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Cloze
Spelling
Simple sentence construction, etc
Teaching of Grammar
5.0 Introduction
When we talk about writing, we are actually referring to a few different
skills that go into the production of written language. There is the skill
involved in the forming of letters that make up the words. The term for this
particular skill is handwriting. Then there is the ability to arrange the letters
of a word in the correct order. The name for this skill is spelling. Then there
is the skill of organizing and expressing whatever you are planning to
inform using the English language. Generally, we call this written
expression. This is a complex skill comprising a number of sub-skills. First
of all, if a learner wants to write about something, he will need to have
knowledge of the subject area. This is known as ideation. Then he will
need to be able to formulate sentences to express this knowledge and
information that he has. The ideas will need to be planned and arranged in
a connected way to enable the reader to understand clearly what is being
written.
If we stop to think for a moment about all the skills involved in written
expressions, we will realize that the learner needs to have mastered to a
certain degree all the various components of language that we discussed
in the first topic, especially semantics or knowledge of the meanings of
words and phrases and syntax or knowledge of the rules governing the
ordering of words in sentences. In addition, the learner will need to have
mastered the conventions of writing, that is, he must be familiar with the
rules of punctuation and capitalization, and be able to generate ideas, and
subsequently organize his ideas into paragraphs.
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If we take the time to study the English syllabus for pupils with learning
difficulties, we will find that there is very little empasis placed on written
expression, especially in organizing ideas into a connected whole through
writing. Emphasis is placed more on helping the pupils acquire knowledge
of the English language in order to use it for daily communicational and
functional purposes. This is because language mastery is a huge problem
for most of them. Therefore, teachers should not aim for mastery of the
English language. However, these pupils will be sitting for the national
examination. As such, teachers will need to teach them the basic writing
skills which will enable them to do so.
5.1 Factors Affecting Writing Competency
5.1.1 Fine motor skill
Fine motor skills involve the small muscles of the body that enable such
functions as writing, grasping small objects, and fastening clothing. They
involve strength, fine motor control and dexterity.
These skills are important in most school activities as well as in life in
general. Weaknesses in fine motor skills can affect a child's ability to eat,
write legibly, use a computer, turn pages in a book, and perform personal
care tasks such as dressing and grooming.
If your pupil has fine motor weaknesses that may affect his education, you
should discuss your concerns with his parents. Evaluation by a physical
and/or occupational therapist can determine if his fine motor skills are a
concern and if therapy can improve them. An Individual Educational Plan
(IEP) team will use therapists' assessments and other evaluation data to
determine if the child needs regular therapy as a related service. If he
needs therapy to benefit from specially designed instruction, these
services will be written into the individual education program.
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Many toys, like the ones below, can develop fine motor skills :
For school aged children, board games with pieces and parts to pick
up and move are ideal for developing these skills.
Jenga is a strategy game using fine motor skills that focuses on thepincher grip, which is used in writing.
Remote control cars are great for preschool and elementary kids.
Video games can help, but watch out for carpal tunnel syndrome.
Be sure to check the video game ratings to ensure they are
appropriate for your child.
Teachers can also develop fine motor skills by drawing with the child using
markers, crayons, colored pencils, and chalk. Drawings needn't be perfect,
and scribbling is just fine for developing fine motor skills. Teachers can
also make something different by coloring paper with multiple colors and
shapes and then covering the sheet in black crayon. Scratch off with an
orange stick or safety scissors.
Origami is a paper folding art that builds skills and is a fun craft. You can
use construction, wrapping, or other decorative papers to make these fine
motor skill building origami shapes.Paper cutting activities also build finemotor skills and control and can be as simple or complex as you need.
Beginners can start with cutting out paper chains and progress to more
complex projects. Fine motor skills are important for writing. Children
initially grab a pencil with their whole hand in what is known as a "fist grip."
Some children keep their fist upright, with their pinkie finger towards the
paper. Other children turn their fist over with their thumb closest to the
page. Either variation of this fist grip is not correct. Children need to be
deliberately taught how to hold a pencil correctly. This is generally not a
skill children develop on their own or through play.
First, demonstrate the correct pencil position by holding the pencil between
your thumb and pointer finger in a pincer grip. Allow the pencil to rest on
the area of the hand between the finger and the thumb. Finally, bring the
second finger under the pencil for support. After the child observes the
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correct pencil position, take a small pencil (the most suitable one is the
size of golf pencils) and place it correctly in the child's hand.
Finally, supervise your child as he practices with the pencil (or crayon or
marker). Children often slip into old, incorrect habits if they are not watched
while they are learning the correct grip.
