific nutritional needs of people,
especially those with specific diseases. The table below show groups of people and
guidelines for the diet of specific groups.
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MalnutritionMalnutrition is the health condition faced by people eating an improper or
unbalanced diet. It can due to eating less food (under-nutrition), eating too much
food (over-nutrition) or bad eating habits (imbalanced nutrition). There are many
health effects resulting from malnutrition and we shall look at them in detail.
Protein DeficiencyProtein deficiency gives rise to two common health problems. They are:
i. Kwashiorkor
ii. Marasmus
- KwashiorkorKwashiorkor is a health problem related to poverty and is prevalent in developing
countries such as in Africa and South Asia because of protein deficiency in the
diet. It usually affects children aged one to four years. Children suffering from
kwashiorkor have severely bloated abdomens (pot bellies), flaky skins, thin
muscles and are underweight. Their growth is also stunted.
MarasmusMarasmus is widespread in developing countries and occurs among children between
nine to 12 years of age. it is mainly due to poverty and lack of protein and
energy providing nutrients. The symptoms are "an old man's face", being
excessively underweight, thin muscles and stunted growth.
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Effects of Calcium, Phosphorus and Vitamin D DeficienciesCalcium, phosphorus and vitamin D deficiencies in the diet may cause many health
problems such as osteoporosis and osteomalacia.
OsteoporosisOsteoporosis is a disease of the bones and is due to an insufficient dietary
intake of calcium; it is very common among the aged. The lack of calcium causes
the bones to become brittle, porous and fracture easily especially at the hips and
backbone. In severe situations, the backbone shortens and bends forward.
OsteomalaciaOsteomalacia is the softening of the bones due to the deficiencies of calcium,
phosphorus, and vitamin D in the dietary intake. It always occurs in pregnant
women while in children, it is known as rickets.
Bones in the legs of a rickets victim
Effects of an Excessive Intake of Nutrients
Not all health problems are due to the lack of nutrients in the dietary intake.
Health problems are also caused by over-nourishment (excessive intake of food).
The effects of an excessive intake of various nutrients are shown below.
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Excessive intake of carbohydratesThe excessive intake of carbohydrates is one of the bad habits occurring when
consuming food. This excessive intake can lead to various diseases such as obesity
and diabetes mellitus.
Obesity is a condition of a person who is overweight. If a person is obese, the
risks of developing various diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, strokes,
brain haemorrhages, high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, and diabetes mellitus,
are increased.
Diabetes mellitus is a disease due to the presence of excess glucose in the blood.
This happens when too much sugar is in the dietary intake (including
carbohydrates) and the pancreas is not producing enough hormone insulin to convert
the glucose to glycogen. Diabetes can lead to various diseases such as kidney
diseases, cataracts, blindness and heart problems. In addition, wounds become very
difficult to heal.
Excessive intake of lipids
Coronary artery in human filled by plague
Excessive lipids (saturated fats) in the dietary intake may cause many diseases
such as hypertension, high blood pressure and atherosclerosis.
Atherosclerosis is a situation when there is deposit of plaque in the internal
lining of the blood vessels. This deposit blocks the blood flow and in severe
cases, it even stops the blood flow altogether, leading to heart attacks
(myocardial infarction).
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Excessive intake of minerals
Kidney stones most made of calcium and oxalate
Excessive intake of minerals, such as salty food, in the dietary intake can lead
to various diseases such as high blood pressure, heart problems, strokes and theformation of kidney stones.
Kidney stones are formed because of an excessive intake of salt and the lack of
water in the diet. Kidney stones develop from the crystallisation of urine which
accumulates in the kidneys. The stones are made of calcium and oxalate. Their
presence complicates the kidney function and make urination painful. The stones
can be expelled together with the urine.
Human Digestive SystemThe human digestive system also called the gastrointestinal system. This system
starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. The parts along the mouth and the anus
are called the alimentary canal. The parts of the human digestive system are shown
in figure below.
Duodenum is located at the first part of small intestine while the rest of small
intestine is known as ileum. The large intestine consists of caecum, colon, and
rectum. Small intestine and large intestine are the longest parts in this system.
From the ducts to the gut, there are some accessory organs connected to this part;
the liver, the gall bladder and the pancreas.
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Physical digestion and chemical digestionThe digestion involves two processes which is physical and chemical digestion. The
breaking down of food particles is the physical digestion. Chewing food particles
is an example of the process in which the food particles will be broke into
smaller particles. This process is important to increase the surface in the
chemical process. Peristalsis is the other physical digestion involves in the
digestion of food. This process helps to move the food particles down the
elementary canal.
The physical digestion is too different from the chemical digestion. If the
physical digestion is the process involve of the body part such as teeth, ileum,
colon and others. Chemical digestions are the processes that involve the chemicals
contained in our body. This type of digestion involves the process of breaking
down the food particles into the small and simple molecules and also into soluble.These processes involving hydrolysis; the enzyme reactions in the presence of
water and each enzyme are specific for a type of food.
Some of the chemical contained in our body and known as digestive juices. The
digestive juices are; saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice and intestinal
juice. All these juice contain enzymes that involve in the hydrolysis process.
Each enzyme has their own factors to maximize their performance. For example, an
enzyme needs an acidic medium to perform well. In the stomach, hydrochloric acids
will prepare an acidic medium for the bile secreted to facilitate digestion of
fats. Digestive juices are secreted by the digestive glands.
Food DigestionFood digestion is a process where large and complex organic compounds of food
components, consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, are broken down
into simpler molecules by the digestive enzymes through the process of hydrolysis.
The final products of the digestive processes are glucose molecules, amino acids,
glycerol and fatty acids which can be absorbed by the cells so that they can carry
out the metabolic processes.
