Denotative vs. Connotative
Denotation:
The dictionary (literal, objective) meaning of a word; the meaning that members of a culture assign to a word
Connotation:
A word’s emotional, subjective, or personal associations
Indirect Messages
Advantage:
Indirect messages allow you to express a thought without insulting or offending anyone; they allow you to observe the rules of polite interaction
Disadvantage:
Indirect messages can create ambiguity and be misunderstood
Gender Differences in Directness
Stereotypically, women make indirect requests; men give direct orders
Cultural Differences in Directness
Many Asian and Latin American cultures value indirectness, which enables a person to avoid appearing criticized or contradicted
American styles of communication favour directness
Abstraction
The level of abstraction in verbal communication will vary depending on the context and audience of the message
Use abstraction sparingly; express your meaning in specific terms
Abstract vs Concrete
Abstract terms
-concepts and ideas that have no physical dimensions (freedom, love, happiness, equality)
Concrete terms
-refers to objects, people, happenings that are perceived through sight, smell, touch, hearing, or taste
Context
Verbal and nonverbal messages exist in context, which affects their meaning
Cultural context influences the meaning assigned to speech as well as whether the meaning is friendly, offensive, sensitive, etc.
Inclusion and Exclusion
Inclusive messages:
Include all people present and acknowledge the relevance of others
Exclusive messages:
Exclude specific people and, in some cases, entire cultural groups
Confirmation
Acknowledges the presence of the other person
Indicates your acceptance of this person, of this person’s definition of self, and of your relationship as defined or viewed by this other person
Disconfirmation: Denying Others’ Significance
Sexism: derogatory behaviour or language toward one sex (usually women)
Heterosexism: attitudes, behaviours, and languages that disparage people who are GLBTQ
Racism: conscious or unconscious attempt to place a racial or ethnic group in an inferior position
Ageism: discrimination based on age
Cultural Identifiers
To avoid sexism, heterosexism, racism, and ageism, learn and be sensitive to preferred cultural identifiers
Orientation
Intensional:
To view people, objects, and events in the way they are labeled
Extensional:
To look first at the actual people, objects, and events, and only afterwards at their labels
Facts and Inferences
Recognize the distinction between statements of fact and statements of inference
Fact-Inference Confusion Occurs When
Inferences are treated as fact
Statements are made based on observation and inferences
Factual statements are not based on observed facts only
Inferential statements are not recognized as important to establish what is meaningful
Indiscrimination
The failure to distinguish between similar but different people, objects, or events
Polarization
The tendency to look at the world in terms of opposites and extremes
The fallacy of either/or and black/ white statements
The inappropriate use of opposites
The implication that there are only two sides to a problem—failure to look for middle ground
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