5.1.2 Visual-motor Coordination
Visual-motor coordination is the ability to coordinate vision with the
movements of the body or parts of the body.
5.1.3 Perception
Psychologists say perception is someone's view. Everyone is said to have
different perceptions on political, religious, and personal subjects.
Perception is what makes the human race so unique.
Auditory perception refers to the ability of the brain to interpret and create
a clear impression of sounds. Good auditory skills enable children to
distinguish between different pitches, volumes, rhythms and sources of
sounds and words, which has amongst others, significant benefits for
learning reading.
Auditory perception includes:
Auditory closure the ability to complete indistinct or inaudible
words to create a clear auditory image
Auditory conceptualizing the ability to interpret and form a clear
impression of a sound or combination of sounds
Auditory discrimination the ability to interpret information relating
to the differences between sounds, which facilitates understanding
spoken wordsand spelling skills
Auditory localization the ability to determine the sourceof a sound
using only the sense of hearing
Auditory memory the ability to store and later recall the impression
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perceived by the ears
Auditory sequential memory the ability to store a series of
information in the order it was heard and later recall it, to facilitate
following instructions and memorization of rhymes, songs and so
on.
Teachers can carry out some of the activities below to develop auditory
perception among their pupils:
Reciting nursery rhymes offer children opportunities to practice
auditory perception
Listening to a wide range of different types of music and developing
music appreciation.
Playing and singing action songs and rhymes.
Talking to the child and letting her talk back to you in different
intensities of voice: softer, louder and with different intonations.
Teaching the child the sounds associated with familiar animals and
objects for example, a clock ticks, a sheep says b-a-a and so on.
Blindfolding the child outside,then call to her from different positions
nearby and let her turn towards you.
Reading or telling the child a story and asking her afterwards a few
pertinent questions about the story.
Speaking or singing in a high pitched voice and then a low pitched
voice and asking the child to imitate you.
Clapping a rhythm and asking the child to imitate it. Repeat with your
backs to each other so that she cannot see you clap.
5.1.4 Writing Problems of Students with Learning DifficultiesOne of the simplest ways to study the writing problems of learners with
learning difficulties is to analyze their writing samples. These samples will
reveal the problems they have with handwriting, spelling and written
expression.
1. Handwriting Problems. Some of the problems are:
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Handwritting Features Problems
Shape Letters are slanted.
Shape varies from standard.
Size Too large.
Too small.Not uniform,
Space Letters within a word are too crowded.
Too much space in between letters.
Alignment Letters are not sitting on lines in the
book.
Height of letters are not consistent.
Line Quality Letters are written too heavily or too
lightly.
2. Spelling errors. Some of these are:
Errors Primarily Due to Auditory Deficits
1. Substitutes tford, fforv , sh forch
2. Omits vowels in two-syllable words because of inability to
discriminate between sounds, for example,pish forpolish
3. Spells beginning or ending of the word correctly but middle of the
word may be missing or spelled wrongly, for examle hdforhand.
4. Confuses vowel. For example, spells bitas bet
5. Omits the second letter in blends. For examp[le spells fledas fed.
6. Uses a synonym. For example, Spells house forhome.
7. Omits word endings. For example omits ed, s and ing.
8. Spell word that has little or no relationship with the word dictated. For
example. Spells catforhome.
Errors Primarily Due to Visual Deficits
1. Spells correctly the beginning or ending of the word but omits the
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middle. Example, Spells hapyforhappy.
2. Gives the correct letters but in the wrong sequence. Example : teh
forthe.
3. Reverses letters. For example: Writes b ford, on forno, orwas for
saw.
4. Inverts letters. For example: Writes u forn, m forw.
5. Mixes up capital and small letters. For example: cAT.
6. Spelling words phonetically that are non-phonetic in configuration.
For example: tufffortough
3. Written Language Problems
If a learner is able to compose an essay, it is easy to find out hisproblems with written expression. When we talk of problems with written
expression, we will generally discuss these in terms of the vocabulary he
possesses (semantics), his ability to formulate sentences to convey his
ideas (syntax), the sufficiency of the contents of his essay (ideation), and
his ability to organize his ideas (organization). The following are diagnostic
questions that could bring out the problems faced by the students in the
skills just mentioned.
1. Was there a good variety of words used? Were the words
appropriate? What can you say about the students use of verbs,
adjectives, nouns, pronouns and conjunctions?
2. What kinds of grammatical erors were made?
3. What was the average word length of sentences?
4. Was there a good mixture of simple, compound and complex
sentences?