The Human Digestive SystemThe human digestive system starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is
sometimes called the gastrointestinal system and has a length of about 7-9 m long.
The human digestive system is shown in the figure below.
The human digestive system
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The duodenum is located at the first part of the small intestine while the rest
ofthe small intestine is known as the ileum. The large intestine consists of the
caecum, colon and rectum. The small and large intestines are the longest parts of
the digestive system. There are some accessory organs connected to the system such
as the liver, the gall bladder and the pancreas. They also have roles to play inthe digestive process.
The food enters the mouth into the oesophagus, then to the stomach, small
intestine and large intestine before it is excreted at the anus. Various digestive
processes consisting of physical digestion and chemical digestion occur as at
various stages of the digestive system as the food moves from the mouth to the
anus.
Physical Digestion and Chemical DigestionThe digestion involves two processes. They are:
i. physical digestion
ii. chemical digestion
- Physical DigestionPhysical digestion is the breaking down of large pieces of food into smaller onesby mechanical means. The physical digestion occurs at various parts of the
digestive system.
- Chemical digestionA chemical reaction breaks down complex food into simpler molecules using specific
digestive enzymes. The process is called hydrolysis. The digestive juices, such as
saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice, contain enzymes
which help in the hydrolysis process. In the stomach, hydrochloric acid provides
an acidic environment for the enzymes to function while bile secreted by the liver
emulsifies the fats and helps in the digestion of fats.
Digestion of Carbohydrates, Protiens and Lipids in the Human Body
We shall look at the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids through the
digestive system.
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The mouthThe first digestion process of the food occurs in the mouth. It involves the
physical digestion of chewing food by the teeth. This process breaks the food into
smaller sizes, thus increasing the surface area of the food for the action by the
enzymes. Here, the first chemical digestion also takes place where food is mixed
with saliva secreted by salivary glands. The saliva juice contains water, an
enzyme called salivary amylase and mucus. The salivary amylase breaks down the
starch into maltose (simple sugar) according to the following equation:
The mucus moistens the food particles, rolling and shaping them into a food lump
called the bolus.
The oesaphagusThe moist food bolus is swallowed and moved through the muscular tube line called
the oesophagus. The movement of the bolus along the oesophagus is achieved by a
process called peristalsis. Peristalsis is a series of rhythmic wave-like
movements caused by the musclar contraction and relaxation of the longitudinal and
circular muscles along the oesophageal wall. The peristalsis continues until the
food reaches the stomach. The figure below shows the peristalsis along the
oesophagus.
The stomachThe stomach is the main organ of digestion and is located below the diaphragm. The
lining of the stomach contains the gastric gland that secretes gastric juice. The
food is chewed through the muscular relaxation and contraction of the stomach
muscles. In the process, it is mixed with the gastric juice to become a semi-fluid
and partly digested food called chyme. The figure below shows the secretion of
gastric juice in the stomach.
- Secretion of gastric juiceThe environment in the stomach is highly acidic due to the hydrochloric acid
contained in the gastric juice. This environment (pH 1.5-2.0) is necessary for the
optimal action of the enzymes. Besides this, it stops the activity of the salivary
amylase and at the same time kills bacteria and parasites in the food.
- Protein DigestionBesides the gastric juice containing the hydrochloric acid, there are also
digestive enzymes in the stomach called the pepsin and rennin. These enzymes are
responsible for the digestion of the proteins. Pepsin hydrolyses protein into
polypeptide.
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On the other hand, the enzyme rennin curdles milk. The enzyme catalyses the
soluble milk protein (caseinogens) to become insoluble milk protein (casein).
The contraction and relaxation of the stomach moves the chyme, the semi-solid and
partly digested food, from the stomach into the duodenum of the small intestine.
The small intestineThe small intestine is divided into three structural parts:
i. The deodenum
ii. The jejunum
iii. The ileum
- The deodenumThe duodenum is the first part of the small intestine and it receives the chyme
directly from the stomach. Here, the chyme is broken down using the enzymes. The
duodenum does not have any glands that secrete digestion juices but it only
receives secretions from the gall balder of the liver and the pancreas.
The LiverThe liver secretes bile and stores it in the gall bladder. Bile is not an enzyme
but it aids in the emulsifying of lipids by breaking them down into tiny droplets,
increasing the surface area for the action of the enzymes. Bile also functions to
create the alkaline environment (pH 7.6-8.6) in the duodenum necessary for the
optimum action of the digestive enzymes (produced by the pancreas) and at the same
time, it helps to reduce and neutralises the acidity of the chyme. Bile flows into
the duodenum via the bile duct.
The PancreasPancreas secrete pancreatic juice containing three digestive enzymes, namel, the
pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase which flow into the duodenum via the
pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the digestion of starch, proteins and
lipids in the chyme and function optimally in an environment with the pH 7.1-8.2.
- The digestion of starch, proteins and lipidsThe digestion of starch, proteins and lipids occurs in the duodenum using enzymes
obtained from the pancreas.
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i. Starch
Strach is converted to maltose using pancreatic amylase,
ii. Proteins
The polypeptides are broken down by the enzyme trypsin into peptides,
iii. Lipids
Lipids are broken down by the enzyme lipase into fatty acids and glycerol.
They are small enough to be absorbed directly by the epithelial lining of the
small intestine,
- The ileumThe ileum is located at the bottom part of the small intestine. The functions of
the ileum are to absorb bile and the secretion of enzymes for the digestion of
peptides and disaccharides. The products of the digestion of the peptides are
amino acids while the products of the digestion of disaccharides are the
monosaccharides which are absorbed directly along with fatty acids and glycerol.
