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MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLOITATION, PROCESSING
AND UTILIZATION – A SINE QUA NON FOR NIGERIA’S
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
INAUGURAL LECTURE SERIES 5
Delivered at
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI
On Wednesday, 17th
July, 2002
By
OKECHUKWU ONYEBUCHI ONYEMAOBI
B.S. (Nevada), M.S. (VPI & SU), PhD (Nottingham)
MNSE, MNICA, MSAN, COREN
PROFESSOR OF METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING
(MINERAL PROCESSING ENGINEERING)
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© 2002
Produced by FUTO Press
Federal University of Technology, Owerri
Printed by Fylann Ltd.
40A Wetheral Road, Owerri
Phone: 083-232227
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This page is intentionally left blank. The inaugural lecturer’s
picture was on this page in the printed version but has been
removed due to copywright restrictions
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1
MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLOITATION, PROCESSING AND
UTILIZATION - A SINE QUA NON FOR NIGERIA'S
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
The Vice Chancellor,
Deputy Vice Chancellors (Academic and Administration),
Principal Officers of the University,
Deans of Schools and Directors of Units,
Heads of Departments,
My Lords Spiritual and Temporal,
Fellow Academic and Professional Colleagues,
Distinguished Guests and Friends of the University,
Gentlemen of the Press,
Great FUTOITES;
It gives me great pleasure to be a speaker today. I had longed for this day. This is the
day that the Lord has made and I will rejoice. I want to start this lecture by praying that God
who made it possible for me to give this lecture, bless all of you. May God take all the glory
in Jesus Name! Amen.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
It is my great delight and privilege to be the Guest speaker today 17th July, 2002. Why?
This is an Inaugural Lecture of the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, the climax of
Academics, as a Professor in my area. It is the 2nd
Inaugural Lecture from the Department of
Materials and Metallurgical Engineering of this Great University. The first was given by Prof
V.O. Nwoko, an eminent unassuming, Emeritus Professor of this University. Prof. V.O.
Nwoko gave the 3rd
Inaugural Lecture of the University when I transferred from the Federal
University of Technology Akure to FUTO as a Senior Lecturer. In Senate, I had spoken on
the need for Inaugural Lectures in FUTO. I went on Sabbatical Leave to Akure at the end of
January 2002. I was challenged by the Lectures given by Professors who were promoted after
me. I prepared this lecture during this time. I want to say with all boldness that FUTO should
have an Inaugural Lecture culture. In the Federal University of Technology Akure, people
indicate when they are ready to give their Inaugural lecture. In FUTA this year three
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professors have given their inaugural lectures, however a decision was taken recently that
Inaugural lectures should be held quarterly in the University. I hope this academic feast will
be sustained in FUTO.
The title of my lecture as advertised is “MINERAl RESOURCES EX-
PLOITATION, PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION - A SINE QUA NON FOR
NIGERIA'S METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT.” One might ask,
why this topic? It is because Nigeria has neglected its God given resources that I have
decided to talk on this topic. The lecture will enlighten the audience on the importance of
utilizing the resources God has blessed us with for industrial growth. An attempt will also be
made to present my modest academic and practical contributions in this area to date. The
lecture will he presented under the following headings:
Mineral Resources in Nigeria for Sustainable Developments
My Modest Contribution Through Research and Development
Utilization of Minerals
Conclusion and Recommendation
Acknowledgement
2.0 MINERAL RESOURCES IN NIGERIA FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENTS
This lecture will be started with two stories. The first was when as a Graduate Student
in Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA, my
Department had a Seminar in 1977. My Head of Department introduced me to a British
Professor who had just given the Seminar. In the audience my humble-self was the only
black man in attendance. The British Professor was excited to know that a Nigerian
Graduate Student was present to hear him as he had just come back from Lagos as a
consultant to the Nigerian Government on its Steel Project. He said, "Your country wants to
start a Steel Project in Ajaokuta. You have the Raw Materials, etc. but you will have
problems". This statement was made in 1977. Today in 2002 do we have problems or not?