5. Were the paragraphs appropriate in organization and content?
6. Were the contents well selected and organized?
7. Were the contents accurate?
8. Was the purpose clear?
9. What were the errors of punctuation and capitalization?
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5.2 Language Awareness
Language Awareness can be defined as explicit knowledge
about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity
in language learning, language teaching and language use.
It covers a wide spectrum of fields. For example, Language
Awareness issues include exploring the benefits that can be
derived from developing a good knowledge about language, a
conscious understanding of how languages work, of how people
learn them and use them.
Can we become better language users or learners or teachers if
we develop a better understanding? And can we gain other
advantages: for example in our relations with other people
and/or cultures, and in our ability to see through language that
manipulates or discriminates? Language Awareness interests
also include learning more about what sorts of ideas about
language people normally operate with, and what effects these
have on how they conduct their everyday affairs: e.g. their
professional dealings.
5.2.1 Sentence Types (simple, compound and complex sentences)
In developing knowledge of sentence structure, the grammar of the
sentence will be discussed later. Here, the focus is on the sentence
as a component of text-building. We interpret a sentence differently
according to its role in the text in which it occurs.the same idea can
be expressed in more than one way. Therefore, another skillthat is
important to a writer is an ability to choose a sentence pattern that is
mostappropriate for his purpose in the context of a specific piece of
writing. Another feature of sentences in texts is that there are
situations where one or two sentences is all that is required for an
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act of communication. Read further and types more example on
sentences can be found below.
5.3 Language Skills
5.3.1 Mechanics of writing
Mechanics is the term we use to describe the technical aspects of
writing, such as spelling, punctuation, capitalization, etc. Many
fiction writers would say that mechanics are not the most important
part of writing. They come second to other elements such as a
good storyline, well-developed characters, and so on. However,
mechanics are still very important. If your story is not mechanically
well-written, many educated readers will not even bother to read it,
either because its too hard for them to figure out what youre trying
to say, or they just assume the story wont be good because it
doesnt appear to be well-written. Despite the phrase Dont judge a
book by its cover, appearance matters. If your story doesnt look
worth reading, people may not read it. Good mechanics make a
story easy to read, and that will attract more readers.
5.3.2 Sentence construction
Lets start with the basics. To put it simply, a sentence is a
complete thought or idea. As an example, I write fanfic is a
sentence. Like all complete sentences, it has two main parts, a
subject and an action. Iis the subject, or noun. Write is the action,
or verb. I am a fanfic write] is another sentence with the same
meaning. In this case, I is still the subject, and am is the verb,
though it does not really describe an action. It is called a linking
verb, linking Ito fanfic writer, which are one in the same.
Some sentences contain more than one thought or idea. These
are called compound sentences. An example of compound
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sentence is: I am a fanfic writer, and I write mostly drama. The
two main ideas are : I am a fanfic writer. and I write mostly
drama. Each of these could be sentences on their own, since they
both form complete thoughts, but I chose to combine them together
into one sentence. Notice that I did this by putting a comma and
and between them. Words like and, or, and but are called
conjunctions and are used to join simple sentences into compound
sentences this way.
A run-on sentence is a sentence with multiple thoughts or ideas
that are not joined together in the correct way, using commas and
conjunctions or semi-colons. For example, the sentence, I am afanfic writer I write mostly drama, would be a run-on sentence
because there is no punctuation to separate the two thoughts.
Punctuation are marks such as periods (.), question marks (?),
exclamation points (!), commas (,), apostrophes (), quotation
marks (), semi-colons (;), and colons (:). When used correctly,
they make writing look more organized and easier to read and
understand. They tell you how to read a line and where to pause
or breathe. Even if youre not reading out loud, punctuation is
important to the meaning of text.
Most people understand how to use periods, question marks, and
exclamation points, which are all used at the ends of sentences.
Many people struggle with commas and quotations.
Commas
Commas are one of the most important punctuation marks, yet
they are often ignored or misused. They have many different uses.
Usually, they are used to separate words or phrases, such as
clauses in a sentence, items in a list, transition words, names, parts
of a date or address, and more.
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In the sentence above, several commas are used. Usually is a
transition word and should be followed by a comma. Such as
clauses in a sentence is a clause, or phrase, itself and should be
separated from the other phrases in the sentence for clarity. The
ways in which commas can be used formed a list in this sentence,
and so they are separated by commas as well.
If you are writing a compound sentence, as described above, you
can use a comma and a conjunction to separate the two or more
ideas in that sentence. Remember, though, to always use a
conjunction along with your comma. Writing a sentence like I am
a fanfic writer, I write mostly drama.is wrong. Technically, that is arun-on. To make it not a run-on, you would need the and in there
after the comma.