The vitamins and minerals are very small molecules which can be absorbed directly
by the body without undergoing digestive processes.
The digestion of proteinsProtein digestion involves the breaking down of peptides into amino acids using
the enzyme erepsin,
The end products of the protein digestion are fatty acids and glycerol which are
small enough to be absorbed directly by the epithelial lining of the ileum.
The digestion of carbohydratesThe digestive process breaks carbohydrates into disaccharides and finally into
monosaccharides. Monosaccharides are the end products and exist either in the form
of glucose, fructose or galactose; they are absorbed by the epithelial lining of
the ileum.
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The Digestive System of RuminantsRuminants (cows, goats and sheep) feed on plant materials which contain a large
amount of cellulose. Cellulose is a polysaccharide and is extremely insoluble. It
can be broken down into glucose with the help of the enzyme called cellulase. So,
the ruminants are adapted in order to digest cellulose with the help of this
enzyme.
In ruminants, the digestive system consists of a stomach with the following four
chambers :
i. The rumen
ii. The reticulum
iii. The omasum
iv. The abomasum
Inside the first two chambers are large populations of bacteria and protozoa. The
microorganisms secrete enzymes called cellulase which help in the digestion of
cellulose. This also allows the ruminants to carry out rumination, the process of
rechewing partially digested food.
The relationship between the microorganisms and the ruminants is symbiotic where
both parties benefit from the relationship. The ruminants obtain food from the
digestion of the cellulose while the microorganisms obtain food, shelter and
space.
The digestive process of the ruminants consists of four stages, one at each of the
stomach chambers:.
Step
1.
The rumen
When a ruminant first chews and swallows grass, it enters the rumen. The
rumen is a large fermentation chamber with a very high population of
bacteria and protozoa. The bacteria secrete the enzyme called cellulase
necessary for the break-down of the cellulose. Parts of the digestive
products (glucose and fatty acids) are absorbed by the ruminant while the
others are absorbed by the bacteria and protozoa.
Step
2.
The reticulum
The reticulum is the second chamber in a ruminant's digestive system. In
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this chamber, a further hydrolysis of cellulose is undertaken. At some
point, the partially digested food in the form of balls called "cud" is
returned to the mouth (regurgitated) to be chewed again. This helps to
further break down the cellulose. This movement of the partly digested food
to the mouth is helped by the antiperistalsis of the eosophagus.
Step
3.
The omasum
After the second chewing, the food flows directly to the omasum. This is the
third chamber of the ruminants stomach. Here, the product of cellulose
digestion, glucose, is absorbed by the body. Water is drained from the cud
and absorbed into the body.
Step
4.
The obamasum
The obamasum is known as the true stomach. Here, the gastric juice
(containing the hydrochloric acid) is secreted to complete the digestion of
proteins and other food substances. The food (chyme) is passed to the small
intestine where it is further digested in the normal way and absorbed by the
body.
The Digestive System of RodentsRodents (mice, squirrels) have a different digestive system from ruminants. They
have a long caecum located between the small and large intestines. In the caecum,
there is a high concentration of symbiotic bacteria and protozoa which secrete the
cellulase to digest cellulose.
In order to obtain the maximum nutrients, rodents eat some of their faeces and
allow the food to pass through the digestive tract twice. The first faecal pallets
produced at night are normally soft and watery containing partially digested food.
These faecal pallets are eaten again and pass through the digestive tract for a
second round of digestion. In this way, more nutrients are absorbed. The second
dry and hard faecal pallets are produced during the day.
Problems Associated with Food Digestion
There are a few problems associated with the digestion of food, namely:
i. The incomplete digestion of food
ii. Gallstones in the gall bladder
The incomplete digestion of food
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Incomplete digestion is caused by the types of food that we consume and the way
they are consumed. Excessive intake of food at any one time, oily food, hot food
(such as strong curries), and not chewing properly are some of the most common
factors causing the incomplete digestion of food. They may lead to nausea,
vomiting and abdominal pains.
To ensure the complete digestion of food, the food must be chewed slowly and oily
and hot food should be avoided. In this way, the digestive enzymes can function
optimally and food will be completely digested.
Gallstones in the gall bladder
When bile contains an excessive amount of cholesterol, there is a tendency for the
cholesterol to crystallise and form gall stones in the bile duct. The gallstones
vary in size, from the size of sand to the size of a ping pong ball depending on
the severity of the gallstone formation.
A problem occurs when the gallstones become big enough to obstruct the movement of
bile from the gall bladder to the stomach. When this happens, the digestion of
lipids cannot take place. This leads to the following symptoms:
i. prolonged and continuous pains
ii. nausea and vomiting
iii. fever or chills
iv. yellowish colour of the skin or whites of the eyes
v. clay-coloured stools
The gallstones may also be formed in the pancreatic duct. In this case, the
gallstones may block the flow of the pancreatic juice leading to severe pains and
incomplete digestion of food.
Adaptations of the Digestive SystemThe digestive system is suitably adapted to increase the rate of absorption and
this is achieved via the following:
i. Increasing the surface area of the lining of the small intestine by having a
long intestine (about 5-6 metres long) and a folded surface which is is
covered by a finger-like projection called the villi.
ii. The thin epithelial wall of about one cell thick. This allows the easy flow
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of the movement of the digestive system across the wall.
iii. A moist surface.
iv. Plenty of blood vessels for efficient transportation of digestive products.
The adaption of the digestive system (1) small intestine (2) A section of a small
intestine to show the villi (3) Enlarged illustration of a villus (4) Epithelium
with microvilli and goblet cell
Absorption of Digested FoodDepending on the type of digestive products, various mechanisms are utilised that
allow these products to be absorbed from the lumen of the intestine.
Monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, fructose)
Their absorption across the epithelial cells into the blood capillaries is
achieved through secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion mechanisms.
They are absorbed directly into the blood capillary network contained in each of
the villi.
Fatty acids and glycerolFatty acids and glycerol utilis the simple diffusion mechanism to move across the
epithelial cells. The movement is achieved by first transforming the fatty acids
and glycerol into tiny droplets of lipids which then move into the lacteals
located at the centre of each the villus. The lacteals combined to form a larger
vessel of the lymphatic system and a network throughout the body.
Fat-soluble vitaminsFat-soluble vitamins diffuse directly across the epithelial cells and directly
into the lacteal located at the centre of each villus.
Water-soluble vitaminsWater-soluble vitamins diffuse directly into the blood capillary network contained
in the villi.
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WaterWater is absorbed via osmosis.
- Transportation of Nutrients to Body CellsAt the villus, the water-soluble nutrients (monosaccharides, amino acids and
minerals) enter the blood capillaries whereas the lipid-soluble nutrients enter
the lacteal and then into the lymphatic vessels. The blood capillaries bring the
nutrients into the liver via the hepatic portal vein first for assimilation
(regulating, processing and filtering) before sending them to the heart to be
circulated throughout the body. On the other hand, the lymphatic vessel connected
to the heart is where lipid-soluble nutrients are circulated throughout the body.
The functions of the liver are:
i. Regulation of the glucose level in the blood
ii. Deamination
iii. Storage
iv. Detoxification
v. Production of bile
vi. Synthesis of plasma proteins
Regulation of the glucose level in the bloodThe liver functions to regulate the amount of glucose released into the body
system. In a situation where the sugar level in the blood is high, the liver
stores the glucose as glycogen.
DeaminationDeamination is the process where amino acids are broken down into glucose and
urea. In this way, the liver can regulate the amount of amino acids in the blood
so that it remains constant in the blood. When an excess amount of amino acids is
present in the blood, deamination occurs and the glucose and urea are released
from the body via urination.
- StorageThe liver can act as a storage for nutrients. Examples of nutrients stored in the
liver are the fat-soluble vitamins A and D and water soluble B12. At the same
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time, it can also store minerals ions such as iron, potassium, cobalt, zinc and
copper.
- DetoxificationThe liver also functions as a detoxifier of poisonous substances. There are manytoxic substances entering the body such as alcohol, drugs, and other harmful
chemicals. The liver metabolises these toxic substances and the products are
excreted from the body through urination.
- Secretion of bileThe liver secretes bile which is stored in the gall bladder. Bile contains
greenish bile pigments and bile salts which are transported to the duodenum for
the digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins. The process of
digestion involves the emulsification of fats into tiny droplets which increase
the surface area for optimal action by the lipase.
- Synthesis of blood plasma proteinsThe liver is a site for the synthesis of blood plasma protein proteins such as
prothrombin and fibrinogen. These plasma proteins are necessary for blood clotting
processes.
- Assimilation of Digested Food by the Liver and CellsAssimilation is a process where absorbed food in the liver or cell is utilised for
the purposes of growth, reproduction and repair.
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What is Defecation?
After the digestion process in the small intestine, the left-over products,
consisting mostly of undigested food substances and dietary fibre, enter the colon
(large intestine). The undigested food moves along the colon aided by the rhythmic
contraction and relaxation of the colon muscle walls (peristalsis) where further
absorption of water (90% of it) and other minerals (with the help of symbiotic
bacteria) takes place. The final compressed food residue is called faeces.
The faeces consists of mainly undigested food residue, dead epithelial cells, bile
pigments and bacteria which are stored temporarily in the rectum. When the rectum
is full, the faeces is expelled out of the anus via the contraction and relaxation
of the sphincter muscles. The process of the expulsion of the faecal materials out
of the body through the anus is called defecation.
Structure of the large intestine
The large intestine is about 1.5 metre long and consists of three main components:
i. the caecum and appendix
ii. the colon
iii. the rectum
The main functions of the large intestine are the following:
i. Absorption of 90% of the water, compressing the undigested food into faecal
materials.
ii. Absorption of minerals with the help of symbiotic bacteria.
iii. Storage of the faecal materials before defecation.
The Formation of Faecal Materials
There are various processes occurring in the large intestine before the faecal
materials are formed. These are:
i. Absorption of water and compression of faecal materials
About 90% of the water content of the undigested food materials are absorbed
here. This makes the food residue hard and it becomes more of a semi-solid.
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It is also compressed and compacted to become faeces.
ii. Absorption of minerals with the help of symbiotic bacteria
The symbiotic bacteria, Escherichia E. coli, which are present in the colon,
undergo metabolic processes and produce vitamins B and K which are absorbed
through the colon wall.
iii. Lubrication of the faecal materials
The faecal materials are lubricated by the mucus secreted by the wall of the
colon and move along the colon via the action of peristalsis.
iv. Storage
The faecal materials are stored for about 12-24 hours before defecation. Thedefecation is achieved via the relaxation and contraction of the anal
sphincter muscles which expell the faeces out through the anus.
Problems related to Defecation
There are a number of problems related to defecation. They are:
i. Constipation
ii. Haemorrhoids (piles)
ii. Colon cancer
- ConstipationConstipation is the condition in which the faecal materials are dry, hard and
difficult to expel out of the anus. Constipation is caused because a large amount
of water has been removed, making the faeces dry and hard; its movement along the
colon is also slow.
Constipation can be overcome by following diet that is rich in fibre. Food that is
rich in fibre can facilitate the movement of undigested food materials along the
colon. Consuming more liquids also helps in overcoming the problem of
constipation.
