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Leadership: Concepts and skills of leadership, Leadership andmanagerial roles, Leadership styles and effectiveness,Contemporary issues in leadership.
Motivation: Motivation concepts, Motives, Theories of motivationand their applications for behavioural change.
Team Building & Empowerment: Nature of effective groups,Team formation, making teams effective, Cross functional andself directed teams, empowerment.Conflict Resolution: Conflict definition; causes of organizational,group & role conflicts; conflict resolution and management
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Leadership means: style of a leader
Leader:
Individual who influences others towards a common larger goal
Characteristics:
Manager Leader
Administers Innovates
Maintains Develops
Focuses on systems & structure Focuses on people
Relies on control Inspires trust
Short term perspective Long term perspective
Asks how & when Asks what & why
Eyes on bottom line Eyes on horizon
Accepts status quo Challenges status quo
Does things right Does the right thing
The historically important studies on leadership1. The Iowa leadership studies:
a. The experiments were designed to examine patterns ofaggressive behaviour
b. Under authoritarian leadership, members were apathetic
c. The laissez faire leadership, produced more aggressiveacts
d. Under democratic leadershipi. Members behaviour fell between authoritarian &
laissez faire leadership styles2. The Ohio State of leadership studies
a. The following two dimensions of leadership emerged:i. Consideration
1. Means: mission / task or goal orientationii. Initiating structures
1. Concern for the welfare of the troops /recognition of individual needs & relationships
iii. The study shows how leaders carry out theirleadership function
iv. The study points out & emphasis the importance ofboth task & human dimensions
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3. The early Michigan leadership studiesa. If supervisors had a genuine concern for employees, the
production was highb. If supervisors were production centered, production was
lowc. Employee satisfaction was directly related to productivity
Traditional theories on leadership:1. Trait leadership
a. Leaders are born & not made2. Situational approach
a. Contingency theory of leadershipi. Leader viewed as a product of time & situationii. The person with a particular trait that a situation
requires will emerge as leaderb. Fiedler observed under favourable situation the task
directed leadership was most effectivec. Under unfavourable situation, authoritarian leadership
was most effectived. When the situation was in between favourable &
unfavourable, democratic leadership emerged3. Path-goal leadership theory
a. It attempts to explain the impact of leaders behaviour onsubordinates: motivation, satisfaction & performance
b. This gives rise to following leadership styles:i. Directive leadership
1. leaders gives direction2. subordinates knows what has to be done3. no participation of subordinates
ii. Supportive leadership1. leader approachable2. shows genuine concern for subordinates
iii. Participative leadership
1. leader asks for suggestions from subordinates2. but the decision making rests with the leader
iv. Achievement-oriented leadership1. leader sets challenging goals for subordinates2. shows confidence in them that they will attain
& perform well
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c. using one of the four styles contingent on the situationalfactors, the leader attempts to influence subordinatesperceptions & motivates them, which in turn leads to theirrole clarity, goal expectations, satisfaction & performance
Modern theoretical process of leadership
Includes:o Charismatic leadership theories
Individuals who by the force of their personalabilities are capable of having profound &extraordinary effects on followers
o Transformational
Are people oriented
While transactional leaders are task orientedo Social cognitive
Interaction style between leader & his subordinates
Their respective behaviours have a mutual impacton each other
The leader should believe that his employees willrise to occasion
o Substitutes
They are neutralizers that prevent leader frombehaving in certain way
These substitutes or neutralizers can be found insubordinate, task & in organization
Examples
Subordinate:o Works for satisfaction & not reward
Task:o Tasks are structured
Organization:o Cohesive work group
The theory tries to point out that some things arebeyond leaders control
Leaders do not have mystical powers over people.The situation plays a role
o Authentic
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The authentic leader is: confident, hopeful,optimistic, resilient, transparent, moral futureoriented, & develops associates
To be authentic,
The leader should be aware of his ownstrength & weakness, & regulate his ownbehaviour
The organizational environment should besupportive & conducive for development of theabove qualities
Leadership across cultures:o In a global economy, the key to making right choices
comes from having qualities like personal values, themanagers background [upbringing] & interpersonal skills