You could also use a semi-colon. Instead of writing I am a fanfic
writer, and I write mostly drama., you could shorten it up by writing,
I am a fanfic writer; I write mostly drama. The semi-colon takes
the place of the comma and conjunction and is correct. This may
seem picky, but this is what the rules of English dictate.
Quotations
In fiction, quotations are used mainly for writing dialogue, or your
characters speech. A lot of people struggle with the correct way to
write dialogue, especially at first, but once you get the hang of it,
its easy. Here are the basics:
First, every time one of your characters is saying something, all of
their dialogue should be contained inside quotation marks. For
example, if you had Brian saying, Im going to school, you would
write his line exactly as is written here within quotation marks.
[Im going to school.]
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If your line of dialogue stands by itself, like at the end of the above
paragraph, you should end it with a period, question mark, or
exclamation point. The punctuation always goes INSIDE the
quotation marks, NOT outside. [Im going to school. ] the right
way [Im going to school.] the wrong way
If your line of dialogue is followed by a clause like he said, you
should use a comma instead of a period. For example: [Im going
to school, he said.]
However, if the dialogue would normally have a question mark or
exclamation point instead of a period, you can keep the question
mark or exclamation point. For example: [Are you going to
school? he asked.] The punctuation still stays inside the quotation
marks.
If youre writing a characters thoughts, something theyre just
thinking and not actually saying, you dont need to use quotation
marks. For example, if Brians just thinking, I need to go to school,
you could write it like this: [I need to go to school, Brian thought.]
Some authors choose to put thoughts in italics to differentiate them.
For example: [I need to go to school, Brian thought.] That is all a
matter of the authors preference though.
5.3.3 Paragraph writing
A paragraph is a group of sentences that all revolve around the
same topic or idea. In fiction, paragraphs can be as short as one ortwo sentences or much longer, depending on how much you have
to write about one certain thing and your own preference. In
general, a good-sized paragraph is about 5-7 sentences. If your
paragraphs are consistently longer than that, you might need to
break up your story into more paragraphs.
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Many beginning writers write all in one big paragraph; a whole
chapter may be all in one or two paragraphs. Huge paragraphs are
hard to follow. It is easier to read, both from a comprehension and
a physical standpoint, when text is broken up into smaller
paragraphs with empty spaces in between. Notice that the
paragraphs here are fairly short. This makes it easier for you to
follow the text.
The general rule is, you should start a new paragraph every time
you start talking about something new. Going along with our last
examples, if you started a paragraph with Brian saying, Im going to
sxhool, you might continue that paragraph with a few sentencesabout Brian leaving. You could describe him putting on his shoes,
getting his keys, going out to his car, etc. Once he gets to the
school, or maybe even once he starts driving away, you should start
a new paragraph because youre now describing something new.
When writing dialogue, you should also start a new paragraph
every time there is a new speaker. This is a big one!! If Brian
says Im going to school, and then Kevin replies, Okay, see ya
later, these two lines of dialogue should be in different paragraphs.
The example of writing is shown below:
Im going to sxhool, said Brian, grabbing his keys.
Kevin looked up. Okay, see ya later, he replied.
Even though the paragraph about Brian was only one sentence, we
had to start a new paragraph when we got to Kevin because we
knew he was going to start talking, too. Whenever the speaker
changes, change paragraphs. This makes it less confusing and
prevents you from having to say [Brian said] or [Kevin said]
before or after each line of dialogue. If you change paragraphs
each time, the readers can usually figure out whos talking.
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5.3.4 Different types of texts
The following are some of the different types of texts:
1. Narrative
Narative is the telling of a story or an account of a sequence of
events. One of the four traditional forms of composition (along
with description, exposition, and persuasion). Narration differs
from exposition, which can also relate a sequence of events, in
that narration need not be factual and may be written from the
perspective of a character in the text.
2. Description
Description is a text or speech that is meant to give a verbal
picture of an object, character, location, or event. Description is
considered one of the four traditional forms of composition
(along with exposition, narration, and persuasion).
3. Expository/exposition
Expository or exposition is a text or speech that is meant to set
forth or explain a concept or procedure. Considered one of the
four traditional forms of composition (along with description,narration, and persuasion), exposition may contain elements of
the other three forms in order to achieve its purpose.
4. Argumentative
In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also
present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and
CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should
clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade
an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The
primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that
many of them do not want to change.