This British Professor was a prophet. We started with Backward Integration, spent billions
of money importing billets from Guinea, Brazil, Liberia etc. instead of using our raw
materials at Itakpe. The second story is one told me by a colleague some years ago when we
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were at Lake Nwaebere. There was an expatriate Mathematics lecturer in the University we
all know very well. He told my friend that your country is blessed. You can leak oranges and
after that throw the seeds away through your window and they will germinate. In his own
country if you did that the seeds would not germinate as the land is frozen most of the time.
We are lucky in this country, as God has blessed Nigeria with many things; the country has
abundant human, mineral and material resources that would make us self-reliant if properly
harnessed. We also have a good weather.
2.10 NIGERIA'S EARLY SOURCE OF REVENUE
In the early seventies, Nigeria was regarded as a rich country. At that time, the black
gold attracted a lot of revenue into the country. As a result of oil, all efforts of past
Governments were concentrated towards oil exploration and exploitation. Revenue accruing
from the oil sector was used in developing many sectors of the economy. Other sources of
revenue such as solid minerals, agriculture etc. were neglected (Onyemaobi, 1995a).
If adequate steps were taken to diversify our economy, the effect of rise and fall of the
price of oil would have been minimal on the economy. Prior to the discovery of oil in
Nigeria, the colonial masters depended on agricultural products such as cocoa, palm oil,
cotton, and groundnuts to mention a few. In the early Sixties solid minerals produced over
twenty percent of Nigeria's revenue and was useful in development. Tin mining and
processing started in 1903 in Jos, Plateau State. Makeri Smelting Company was established
to process and smelt tin for export. Revenue from tin was used in developing that area, and
Jos attracted a lot of foreigners. Coal mining started in Obwetti Enugu in 1915. Coal
production increased to a peak of about one million tonnes per annum in 1958 (Onyemaobi,
1991a). In the early 1960’s Enugu was popularly known as "Coal City" because of the impact
of coal from the mines. Oji River power station used coal as sources of fuel (Onyemaobi,
1988a). The locomotives of the Nigerian Railway Corporation in the then Eastern Region of
Nigeria were fired by coal prior to dieselization by the Nigeria Railway Corporation. Coal
was also exported and this was a source of foreign exchange for the colonial masters and the
post-independence leaders. Homes used coal instead of firewood for cooking and recently
coal briquettes are in the market in Enugu for people who cannot afford cooking gas or
kerosene. These are not the only solid minerals in Nigeria. Galena was also developed in the
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Abakaliki area. However, with time these minerals were abandoned for oil. In this lecture,
other minerals will be discussed and their uses enumerated. If these mineral resources are
developed like in other countries, there will be enough revenue for National development.
Nigeria's over dependence on oil will be a thing of the past (Onyemaobi, 2001 a).
2.20 OTHER MINERAL RESOURCES IN NIGERIA
Nigeria is one of the countries endowed with a full share of mineral resources. Table 1
is a partial list of other non-oil minerals located throughout the country. The table is not
exhaustive, as only some of the major minerals have been included. It can be seen that there
is a geographical spread of the minerals from the North to the South of the country. Many of
these are still to be exploited or developed.
Table 1: Some Mineral Resources in Nigeria
MINERAL
MAJOR AREAS OF
OCCURRENCE
QUANTITY OF
DEPOSIT
(TONNES)
USES EXPLOITABILITY
1. IRON ORE
Itakpe and Agbaja, Lokoja, Kogi, Birnin
Kebbi
813 Million with an average of 45% iron
content
Primary constituent
of many types
of steels and provides essential material for the
many and varied needs of
engineering
Exploitation
2. LIGNITE Abamkpa& Ogwashi-
Ukwu in Delta State, Orlu in Imo State
70 Million
It is pressed into
blocks and used as fuel
Exploitation
3.LIMESTONE Nkalagu,Nasara,
Ifon Calabar, Sokoto,
Gombe, Ukpilla.