Great leaders: styles, activities & skills
Leadership styles:o The Tannenbaum & Schmidt continuum of leadership
behaviour
Could be either boss centered or people centered
Boss centered People centered
Theory X Theory Y
Autocratic Democratic
Production centered Employee centeredClose General
Initiating structure Consideration
Task directed Human relations
Directive Supportive / Participative
o Range of behaviour of a leader:
Makes decisions & announces
Sells decision
Presents ideas & invites suggestion Presents tentative decisions, subject to change
Presents problems. Get suggestions,& makesdecisions
Defines limit, asks group to make decision
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Permits subordinates to function within definedboundaries
o The Blake & Mouton managerial grid
It represents varying combination of concern forpeople & task
1:1: low concern for people & low concern for task
1:9: low concern for task & high concern for people
9:9: high concern for people & high concern for task
9:1: high concern for task & low concern for people
5:5: middle of the road
1:9 9:91:1 9:1
o Hersey & Blanchards approach
Identifies two major styles:
Task styleso Roles are defined
o Task w.r.t.: What / When / How is told in
advance
Relationship styles
o Leader has close relationship withmembers
o Communication is open
o Psychological support
Taking a contingency approach to recognize situationalvariables; Hersey & Blanchard incorporated the maturity of thefollowers into the model. The level of maturity is defined by thefollowing criteria:
o Degree of achievement motivation
o Willingness to take on responsibility
o Amount of education & / or experience
The key for leadership effectiveness in this model is to matchup the situation with the appropriate style. The following are thebasic four styles:
o Telling style
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High Task, Low on Relationshipo Selling style
High Task & High Relationshipo Participating style
Low on Task; High Relationshipo Delegating style
Low on Task, Low Relationship
Todays Leadership Styles:o Blake Mouton managerial grid & Hersey & Blanchards
are still relevant in todays contexto Jim Collins: 5 Leadership Style:
The essence of level 5 leadership is, having anambition for the cause of the work, the outcome, the
company, the organization: above self. And at thesame time, having the ferocious, frightening,terrifying wilfulness to act on that ambition
o Leadership researchers House & Podsakoff behaviours &
approaches of great leaders based on charismatic &transformational theories came out with behaviours &approaches of great leaders:
Vision
Passion & self-sacrifice
Confidence, determination & persistence Image building
Role modelling
External representation
Expectations of & confidence in followers
Selective motive arousal
Frame alignment [alignment of goals / ideologies /activities]
Inspirational communication
The roles & activities of leadership
Mintzberg proposes the following managerial roles:o Interpersonal roles
Figurehead
Motivator
Liaison
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o Informational roles
Monitor
Disseminator
spokesman
o Decision roles Entrepreneur
Disturbance handler
Resource allocator
NegotiatorActivities of successful & effective leaders
The time spent by above managers in the activities engaged by them:
types of
managers
traditional
management
communication people
management
networking
average 32% 29% 20% 19%
successful 13% 28% 11% 48%
effective 19% 44% 26% 11%
Managers need to develop their people skills if they are to be effective
Leadership skills:
Cultural flexibility
Communication skills HRD skills
Creativity
Self-management of learning
According to Whetten & Cameron , a leader should haveo Personal skills
Consists of:
Developing self awarenesso Determining values & priorities
o Identifying cognitive styleo Assessing attitude toward change
Solving problems creativelyo Using the rational approach
o Using the creative approach
o Fostering innovations in others
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Managing stresso Coping with stressors
o Managing time
o Delegating
o Interpersonal skills
Consists of:
Communicating supportivelyo Coaching
o
Counsellingo Listening
Gaining power & influence:o Gaining power
o Exercising influence
o Empowering others
Motivating otherso Diagnosing poor performance
o Creating a motivating environment
o Rewarding accomplishments Managing conflict
o Identifying causes
o Selecting appropriate strategies
o Resolving confrontations
Leadership skills & career development program
Three primary areas to be developed:o Knowledge
o Trust
o Power Leadership can be taught
1. Comment: Men make better leaders thanwomen
2. How do you build trust?
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3. Do you think trust evolves out of anindividuals personal characteristics or out ofspecific situations? Explain
4. What kind of activities should you as a studentpursues that might lead to the perception thathe / she is a charismatic leader? In pursuingthose activities, what might the student do toenhance this perception of being charismatic?
MOTIVATIONMeaning
It is a process.
Starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need
That activates a behaviour or drive
That is aimed to at a goal or incentive
Primary motives:
includes:o Hunger
o Thirst
o Sleep
o Avoidance of pain
o Sex
o Maternal concern
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Two criteria must be met in order for a motive to be included inthe primary classification
o Unlearned
o Physiological
Since people have the same physiological makeup, they willessentially have the same primary needs
General motives
The curiosity, manipulation & activity motives
If the above motives are not expressed in an organizationpeople may not be motivated
Affection motive is closely associated with primary motive
Secondary motives:
Are closely tied to the learning concepts
A motive must be learned in order to be included in secondaryclassification
It includes:o Power
o Achievement
o Affiliation
In the study of OB, following motives are also included insecondary motives:
o Security
o Status
Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motives
Extrinsic:o Extrinsic motives are tangible & visible to others
o They are distributed by other people
o Extrinsic motives include rewards & avoidance of
punishment. Extrinsic rewards are contingency based
Intrinsic:o Are internally generated
o Includes feelings of responsibility, achievement,
accomplishmento Performing meaningful work has been associated with
intrinsic motion
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Work motivation approaches:
Consists ofo Content theories
Includes;
Scientific management
Human relations
Maslow
Herzberg
Alderfer
Process theorieso Includes:
Lewin & Tolman
Vroom Porter & Lawler
Lawler
Contemporary theorieso Festinger & Homans
o Adams
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
He identified following needs:
o Physiological Corresponds to basic needs, viz. food, clothing &
shelter
Taken care by pay packeto Safety
Includes both emotional & physical safety
Loss of employment
Injury to any part of the body
Taken by care by various social legislation
o Social Corresponds to affection & affiliation needs
Being member of a team
o Esteem
Need for power, achievement & status
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Titles, symbolso Self-actualization
Realizing ones potential
Personal growth
According to him, once the lower needs are fulfilled, then theindividual moves to the next level
Herzbergs two factor theory
Hygiene factors includes:o Companys policy & administration
o Supervision
o Salary
o Interpersonal relations
o Working conditions
Motivator factors: includes:o Achievement
o Recognition
o Work itself
o Responsibility
o Advancement
Alderfers ERG theory
He identified three core needs
o Existence Relates to physiological well being
o Relatedness
Relates to social relationshipo Growth
Relates to personal development
According to him an individual can be at the same time at twolevels
Vrooms expectancy theory of motivation: It is built around the concept of valence, instrumentality &
expectancy
Valence means the strength of an individuals preference. Thevalue which an individual puts to the outcome
Expectancy means the probability that a particular action oreffort will lead to the particular outcome
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Instrumentality means the degree to which the effort should beput to accomplish the outcome
The Porter-Lawler model
It consists of the following steps:
o Value of reward
o Perceived effort
o Efforts
o Abilities
o Role perceptions
o Performance
o Rewards [intrinsic & extrinsic]
o Perceived equitable rewards
o Satisfaction Equity theory of work motivation
o Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of
his / her outcome to inputs & the ratio of a relevant othersoutcomes to inputs are unequal
o Both the inputs & the outputs of the person & the other
are based on the persons perceptionso Outcomes consists of rewards [both intrinsic & extrinsic]
Motivation across cultures The following factors contribute to the motivational differences
across culture:
The roles of religion
The role of uncertainty avoidance
The role of power distance
1. What is the role of self-efficacy in goalsetting?
2. Explain the formula: Performance = f[A X M XO] & give an example
3. Can an individual be too motivated so that hisperformance declines as result of excessiveeffort? Discuss
4. Performance cant measure, so any effort tolink pay with performance is a fantasy.
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Differences in performance are caused by thesystem, which means the organization endsup rewarding the circumstances.
TEAMThe nature of groups:
If a group exists in an organization, its members:o Are motivated to join
o Perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting people
o Contribute in various amounts to the group processes [i.e.
some people contribute more time or energy to the groupthan do others]
o Reach agreements & have disagreements through
various forms of interaction
Group dynamics describes how a group should be organized &conducted
Stages in group formation:
Formingo There is uncertainty & even confusion
o Members are not sure about the purpose, structure, task
or leadership of the group
Stormingo It is characterized by conflict & confrontation
o Atmosphere is emotionally charged, for there is
considerable disagreement & conflict among themembers about roles & duties
Normingo Cooperation & collaboration sets in.
o Have we feeling with a high cohesion, group identity &
camaraderie
Performingo Group is fully functioningo Devoted to effectively accomplishing the tasks agreed
upon.
Adjourningo It represents the end of the group
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Types of group
Small & large groups
Primary & secondary groups
Coalitions
Membership & Reference groupso Example of membership: crafts union
o Example of reference group: individual like to belong. or
become member of a prestigious social groups
In & out groupso In groups are those who have or share the dominant
valueso Out groups are those on the outside looking in.