5. Summary
Summary is a shortened version of a text that highlights its key
points. It is an overview of content that provides a reader with
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the overarching theme, but does not expand on specific details.
A summary describes a larger work (such as an entire book,
speech, or research project), and should include noticeably less
content then the original work. Summaries can save a reader
time because it prevents the reader from having to actually go
through and filter the important information from the unimportant.
6. Report
A report is a document containing information organized in a
narrative,graphic, or tabular form, prepared on ad hoc, periodic,
recurring, regular, or as required basis. Reports may refer to
specific periodsn events, occurrences or subjects, and may be
communicated or presented in oral or written form.
7. Letter
A letter is a written or printed communication addressed to a
person or organization and usually transmitted by mail. It can be
formal or informal.
5.3.5 Writing in English for Different Purposes
The English language syllabus for pupils with learning disabilities is
organised in such a way that we teach them to write for different
purposes. As such, teachers have to plan the lessons in such a way
that they can relate the purposes of writing to instructional planning.
1. Daily application of writing
a. Forms and applications learniers are taught to fill in
different forms like application forms, forms asking for
personal details, bank forms and so on.
b. Arrangements and records learners should know how to
write notes and notices about arrangements for travel,
meetings, weekend excursions or contests. They should also
be able to write short reports or accounts of activitiesfor the
class or school newspaper.
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c. Orders and complaints learners should know how to order
goods and services, or how to write letters of complaints.
2. Social contact
Learners shouldbe able to send messages of congratulations
and greetings to others, and to inform others of events or
change of circumstances. Such greetings and announcements
could be sent or be displayed on bulletin boards.
3. Getting and giving information.
When learners have gatheredinformation for projects, they would
need to organize the information and then report it to others in
written form. The information could later be presented as oral
reports, be published in class newspapers bedistributed to other
classes.
4. Study purposes
Learnersneed to have practice in taking notes, writing abstracts,
reports,essays, analysis and term papers.
5. Entertainment
Learners can write with the intention of entertaining. For this,
they can write stories, skits, scripts or one-act plays. They mayalso prepare the programmes for an event such as a fashion
parade, or write captions for pictures andphotographs.
6. Self-expression
Learners can express themselves creatively through stories,
poems, nonsense rhymes, nursery rhymes, sketches and
autobiographical narratives. They can also keep personal
journals and diaries of their thoughts and experiences.
From the discussion just now, it is shown that writing can be used for many
purposes. If we study the English syllabus used for students with learning
difficulties, we find that it focuses more on the use of writing for daily
application. Many learners will be exposed to the English language for the
first time, so the syllabus is relevant to the needs of these learners. A lot of
emphasis is placed on vocabulary development based on different themes
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and communicational situations. Writing is taught as a tool to achieve daily,
functional activities like filling in forms. Sisnce there are also students who
are taught the English language to pass the national examinations,
teachers should also be able to teach the learners to organize their
thoughts and ideas and convey these through sentences that follow the
rules of syntax.
5.4 Techniques for Teaching Writing
5.4.1 Cloze
Based on or being a test of reading comprehension in which the testtaker is asked to supply words that have been systematically
deleted from a text. Cloze procedure is a technique in which words
are deleted from a passage according to a word-count formula or
various other criteria. The passage is presented to students, who
insert words as they read to complete and construct meaning from
the text. This procedure can be used as a diagnostic reading
assessment technique.
It is used:
to identify learners' knowledge and understanding of the
reading process
to determine which cueing systems readers effectively employ
to construct meaning from print
to assess the extent of students' vocabularies and knowledge of
a subject
to encourage students to monitor for meaning while reading
to encourage students to think critically and analytically about
text and content
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To prepare materials for Cloze exercises, any of the following
techniques may be used:
1. Select a self-contained passage of a length appropriate for the
grade level of the students being assessed. Use materials
easily read by the students.
2. Leave the first and last sentences and all punctuation intact.
3. Carefully select the words for omission using a word-count
formula, such as every fifth word or other criteria. To assess
students' knowledge of the topic or their abilities to use
semantic cues, delete content words which carry meaning, such
as nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs. To assess
students' use of syntactic cues, delete some conjunctions,
prepositions and auxiliary words.
4. When preparing the final draft of the passage, make all blanks
of equal length to avoid including visual clues about the lengths
of omitted words.
5. Have the students read the entire passage before they fill in the
blanks.
6. Encourage the students to fill each blank if possible.7. Although there should be no time limit for this exercise, the time
necessary for completion should be noted.