Ewekoro
Extensive large
deposits
Used in the cement
Industry. Also used
as a metallurgical
flux
Most being
Exploited
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4. MANGANESE Calabar, Kaduna,
Borno, Oyo Small quantities
Used as an alloy in
strengthening and
toughening steel
Investigation and
Evaluation going on
5. MAGNESITE Gongola, Adamawa Low
Refractory in steel
production as alloy Under investigation
6. MARBLE Jakuru in Kwara State,
Ukpilla in Edo State,
Plateau, Benue
100 Million
Manufacture of tiles
and abrasive in soap
industry
All being exploited
except Plateau
7. MICA Egbe in Kwara
State/Kogi Small quantities
Used electrically as an
insulator and as a filler
in ceramic products
Exploited
8.MOLYBONITE Kaduna Not yet known Corrosion protection Partial investigation
9.NICKEL Oyo, Ilesha Not yet known
Impart Toughness and
Strength Partial investigation
10. PHOSPHATE Sokoto, Ogun
Commercial
quantities
Manufacture of
phosphorus Full Exploitation
11. PYROCHLORE
(Containing 3.3%
Uranium) Kano, Jos, Sokoto Yet to be determined Nuclear Industry Yet to be determined
12.SALT Brine spring in
Nasarawa State,
Afikpo, Cross River
Yet to be determined For domestic and
industrial use Exploitation
13. FELDSPAR
(Commonly called
potash)
Egbe in Kabba,
Oshogbo, Dass, Bauchi
State
Commercial
quantities Earthenware materials Exploitation
14.FLOURSPAR
F.C.T. Abuja Not yet known
Used in enameling and
in the chemical and
glass industries
Potential investigation
15. GALENA &
SPHALERITE (ore
of lead and zinc) They are usually found
together in Isiagu
through to Abakiliki
areas and Zurak –
Plateau State
Very large Quantity
They are used as
coating material for
steels, making of dry
batteries and
photographic plates in
the case of zinc production, etc.
Exploitation
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16. GLASS &
TAR SAND Okitipupa Very large Raw material Exploitation
17. GOLD
Ilesha, Waya-Kebbi
State, Bimin Gwari,
Kaduna State
Small quantities
Chiefly used for making
jewelries and other
ornamental and
household
decorations
Exploitation
18. GRANITE,
STONE Ishiagu, etc.
2.8 Million
Construction material
for roads, house, etc. Exploited
l9.GRAPHITE Niger, Zaria Not Net known Dry cell battery Partial
20.GYPSUM
Sokoto, Kebbi. Bornu,
Yobe, Anambra Not Net known
Stone glass cutting used in cement and fertilizer
industries, used for
making plaster of Paris
(POP)
Evaluation, partial
Investigation and
exploitation
21. KAOLIN
CLAY
Edo, Delta. Kogi.
Plateau, Kaduna,
Katsina, Ogun, Kano,
Sokoto. Jigawa, Kebbi
70 Million Ceramics manufacture
Partial, full evaluation
and exploitation of most
deposits
22.KAOLINITE Ozobulu in Anambra State
50 Million Refractory material Being partially exploited
23. SILICA SAND
DEPOSITS
Anambra, Benue, Edo,
Kano, Sokoto, Lagos, Ondo
Large Used in the production
of refractories Partial investigation
24. SILMONITE Oyo Low Same as above Partial investigation
25.SILVER (The
same as in
GOLD; Nigeria’s
gold contains some silver)
Same as in GOLD
Very small
quantities
Used for electroplating
and in making nozzles,
etc. it is also used in the
dairy, brewery and chemical industries
Exploited
26. SODA ASH Borno,Yobe, Jigawa Not yet known
Manufacture of soda used
in Breweries, etc.