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- Haemorrhoids (piles)Haemorrhoids is the condition of abnormally swollen and inflamed veins in the
rectum and anus. It is caused by prolonged constipation where too much pressure is
being applied to the rectum, causing the blood veins to swell and bulge. In
extreme cases, the veins can rupture causing bleeding during defaecation.
Colon cancerColon cancer is a growth developing in the tissues of the colon. There are many
reasons for the cancer to develop; the main one would be a diet deficient of fibre
as well as infrequent elimination of faeces. The prolonged contact between the
colon and undigested food, containing toxic substances such as carcinogens, can
lead to the formation of cancer.
Good Eating HabitsGood eating habits means consuming food in the right proportions and of the right
quality at the right time intervals. These include:
i. Eating at the right time and not taking too many snacks
ii. Practising a balanced diet
iii. Consuming the right amount of water
iv. Consuming food rich in fibre
v. Use the food pyramid as a guide to food intake
vi. Eating food in the right amounts without over- or under-eating
vii. Avoiding food rich in sugar, fats and salt
Health Problems Related to Bad Eating HabitsThere are many health problems related to bad eating habits. They are:
i. Obesity
ii. Anorexia nervosa
iii. Bulimia
iv. Gastritis
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- ObesityObesity can be defined as a body weight and size of about 20% above normal. It is
caused by the excessive storage of energy in the form of fats resulting from the
excessive intake of energy-rich food such as carbohydrates and fats. Lack of
exercise also contributes to obesity. People with obesity are susceptible to
various diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and diabetes
mellitus. Obesity can be reduced by the practice of having a balanced diet and
regular exercise.
- Anorexia nervosaAnorexia (an "without", orexis "appetite") is a psychological eating disorder
mostly affecting adolescent girls and women and is characterised by a constant
fear of weight gain and a change in the body shape. As a result, the person has no
appetite for food, suffers excessive weight loss and has a distorted image of a
healthy body. Sufferers continue to think that they look overweight although in
actual fact, they are bone-thin.
This condition can lead to various diseases such as disruption in the functions of
the heart, endocrine and reproductive systems. It can be overcome by proper
counselling to correct the fear of gaining weight and other emotional stresses.
- BulimiaBulimia (boulima "ravenous hunger") is a psychological eating disorder where
there are occasions when the person has the urge to consume a large amount of food
(binge eating) in a short period of time and is unable to stop eating during the
binge. This is quickly followed by a sense of guilt of having taken too much food
and purging the food out of the body via self-induced vomiting. In some cases,
laxatives are used to get rid of the food.
The person with bulimia may have the normal body mass, but the repeated purging of
the food out of the body may result in injury to the digestive tract at the same
time causing an imbalance of salts and minerals in the body. This increases therisks of other diseases such as failure of the kidneys, liver or heart. This
disease can be overcome by counselling to eliminate the psychological urge of
consuming too much food in a short period of time and feeling guilty about it.
- GastritisGastritis is the condition in which the epithelial lining of the stomach is
inflamed and eroded. In a normal body, the epithelial lining of the stomach wall
is covered with mucus which protects the lining from hydrochloric acid. The
prolonged and continuous absence of food in the stomach causes the acid to act on
the lining and damage it. In severe cases, the damage can develop into a hole
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causing a gastric ulcer. There is a possibility that stomach cancer may also
develop
Gastritis is due to bad eating habits such as the over-consumption of alcohols,
drugs, ( e.g., aspirin), irregular food intake and stress. The symptoms of
gastritis include pains in the upper abdomen, loss of appetite, heartburns, nausea
and loss of weight.
Evaluating Eating HabitsGood eating habits are important for the maintainance of good health. Apart from
good eating habits, emphasis must also be given to the amount of nutrients in the
food, its freshness and the amount of food additives such as colouring agents and
preservatives being added to the food.
Good eating habits are also reflected in the body weight and size. The body weight
and size can be measured using the body mass index (BMI). The following table
shows the BMI as an indicator of the body size and weight which reflect the eating
habits.
Effects of a Defective Digestive SystemA defective system is a system that does not function normally. There are many
parts in the digestive system and the defect of any part of this system will have
an overall effect on the process of digestion. We shall look at each of the parts,
the defects that might occur and the effects that follow.
- The MouthAny defect in the mouth may be related to the process of chewing. This can lead to
solid food not being properly broken down; the food is then not properly digested.
- The Salivary GlandsA defect in the salivary glands normally means the defective secretion of saliva.
This leads to the improper digestion of food in the mouth. The food might alsotaste different from its normal taste.
- The OesophagusDefects in the oesophagus include its weak relaxation and contraction. The food
bolus moving down the oesophagus is impaired.
- The StomachProblems in the stomach include a lack of the secretion of mucus, acids and
enzymes. This will cause poor food digestion and the formation of stomach ulcers.
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- The DuodenumDefects in the duodenum include a damaged epithelial lining. This reduces the
efficiency of nutrient absorption.
- The Large IntestineDefects in the large intestine include poor contraction and relaxation of the
stomach muscles. They will result in the slow movement of food down the colon,
leading to constipation.
Taking Care of the Digestive SystemWe need to care of our digestive system. This is to ensure that the system is
functioning properly and the nutrients are absorbed efficiently and assimilated by
the cells. There are several practices one can follow to ensure that the digestivesystem is healthy. These include:
i. Having a balanced dietary intake
ii. Drinking a lot of water
iii. Taking food at regular time intervals
iv. Avoiding junk food and food with high sugar and fat contents
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Elements Required by PlantsElements are required by plants to synthesise organic molecules (carbohydrates,
nutrients, minerals) necessary for their optimal growth and development. An
element such as carbon dioxide is obtained directly from the atmosphere whereas
elements such as hydrogen and oxygen are obtained from water from the soils. Other
elements in the form of minerals are obtained from the soils.