8. Suggest that students reread the completed passage.
This is how you can adapt it:
Examples:
1. Supply choices for the blanks.Just as ____________have fur, birds have ____________.
(coats, animals) (feathers, wings)
2. When learners have used the technique described above and can
replace the appropriate words from the choices supplied, provide
passages in which every fifth word or every tenth word is arbitrarily
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deleted and only a letter or two of the correct word is available,
perhaps a beginning consonant or consonant blend:
With the price of f______ going up all the t______, more people are
trying t___ raise some of their f_____ in their own back y______.
3. When the learners do well with this task, indicate only the blank with
no additional clues. Accept any word that seems a reasonable fit:
Example:
Instead of grass, you _______ rows of lettuce, tomatoes,
________ beans lining the fences _______ in the biggest city.
5.4.2 Spelling
Incorrect spellling may often give the reader the impression that the
writer is careless and lacks education. One should try and
remember that spelling is often very difficult for learners studying
English because of the lack of correlation between the sound of a
word and how it is actually spelt. A single sound or phoneme may
often have a variety of differrent spellings (eg saw, door, sore, four).
Furthermore, the same spelling may also have a variety of different
sounds (or word).A good way of getting your pupils to improve their spelling is by
giving them a table of the words that they are having problems with.
Now get the learners to copy the word in the next column. The
learners then cover the first two columns with a piece of paper or a
book. They must then attempt to write the word from memory in the
covered column. Learners then uncover the columns and check
their spelling by placing a tick or cross in the check column.
Another great way of getting your learners to take responsinility for
their own learning and to improve their spelling is to create a
personal spelling tabe for your pupils. Every time you give pupils
back a piece of writing work that has been marked, get the pupils to
take note of their spelling mistakes. Pupils then add the words with
the correct spelling to their table. Now, get students in the class to
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test each other once a week on their personal spelling tables. Every
time a pupil gets the spelling correct, place a tick in the block where
the word appears. Once three ticks appear in the block, color that
block. The objective is to color the entire table.
5.4.3 Developing a Written Vocabulary
For the pupil who has just been taught English, the starting point for
teaching writing would be just copying. The English syllabus
requires that the learner learn theme-related words like parts of the
body or types of transportation. Obviously, when these words are
taught, it is also necessary for the learners to write down the words
in the learning process,as when an exercise is given for the learners
to label the various parts of the body correctly. When the learner
has learned some words, he can be encouraged to make picture
dictionaries, or the words learned could be filed in a word box so
that they can be referred to later on. Some suggested simple
copying activities which can be carried out:
1. Prepare worksheets of some words that can be traced, that is
words written in dotted outline. For example, fruits -apple,orange, pineapple; colour red, yellow, white, blue; vegetables
lettuce, cabbage, water cress
2. Prepare exercises where learners write out the plural form of the
words. For example, cat-cats; cow-cows; pencil-pencils
3. Let learners write all the words they have written on their word
cards for a specified category. For example, Furniture: chair,
table, sofa
4. Let learners write out pairs of rhyming words they have written
on their word cards. For example: cat, hat; eat.meat; boy, toy.
5. Write a spelling pattern, let the learner write all the words of that
pattern, that is the word family. For example, at: cat, bat, hat,
mat
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5.4.4 Simple sentence construction
One of the most recommended methods of teaching learners to
read written sentences is the Language Experience Approach. In
this approach, the learner tells the teacher a story or anything at all
about himself. The teacher then writes down what the learner has
told him. When this is done, the learner will realize that written
language actually represents oral language. The written experience
story can then be used as a reading text. The learner can then copy
the text into his own book. Some modification which can be done to
this approach include:
Writing a sentence on a word card illustrating a picture
Writing a sentence under a learners drawing
Retelling of stories previously read to the learner
Writing class poems,jokes and group stories based on a
shared experience
Writing stories about pets
Writing class science experiments
The following are more structured ways of teaching sentence
formulation:
1. Sentence completion
a. The learner copies from a model
For example, The dog is ...... (big, small)
b. The learner uses vocabulary cards to complete a sentence
For example, The dog is .....
c. The learner writes original sentences
For example . The............................
2. Have the learner start with a short sentence and add words to
make longer and longer sentences
For example, I saw a dog.
I saw a brown dog.
I saw a little, brown dog.
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I saw a little, old, brown dog.
3. Write words that the learners have been taught on separate index
cards. The learners take turns drawing cards. They then form
sentences using the word. When all the cards have been used,
the learners read each others card.