No systematic study
Has been carried out
27. SULPHUR
Abakaliki Very small
quantities
Used in making
sulphuric acid which is
used in vulcanizing
rubber
Same as above
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28.TALC Oyo, Osun, Ondo, Niger
Okobu – Kogi State Not yet
French chalk
Partial preliminary
investigation
29.TAUMALINE Kaduna 1.5 Million Used in high
temperature alloying Not yet exploited
30. VANADIUM F.C.T. Abuja 1 Million Alloying element that increases strength and
toughness
Under investigation
31. ILLEMENITE B/Ladi Plateau State Not vet known Resistance to wear,
useful in alloying Steel Detailed investigation
32. WOFERAMITE
(ore to tungsten)
Plateau, Bachi, Kano,
Benue Not yet known
Alloying element used
in lamp and
x-ray tubes, nuclear
reactors
Exploited
33. ZIRCON Plateau, Bauchi, Kaduna,
Ondo 1000,000
Used in nuclear power
stations for its heat and
corrosion resistance
Not yet exploited
34. BARIUM COMPOUND
Anambra, Benue, Plateau
Not yet known
Used as a paints,
pigments in
Rubber and oil
industries
etc.
Exploited
35.BARYTE Plateau, Benue and
Adamawa
500,000
in Azara
(others not yet
known)
Used as a ligament and extender for paints,
also used in the paper,
petroleum,
pharmaceutical
industries and many
other places
Mining by NMDC, Azara
only; partial preliminary
exploitation of' others
36.BAUXITE Adamawa, Taraba, Cross
River, AkwaIbom Not yet known
Extraction of
Aluminum
profiles
Not yet exploited
37.CASSITERITE
(ore of tin) Jos, Bauchi, Zaria, Kano
Yet to be
determined
as at this publication
It is used as a wrapping
material for food
products
and also as a coating material for domestic
utensil
Exploitation
38.CHROMITE
SAND
Bar Beach, Badagry,
Lagos Vary large
Glass making,
Fluorescent and bulb
tubes
Investigation and evaluation
taking place
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39.CLAYS
Abeokuta, Okigwe,
Benin Very large
It is used for local pottery
and also in bricks and tiles
making
Exploited
40.COAL
.
Enugu, Anambra,
Benue, Plateau,
Kwara, Bauchi,
Okaba-Odagbo, Ondo,
Gombe, etc.
640 Million
Used as a metallurgical
fuel and reducing agent in
the refining of metal from
their ores
Mining is presently
going on
41. COLUMBITE
(ore of Niobium)
Jos, Nasarawa and
Akwanga in Benue
State
Major world
producer
Used as an alloying
element for hardening steel
in extraction processes
Exploited
42. DIATOMITE Bornu Emirate in
Bornu State Limited quantities
Used as an insulating
material and as an
absorbent in the
manufacture of explosive.
It is also used as a
refractory material
Exploited
43. DOLOMITIC
LIMESTONE
Igbeti in Oyo State,
Itobo in Kabba,
Kwakuti, Lafia and
Buran in Niger State
Limited quantities Used as basic refractory
material Exploited
44. BENTONITE Mben – Bornu State Reconnaissance Binder used in the
Chemical industry Detailed investigation
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2.30 MINERAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
Britain mostly depends on the National Coal Board (NCB) for fuel to run the different
Electricity Boards. Russia and China have large reserves of Coal also used for the same
purpose. It is ironical that Nigeria has over 640 million tonnes of proven reserves of coal,
which if developed will help NEPA. The impact of the Ministry of Solid Minerals has not
been felt by all and sundry. Recently there has been a clamour for the establishment of a
Solid Minerals Development Commission (SMDC).