The elements required by plants can be classified as follows:
i. Macronutrients
ii. Micronutrients
- MacronutrientsMacronutrients are elements that are required by plants in large quantities. These
elements include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium and
magnesium.
- MicronutrientsMicronutrients are elements that are required by plants in small quantities. These
elements include boron, molybdenum, iron, copper and zinc.
- Knops SolutionKnops solution is a complete cultured solution containing all the necessary
elements needed for optimal growth and development.
Plants can be grown using a cultured solution such as Knops solution. The
function of a particular element to the growth and development of the plant can
also be determined by eliminating a particular element from Knops solution. The
physical characteristics of the plants, such as the colour of the leaves, height
of the plant and thickness and hardness of the stems, are then observed and
compared with the control culture containing all the elements as in Knops
solution.
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Functions and Effects of Nutrients Deficiencies in PlantsThe functions of macronutrients and micronutrients and the effects of their
deficiencies in plants are shown the table below.
The Discovery of PhotosynthesisMany experiments were conducted by scientists leading to the discovery of
photosynthesis. We shall look at the prominent scientists who contributed
immensely to the discovery of photosynthesis. They are:
i. Jean Baptista van Helmont
ii. Joseph Priestley
iii. Jan Ingenhousz
- Jean Baptista van HelmontJean Baptista van Helmont conducted the experiment in 1640 and he was able to show
that the growth of plants is due to the water absorbed by the plants and not
because of the soil. The figure below shows the experiment conducted by Van
Helmont. Experiment showing that the growth of plants is due to the absorption of
water.
Van Helmont used a young willow tree weighing 2.3 kg and soil weighing 91 kg. He
watered the plant regularly and covered the pot it was planted in with a metal
plate drilled with tiny holes to allow the flow of gas and water. The metal plate
prevented dust from mixing with the soil.
After five years, the plant grew achieving the weight of 76.6 kg, an increase of
76.6 kg - 2.3 kg = 74.3 kg. However, the soil weight was 90.65 kg, a decrease of
91kg - 90.65 kg = 0.35 kg, indicating almost no change. He concluded that the
increase in the weight of the plant was due to water and not the soil.
- Joseph PriestleyJoseph Priestley conducted his experiment in 1772. In the experiment, he was able
to show that plants emit gases that can support combustion and respiration. The
figure below shows the experiment conducted by Priestley.
Experiment showing that plants emit gas that supports combustion and respiration
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In the first experiment, lighted candles and a mouse were placed in an airtight
container. Very soon, the flame was extinguished and the mouse died. This was due
to the lack of oxygen to support the combustion and respiration.
In the second experiment, a lighted candle and mouse were placed in an airtight
container together with a plant. Priestley found that the flame did not go off and
the mouse remained alive. This indicated that the plant was able to replenish the
oxygen consumed by combustion and respiration. At that time, Priestley did not
know that the gas emitted by the plant was oxygen.
- Jan IngenhouszIngenhousz carried out his experiment in 1779 and found that leaves emit oxygen in
the presence of sunlight. In addition, he showed that the green portion of the
plant (chlorophyll) is responsible for the emission of oxygen. His findings
revealed that sunlight and chlorophyll are the important components for
photosynthesis.
The Structure of LeavesThe main organ for photosynthesis is the leaf. It is highly adapted to receive the
maximum amount of sunlight and for the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaf
and oxygen out of the leaf. It is also very well adapted for the absorption of
minerals and water from the roots.
The figure below shows the cross-section of a leaf. The cross -sectional structure
shows the following parts of the leaf:
i. The cuticle
ii. The upper epidermis
iii. The palisade mesophyll
iv. The spongy mesophyll
v. The lower epidermis
Adaptation of Plants of Different Habitats to Carry Out PhotosynthesisPlants from various habitats (plants in tropical areas, floating plants, plants in
the deserts and submerged plants) have unique characteristics to ensure that
photosynthesis can be carried optimally.
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The Structure of ChloroplastThere are three main components in chloroplast:
i. The stroma
ii. The grana (singular: granum)
iii. The starch grains
- The StromaThe stroma is a gel like (semi-fluid) matrix which fills the chloroplast. In the
stroma, there are the grana and starch grains. The stroma also contains enzymes
responsible for the dark reaction (reaction without light) of photosynthesis.
- The GranaGrana are made of stacks of thylakoids. A thylakoid is the membrane-like structure
of the plant where the chlorophyll (the green pigment) is embedded. The light
reaction of photosynthesis (reaction with light) takes place in the thylakoids.
- Starch grainsStarch grains are embedded in the stroma. They act as temporary places for thestorage of photosynthetic reactions.
The Mechanism of PhotosynthesisThere are two types of photosynthesis. These are:
i. Light photosynthesis
ii. Dark photosynthesis
Each of these types of photosynthesis involves a different mechanism. We shall at
each of them in detail.
- Light PhotosynthesisLight reactions take place in the presence of light and occur in the thylakoids of
the grana. Light energy captured by the chlorophyll releases electrons and energy
from the chlorophyll molecules. At the same time, the light energy splits the
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water molecules into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyls ions (OH-). This process is
called photolysis.
The electrons released by the chlorophyll combine with hydrogen ions (H+)to form hydrogen atoms.
The hydroxyl ions lose their electrons and form hydroxyl groups which arebroken down to form water and oxygen.
The energy released from the chlorophyll molecules is used in theproduction of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which results in energy rich
molecules. The final products of light reactions are hydrogen, water,
oxygen and ATP. The ATP and hydrogen are used in dark reactions.