4. Plan activities that require obly a few sentences
For exmple ,
a. Greeting card messages
b. Post card messages
c. Descrtiption of pictures of things and persons
d. Captions for pictures on bulleting boards
e. Small books about a subject, like Birds
f. Dialogue for comic strips
g. Steps in an experiment
5. Sentence combining.
The learner can be taught to use compound and complex
sentences by structured drills. A sentence pattern is provided and
the learner combines two given sentences following the modeled
pattern.For example,
The ball is big. It is on the table.
The big ball is on the table.
The car is red. It is in the garage.
..................................................................
6. Give the learners the words of a sentence that have not been
ordered and ask him to arrange the words to form a grammatical
sentence.
For example , cat, small, the, is
The cat is small.
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7. Give the student various noun and verb phrases and ask him to
expand the sentence by adding descriptive words
Example : many, boys, swimming, river
There are many boys swimming in the river.
5.4.5 Teaching Learners to Write Texts
Once the learners are able to formulate simple sentences, the
teacher should help them use this ability to write basic texts. Other
additional activities are:
1. Give the learner a written paragraph in which the sentences are
out of sequence. Ask him to rewrite the paragraph by arranging
the sentences in a logical and meaningful order.
2. Give the learner individual pictures that make up a comic strip.
Ask the learner to put the pictures in sequence. Subsequently,
ask the learner to write sentences about each picture so that
there is a sequential story.
3. Ask the learner to cut out an interesting picture from a magazine.
Paste the picture on a large piece of paper. Then ask the learner
to write a few sentences about the picture.4. Have the learner keep a diary or make journal entry. At the end
of each day, let him write a diary entry in which he expresses
himself by summarizing his experiences, feelings and activities
of the day.
5. Start a class newspaper and ask all learners to contribute some
form of writing. Learners can take turns serving as editors,
printers, proof readers and distributors.
6. Cloze exercises, in addition to being a good method of teaching
comprehension, are a very structured way to develop the ability
of the learner in writing connected text.
5.5 Teaching of Grammar
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During the past century or so, the focus of classroom instruction and the
practice of language teaching have shifted depending on
prevailing,customary methodologies and theoretical fooundations of
language teaching and learning, this has provided us with both interesting
and varied interpretations of how best to teach a foreign language. This
has provided us with both interesting and varied interpretations of how best
to teach a foreign language. Over the past few decades there has been a
change of focus from an emphasis on language forms to more functional
language within a communicative context. The adoption of Communicative
Language Teaching has seen a significant loss of focus on the forms of
language. This approach introduced real-life communication,
characterised by authentic materials, true-to-life simulation and meaningful
tasks. Learners are and can be taught through role plays and simulations.
Accuracy was seen as less important than fluency and successful
communication. The Communicative approach highlighted the importance
of functional language as opposed to focusing specifically on grammar and
vocabulary like in the past.
Brown (2001) states that grammatical competence is an important
component of communicative competence. He goes on to describeorganisational competence as a complex set of rules which govern both
sentences (grammar) and how we link these sentences together
(discourse). It is this organisational competence, which is seen as
necessary for communication and to ensure that the language used is not
disorganised and muddled. Diane Larsen-Freeman (1991) points out that
although grammar provides us with the form or structures of language,
these are inconsequential or meaningless without, at the same time,
considering semantics (meaning) and pragmatics (meaning assigned given
the context). These three aspects are interconnected and each is
dependent on the other. Thus grammar is important and need to be taught.
The following are some ideas and techniques for teaching Grammar in the
classroom:
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5.5.1 Troublesome Grammar
For practice with troublesome grammatical structures, have
an assortment of dittoed choice and filling the blank
exercises on the following areas:
Verb tenses
Prepositions
Question formation
Adjective placement
Modals
Prepare an answer key for self checking.
5.5.2 Sentence StructuringOn index cards, write a sentence or question, with each word
on a separate card. On the back, number each word card in
sequence. The learners must put the cards in the correct
word order. They can check themselves by looking at the
numbers on the back. Keep each set of cards in a rubber
band or in an envelope.
5.5.3 Memory Games
In this activity, you may divide the learners into two groups.
Give each group a copy of the same picture. Tell them to
look at it but do not tell them that they are expected to
memorise the items in the picture. Give them a minute or two.
Then take the pictures away from the groups. Each group
nominates a spokeperson for their group. In this activity, the
material is utilised to work on the present continuous tense
(is/am/are + ing). The teacher reads out some true/falsi
statements about the picture, using the present continuous
tense , for example : The man is....The boys are...). after
each group has discussed the statement, their spokeperson
relays their answer to you. Points are awarded for correct
answers.