Formal & informal groups
Factors that increase & decrease group cohesiveness:Factors that increase groupcohesiveness
Factors that decreases groupcohesiveness
Agreement on group goals Disagreement on group goals
Frequency interaction Large group size
Personal attractiveness Unpleasant experiences
Intergroup competition Intragroup competition
Favourable evaluation Domination by one or moremembers
Group / Team effectiveness
The following are the ways to enhance the satisfaction &performance of the group:
o Organize work around intact groups
o Having groups charged with selection, training &
rewarding of memberso Using groups to enforce strong norms for behaviour
o Distributing resources on a group rather than an individual
basiso Allowing & perhaps even promoting intergroup rivalry so
as to build within group solidarity
The following factors play a major role in determining groupeffectiveness:
o Task interdependence
How closely group members work together
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o Outcome interdependence
How group performance is rewardedo Potency
Members belief that the group can be effective
To assess group / team effectiveness, first determine thecriteria
Effective groups are characterized as being dependable,making reliable connections between the parts & targeting thedirection & goals of the organization
The dynamics of informal groups:
Formal groups have official prescribed goals & relationships,whereas the informal one does not
Both formal & informal coexist & are inseparable.
Norms & roles in informal groups:
Norms are the ought of behaviour. They are prescriptions foracceptable behaviour determined by the group.
Norms will be strongly enforced by work groups if they:o Aid in group survival & provisions of benefits
o Simplify or make predictable the behaviour expected of
group memberso Help the group avoid embarrassing interpersonal
problemso Express the central values or goals of the group & clarify
what is distinctive about the groups identity A role consists of a pattern of norms. A role is a position that
can be acted out by an individual. The content of a given role isprescribed by the prevailing norms
Role can be defined as a position that has expectations,evolving from established norms
The informal roles wield considerable power In organizations &
are recognized by effective managers
The informal organization:
Benefits of informal organizationo Makes for a more effective total system
o Lightens the workload on management
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o Fills in gaps in managers abilities
o Provides a safety valve for employees emotions
o Improves communication
The dysfunctions of groups & teams: Norm violation
o Results in antisocial behaviour
o If members are chronically exposed to antisocial
behaviours, are more likely to engage in them, resulting indissatisfaction
Role ambiguityo Occurs when the individual employee is unclear about
what is he supposed to be doing
Conflict
o Occurs when an individual is asked to performing tasks or
perform those tasks that are in conflicts with his ownpersonal value system
Groupthinko Results from the pressure on the individual members to
conform & reach consensus
Risky shifto A group may make more risky decision than the individual
members would on their own Social loafingo In a group some members do not contribute & the entire
workload falls on the rest of the group members.
TEAMS IN THE MODERN WORKPLACE: Difference between team & group
Work groups Factors Work teams
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Share information Goal Collectiveperformance
Neutral [sometimesnegative]
Synergy Positive
Individual Accountability Individual & mutualSupplementary Skills Complementary
Types of Teams Problem-solving
o Members are from same departments
o Meet at regular intervals to make the department effective
/ efficient Self managed
o Operate as profit centers
Cross-functionalo Members from different functionso Meet regularly to make the organization effective /
efficient Virtual
o Members physically dispersed
o Work to achieve common goal through computer
How to make team teams more effective?
Through
o Tem building To build a team, we require time & training
Monitor & evaluate on a continuous basis thefollowing key areas:
Teams mission
Goal achievements
Feelings of empowerment
Communications
Roles & norms that are positive
o Collaboration Process of collaboration involves learning how-to
improve interpersonal interactions in group settingswhile committing to a common agenda
o Leadership
Traits of a leader
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Be fair / decisive / trustworthy
Take the blame & give the credit to otherso Understanding cultural issues
Selection of team members with common cultural
backgrounds Respect local laws
Creating effective teams
the model consists of following four categories:o work design: includes: autonomy / skill variety / task
identity / task significanceo composition: includes: competence / attitude
o context: includes: leadership
o process: includes: common purpose / team efficacy /conflict
Turning individuals into team players:
focus ono communicate openly & honestly,
o resolving conflicts
o cultureo
1. How can management invigorate stagnant teams?
2. Dont teams create conflict? Isnt conflict bad? Why then, would
management support the concept of teams?
3. How do you think member expectations might affect team
performance?
4. Under what conditions will challenge of creating team players
be greatest?