Dark PhotosynthesisDark photosynthesis occurs in the absence of light and takes place in the stroma
of the chloroplast. This reaction is assisted by photosynthetic enzymes and in the
presence of ATP produced in light reactions. In these reactions, the atmospheric
carbon dioxide which diffuses into the leaves is combined with hydrogen (produced
in the light reactions) and is reduced to glucose (simple sugar).
The glucose produced by the dark reactions is converted to starch and is stored as
starch grains in the chloroplast. It is then transformed into sucrose and
circulated around the plant. Starch is also used to produce the cellulose of the
cell walls. Glucose may also be converted to proteins and fats required by the
plant.
Similarities and Differences between Light and Dark ReactionsThe similarities between light and dark reactions are as follows:
i. Both reactions occur in the chloroplast
ii. Both are photosynthetic reactions
The differences between light and dark reactions are as follows:
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Factors Affecting the Rate of PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis only takes place in the presence of light, as well as when there
are carbon dioxide, water and chlorophyll available. The rate of photosynthesis
therefore depends on the following factors:
i. Light intensity
ii. Carbon dioxide concentration
iii. The temperature
iii. The amount of water available
- Light intensityIf the amount of carbon dioxide and the temperature are kept constant, the rate of
photosynthesis is directly proportional to the light intensity. This means that as
the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases. This
relationship is true to a certain point where the light intensity is concerned.
Beyond this point, the rate of photosynthesis remains constant. Any further
increase in the light intensity has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis. This
point is called the saturated point and beyond this point, we say that the rate of
photosynthesis has saturated.
The figure below shows the effect of light intensity on the rate of
photosynthesis.
Beyond the saturation point, the rate of photosynthesis remains constant even if
the light intensity is being increased further. This is because the temperature
and the concentration of the carbon dioxide become the limiting factors governing
the rate of photosynthesis.
If the light intensity is increased further, there will come a point where the
chlorophyll will be damaged and the rate of photosynthesis will slow down.
- Carbon dioxide concentrationThe relationship between the concentration of carbon dioxide with the rate of
photosynthesis is similar to the relationship of light intensity with the rate of
photosynthesis discussed above. This is to say that, if the light intensity and
the temperature are kept constant, the concentration of carbon dioxide is directly
proportional to the rate of photosynthesis. The higher the concentration of carbon
dioxide, the higher is the rate of photosynthesis.
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This relationship holds true until a saturation point. Beyond this point, any
increase in the concentration has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis. The
rate remains constant. The figure below shows the relationship between the
concentration of carbon dioxide with the rate of photosynthesis.
- The temperatureWhen the light intensity and concentration of the carbon dioxide are kept
constant, an increase in the temperature increases the rate of enzyme activities
and hence, increases the rate of photosynthesis. The rate increases until the
maximum rate at the temperature of about 25-30 degrees Centigrade is reached. If
the temperature is increased further, the enzymes are denatured and the rate of
photosynthesis drops drastically. At a sufficiently high temperature, all the
enzymes are denatured and no photosynthesis can take place.
- The amount of water availableThe amount of water available is not a limiting factor for photosynthesis. This is
because the amount of water needed for photosynthesis is very small. However, the
amount of water available affects the rate of photosynthesis indirectly. When the
amount of water available is insufficient, the plant wilts and the stomata in the
leaves close. In this situation, the diffusion of carbon dioxide is unable to take
place and photosynthesis cannot be carried out.
-
Differences in the rate of photosynthesis throughout the day
The rate of photosynthesis is not constant throughout the day but fluctuates
depending on the intensity of light and the temperature. In the early morning, the
rate of photosynthesis is low because the light intensity and the temperature are
low; it slowly increases and reaches its maximum at noon when the light intensity
and the temperature are at the maximum.
The rate of photosynthesis saturates at midday because the concentration of carbon
dioxide becomes the limiting factor. In the evening, the rate of photosynthesis
decreases and reaches its minimum point at sunset. When there is no sunlight, thedark reaction of photosynthesis takes place. The figure below shows the variations
in the rate of photosynthesis throughout the day.
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The green housePlants grow very well in the tropics where the temperature, sunlight and rainfall
are at an optimum. However, this is not the case in countries located in the
northern and southern hemispheres where four seasons winter, spring, autumn and
summer exist. In such places, the rate of photosynthesis and hence, the
productivity of crops, vary throughout the year.
The productivity of crops is highest in summer when there is sufficient light
intensity and a suitable temperature. In winter, there is no crop productivity
since there is minimal sunlight and the temperature is the lowest. In order to
ensure a continuous supply of crops, such as fruits and vegetables, some plants
are grown in green houses.
In the green houses, farmers can control and regulate the amount of light
intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide as well the amount of water so as to create
the optimum conditions for photosynthesis and hence, maximise the crop yields.
These conditions allow crop productions throughout the year regardless of changes
in the weather outside the green houses.
Why Are Plants Important?
Green plants are sources of energy for many living organisms including humans and
other heterotrophs. Life on earth cannot be sustained without the presence ofgreen plants. Other examples of the importance of plants are:
i. The ecosystem
Green plants emit oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The plants help in the
balance of nature in the ecosystem by replenishing the oxygen in the
atmosphere which is used by other living organisms.
ii. Climate control
Plant helps to control the climate. The destruction of forests on a massive
scale leads to global warming. Excessive clearing of these forests at slopes
leads to soil erosion. Plants also help in water catchment areas to ensure
continuous water supplies for human consumption. Plants in the city, such as
in parks, help to cool the city and make it more conducive for living.
iii. Medicine
Plants are the sources of many types of medicine which can cure diseases.
Most of the plants in the forests have not been fully explored for theirpotential in the development of new drugs and vaccines. The indiscriminate
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clearing of the forests means that these potential sources are lost forever.