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5.5.4 Miming an Action
Create two piles of cards. One pile should consist of cards
with an adverb written on each and the other pile with the
meaning. Divide the learners into two groups. The first group
sends one of its members up to the front of the class. This
learner selects one card, which are face down, from each pile
on the teachers desk. The learner must then mime the action
to the other group who then have 45 seconds to guess the
action correctly. This can be used to practise a variety of
tenses. If the learners in the group guess the correct action
within the allocated time, then the group is awarded a point. It
is now the other groups turn to send a student up to the front
of the class.
5.5.5 Creating Time Lines
A useful activity may be to encourage learners to create their
own time lines when dealing with new tenses. Write a
sentence on the board and ask the learners to either come
up to the board and create a timeline on the board or ask
them to complete a time line in their books.5.5.6 Split Sentences
In this activity, you may wish to use the first conditional, for
example, or a variety of tenses. Once you have written a
number of sentences on a piece of paper, proceed to cut
each sentence in two. Distribute these various pieces to the
students in the class. The students must then read their half
of the sentence to the class and attempt to find the missing
half of their sentence.
5.5.7 Grammar Quiz
You could initiate a grammar quiz for two teams. Write a verb
infinitive on the board and the first team to write the correct
past participle on the board is awarded a point. You could
create a number of variations of your own,for example, ask
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each team to prepare their own questions to present to the
other team.
5.5.8 Growing Stories
Growing story activities are excellent practice for work on the
past simple tense. Learners are given the first sentence of a
story. They then have to add another sentence to the story in
order to cintinue the storyline. The learners then pass their
stories to the person next to them who in turn adds another
sentence. Alternatively, this activity may be done on a
computer. The stories can then be printed and read out to
see the variety.
5.5.9 Questionnaires
Ask learners to write a questionnaire by utilising recent
grammar items which have been covered in class.
Alternatively, you could assist the learners by presenting
them with basic structures. Once the questionnaires have
been completed, ask the learners to survey one another.
5.5.10 Objects and Things
By bringing certain objects and things (eg wallet, handbag,money, glasses...) into your classroom, you add a hands-on
feel to your teaching. In order to teach beginning level
learners the use of the possessive form, you could
encourage the learners to bring a few items to class. Ask
them to place the items on their desks. Gather the objects
and place them on different desks around the classroom.
Learners then work on pairs. They walk around the
classroom and by using the target language (placed on the
board) and the embedded politeness forms (Excuse me) and
discourse ellipsis rules (NO its Fatimahs, rather than No, its
Fatimahs purse.)
5.5.11 Maps and Drawings
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Maps are practical and simple visual aids for the classroom
and can serve to illustrate certain grammatical structures
such as the use of:
Prepositional phrases (down the street, across the
road, etc)
Question forms (where is,how do I find, is this,....)
Imperatives (go, walk, turn, keep an eye out for,.....)
Appropriate discourse when asking for directions,
attracting someones attention, clarifying information
and ending the conversation.
Drawings are an excellent way in which to provide practice in
stating locations and giving directions (with the use of
prepositional phrases). You may wish to begin by using the
simple drawing which follows. After introducing the relevant
terms (next to, in the bottom left-hand corner, in the centre,
below..........) divide the learners into pairs. Give one learner
a copy of picture and the other learner a piece of paper and
a pencil. The learner with the picture describes what is in the
picture and where these things are (without showing the
other learner) whilst the other learner draws what is
described on their piece of paper.
5.5.12 Charts and Graphs
These are very useful when practising various patterns and
clarifying certain grammatical relationships. Learners can
practise simple understanding and interpreting of graphical
information. Learners are also introduced to the idea oftrends.
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Exercise 1 : Apply any three activities discussed in this topicto teach your studentsin the school. Note problems and theeffectiveness of the activities. Write areflectivereport andshare this in class or online.
Exercise 2 : the language experience approach is a veryeffective apporach to teaching. Usually we use it to teachreading. However, once the teacher has written down thespeech of the pupils, he can copy it and the text becones thepupuls own.Try out this method with your pupils and write a reflectivereport on the outcome.
You can make use of the materials in the internet to get
additional information.
Exercise 3 : You have already learned how you could helpyour pupils develop a writing vocabulary, to write sentencesand also to write simple texts. Hoever, you might be requiredto teach pupils to write essays for examination purposes.
To add to the knowledge you already have of teachingwriting,you are required to read up on the writing process.This is an approach used to teach learners how to writecompositons, and involve the various stages of prewriting,writing, revising and sharing the finished product with anaudience. Write an essay onwhat yu have read and discussin class.
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