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CONFLICTS
Characteristics of the term conflict: Misunderstanding over an issue, because of differences in
perception Can be
o Functional: improves performance
o Dysfunctional: hinders performance
Levels of conflict:o Intra-individual
o Interpersonalo Intergroup
o organizational
Intra-individual:o Forms of conflict in terms of:
o Frustration
o Goals
o Roles
Conflicts due to frustration
When motivated drive is blocked, before a person reaches adesired goal
The barrier may be overt [outward / physical] or covert [inward /mental]
Expressed in the form of defence mechanism, like:o Aggression
Depends upon the perception of being victimized byothers
o Withdrawal
Because of motivational problemso Fixation
Rules become end in themselves
Expressed as irrational bureaucratic behaviouro Compromise
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Where motivated goals cannot be achieved, &fulfilment is sought outside the job
Goal conflict:
Occurs when the goal has both positive & negative features ortwo or more competing goals clash
Types of goal conflicto Approach-approach conflict
Individual is motivated to approach two or positivebut mutually exclusive goals
o Approach-avoidance conflict
Individual is motivated to approach a goal & at thesame time he is motivated to avoid it
The single goal contains both positive & negativecharacteristics for the individual
o Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Individual is motivate to avoid two or more negativebut mutually exclusive goals
Role conflict & ambiguity
There are three major types of role conflict:o Person & the role
Clash between my expectations & role expectationso Intrarole conflict
Contradictory expectations about how a given roleshould be played
o Interrole conflict
Differing requirements of two or more roles thatmust be played at the same time
Ambiguity::o When expectation are mot stated
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Interactive conflict
Refers to interpersonal conflict
Cause is attributed to personality or defect in other person
Four major sources:o Personal differences
No two people are alike.
Hence becomes source of conflicto Information deficiency
Cause is due to communicationo Role incompatibility
For example production manager & sales managershave both have interdependent functions. Howeverthe role of production manager is to cut costs, whilesales manger has the role of increasing roles
through increased sales,. The sales manager may make delivery promises to
customers that are incompatible with the lowinventory levels maintained by production manager
o Environmental stress
Environment is stressful
For example: scarce or shrinking resources,downsizing
The dynamics of individual interacting with one another is as
follows:o Forcing
Assertive / uncooperativeo Accommodating
Unassertive / cooperativeo Avoiding
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Uncooperative / unassertiveo Compromising
Between assertiveness & cooperativenesso Collaborative
Cooperative / assertive
Intergroup behaviour & conflict Occurs when whenever when individuals belonging to one
group interact, collectively or individually with another group orits members
Reasons for intergroup conflicto Competition for resources
o Task interdependence
o Jurisdictional ambiguity
o Status struggle
The effects of stress & intraindividual conflict
Conflicts results in stress.
Stress affects performance
The effect of stress can be seeno Physically
Immunity reduces
Heart problems
Tension / headaches / back pain
Constipation / ulcer / diabeticso Psychologically
Anger
Anxiety
Depression
Nervousness
Irritability
Tension
Boredom
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o Behaviourally
Undereating / overeating
Sleeplessness
Increased smoking / drinking
Drug abuse
Coping strategies for stress & conflict
Individual coping strategieso Exercise
o Relaxation
o Time management
o Socialization
Organizational coping strategieso Be proactive
o Improved personnel selection & job placement
o
Realistic goal settingo Increased employee involvement
o Improved organizational communication
o Establishment of corporate wellness programs [employee
physical & mental conditions]
Negotiation skills: going beyond conflict management
Take integrative approach that uses problem-solvingtechniques to find win-win outcomes
It is based on a collaborative strategy
This approach is also called as principled negotiation ornegotiation based on merits
There are four elements in this approach to negotiation:o People
Separate people from problemo Interest
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Focus on interest & not positionso Options
Generate variety of options, before deciding what todo
o Criteria Result should be based on some objective
standards
The integrative approach requires the effective negotiator touse skills like:
o Establishing Superordinate goals
o Separating people from problem
o Focusing on interest rather than positions
o Inventing options for mutual gain
o Using objective criteria For effective negotiations the techniques have been grouped
into degrees of risk which is as followso Low risk negotiation techniques
Flattery
Addressing easy point
Silence
Make counteroffer
Gain sympathy
o High risk negotiation techniques Unexpected temper loss
High balling [ gain concessions based on trust]
Boulwarism [take it or leave it]
Waiting until the last moment [when deadline isnear, make a reasonable but favourable offer,leaving the opponent little choice but to accept]
The outcome of negotiation should be win: win
1. Under what conditions might conflict be beneficial to a group?2. How could a manager stimulate conflict in his department?3. How do men & women differ if at all in their approaches to
negotiation?4. Why isnt integrative bargaining more widely practised in
organization?
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THE ENDTHANK YOU FOR YOUR PATIENT LISTENING
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