A Caring Attitude Towards PlantsA caring attitude towards plants would result in the following:
i. No indiscriminate clearing of forests. Selected logging should be encouraged.
ii. Replanting of plants soon after logging or forest clearing.
iii. Systematic and sustainable forest management.
iv. The clearing of forests is mainly for wood. Alternative products to replace
wood for the construction industry should be encouraged.
- Need to Improve the Quality and Increase the Quantity of Food
The need to improve the quality of food and increase food production is due to the
increasing human population and hence, an increase in the demand for food. The
population of Malaysia is expected to reach 70 million in 10 years' time and
appropriate action based on the national food production policy must be taken so
that adequate food is available for everyone.
Diversification in food production in one of the alternatives to ensure that
sufficient amounts of food are made available to everyone. The most efficient way
of improving the quality of food and increase food production is by the use of
technology.
Methods of Improving the Quality of Food and Increasing Food ProductionThere are various ways in which technology can be used to improve the quality of
food and increase production. Examples where technology can be used are:
i. Direct seeding
ii. Hydroponics
iii. Breeding
iv. Tissue culture
v. Genetic engineering
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vi. Soil management
vii. Biological control
- Seeding machineTechnology can be used in seeding such as in the planting of paddy. A special
drilling machine is used to sow the seeds directly into the soil. In this way, the
seeding can be done faster and efficiently and production costs are lowered. In
addition, higher production is achieved.
- HydroponicsHydroponics is the planting and growing of plants in a cultured solution insteadof in the soil. The cultured solution contains all the necessary macronutrients
and micronutrients. Normally, the hydroponics is carried out in green houses where
the light intensity, concentration of carbon dioxide and the temperature can be
controlled to provide optimum conditions for the growth of the plants.
- Selective BreedingSeveral cows of the same types
Selective breeding is a process whereby parents of plants or animals of desirable
characteristics and traits are chosen to produce offspring. In the case of plants,
better yields of high nutritional values, greater resistance to diseases and a
short maturity time are chosen. This means that only high quality and quantity
products are being produced.
- Tissue CultureTissue culture is the growing of tissues of a living organism in a cultured
solution of suitable nutrients and hormones. This is carried out outside the body
of the plants. Many plants, such as oil palm, papayas, bananas, etc., have beenproduced or cloned in large quantities via tissue cultures. The clones have the
same traits and characteristics as the parents, including better yields of high
nutritional values, great resistance to diseases, a short maturity time, etc. In
this way, high quality products are produced.
- Genetic EngineeringGenetic engineering is the manipulation of the DNA involving the deletion or
insertion of the gene (segment of DNA) to produce a new organism with desirable
traits. The organism produced via genetic engineering is called a geneticallymodified organism (GMO). The GMO has been used extensively in agriculture to
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improve crop productions in terms of the yields, nutritional contents as well as
resistance to pathogens and pests.
- Soil ManagementTractor working the soil
The soil is the medium for the growth of plants. The management of the soil in
terms of its chemical, physical and biological properties is important to ensure
that the soil texture, the contents of the organic matter, water contents and
microorganisms are always available for every cycle of the crop production. This
ensures that the soil quality is sustainable for each crop cycle.
Some practices of good soil management are crop rotations, use of a controlled
amount of fertilisers, contour planting to prevent erosion and the use of plant
legumes as a ground cover to increase soil fertility and prevent soil erosion.
- Biological ControlLady birds
Biological control is the natural control of pests using natural predators. Such a
method is environmentally friendly as no poisonous or toxic chemical pesticides
are involved. Examples of natural biological control methods are the use of
ladybirds which prey on mealybugs which suck the juices from leaves, flowers and
fruits. The rats which destroy paddy plants can be controlled by introducingsnakes and owls which are natural predators of rats.
The Need for Food ProcessingFood processing is a method of transforming raw food materials into food suitable
for human consumption. The main purpose of food processing is to eliminate food
spoilage. Food spoilage is caused by:
i. The action of microorganisms
ii. The oxidation of food
- The action of microorganismsThe action of microorganisms, such saprophytic bacteria and fungi, on
carbohydrates and protein in the food produces products with unpleasant smells;
they are toxic when consumed.
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- The oxidation of foodThe oxidation of food is the reaction between oxygen and food; this results in
changes in the taste, colour and nature of the food. The oxidation of bananas and
apples causes their change of colour when they are cut.
There are various reasons for food processing. These are:
i. Extending the life span of the food
ii. Avoiding wastage of food
iii. Diversify the use of food
iv. For sufficient food supplies
Methods of Food ProcessingFood processing and preservation have been practised from early days. The
techniques involved are adding of sugar, salt or vinegar to the food, drying in
the sun, smoking, fermentation and cooking. The modern methods of food processing
are:
i. Pasteurisation
ii. Sterilisation
iii. Refrigeration
iv. Canning
v. Irradiation
The basic principle of food processing is to kill the microorganisms, thus
preventing (inhibiting) their activities or growth. When the microorganisms are
killed or when they are inactive, the food lasts longer. The methods of food
processing and their effects on the microorganisms are shown in the table below.
Effects of Processed Food on HealthProcessed food is normally devoid of nutritional contents. This is because the
vitamins and nutrients have been destroyed during the heating process. In
addition, processed food contains many chemicals in the form of food
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preservatives, flavouring, colouring, stabilisers, etc. Some of these chemicals
are harmful to health.
It is advisable to consume more fresh organic fruits and vegetables than processed
food. When choosing processed food, it is a good practice to read the food labels
to determine the type of chemicals present in the food. In this way, we are aware
of the type and the quality of the processed food before consuming it.
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