After this lecture was written, the author found this information, which is in line with
my presentation. Nigeria's Coal reserves have increased to 3.480 billion metric tonnes,
indicating over 50 percent increase from 1.680 billion metric tonnes reported over five years
ago. The appreciable increase in coal reserves is coming just as the House of Representatives
Committee on Solid Minerals Development has started sensitizing the private sector on the
thrust of a new national policy on solid minerals, which is aimed at creating a conducive
environment for both local and foreign investments in the sector (Udeala, 2002). According
to the report released by the Nigerian Coal Corporation (NCC) while proven reserves, stand
at 640 million metric tonnes that of inferences showed more than 2.74 billion metric tonnes.
The report reveals that the exploitation of the country's huge coal deposit would enable
Ajaokuta Steel Plant to consume not less than 200,000 metric tonnes annually. The Nigerian
coal has sulphur content of less than one percent and low ash content; it has the capacity for
direct domestic use and as industrial fuel. Nigerian coal is very attractive to both local and
foreign customers.
In 1979, the Nigerian Coal Corporation in Enugu was mechanized and a Coal
Preparation Plant was built at Obwetti by Kopex of Poland and handed over to management.
The long wall system in Onveama mines was not successful as it was abandoned because of
flooding. However, reactivation of the mine has taken place. In addition to the underground
mine in Enugu there are other deposits in Benue and Bauchi States that are developed by
surface equipment. To develop a mineral takes a long time from the time of discovery. A
mine design is undertaken by experts. During this design different criteria determine if under-
ground is to be used or an open pit method. After this, decisions have to be made
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on what to do in order to exploit the mineral. A model widely used in the industry is the
CPM-PERT model or Critical-Path Model – Project Evaluation and Review Technique. Let
us consider a typical mine where activities start at 1 and end at node 5, but jobs 2,4,3 have to
be done as shown in figure 1.
Figure l: Specific work for a mine operation
Let be the occurrence time of event j,- 1, 2…5. Let be the duration of activity (c, j).
The objective here is to determine the earliest start time for each activity or cost of activity.
This is equivalent to determining the smallest occurrence time for event 5 subject to
appropriate constraints. Thus, the equivalent linear programming model becomes:
where can arbitrarily be set equal to zero. Notice that the above formulation automatically
guarantees that none of the variable will be negative so that there is no need to include the
constraint explicitly (Taha, 1971). In the above formulation, there are as many
constraints as the number of activities.
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In general, for a network with N events, the linear programming model becomes:
for all defined activities (i, j).
Solving the different problems can help management determine the first, second, third
and last work to be done in mine development. There are packages that are available in
industry. Cost durations can also be incorporated into the model. Mine managers make
decisions on daily and hourly basis. These days most of the mines are
computerized/automated and faults are easily detected.
Most of the minerals development in the country are from surface pits since the beds
are shallow. Enugu Coal is the major underground operation. This makes production cost for
Enugu Coal very high. The surface pit does not require much expertise and it is easy to start
one. In the Jos/Bukuru area there are many paddocks. Many of the operators just scoop the
mineral from the ground and wash off the impurities. In limestone or other mineral
developing operations, drilling, blasting and mucking operations are carried out. The
mineral/ore is sent to a processing section to remove the concentrate from the gangue.
2.40 BITUMEN DEVELOPMENT FROM TAR-SAND
There is Tar sand in the country from which bitumen can be produced. A typical case is
the Tar sand deposit in Okitipupa, Ondo State. It will be mentioned here that if the Tar sand
deposit had been developed since the idea was initiated, the country would have been self-
sufficient in the need for bitumen. Prior to the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) it
was estimated that to extract bitumen from the Tar sand would cost over one and one fifth
billion (N 1.20 billion). A lot of this would go into the purchase of equipment and machinery.
It should be emphasized that the Ministry of Solid Minerals should as a matter of priority
look into the development of the Tar sand deposit in Ondo State so that the perennial
shortage of bitumen would be a thing of the past. Some years ago, the author was part of a
team of consultants who worked on the development of the Tar sand (Onyemaobi, 1995b).
2.50 PROBLEM OF ILLEGAL DEVELOPERS
Many people would be employed in the process and revenue from the products would
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help sustain the Nigerian economy. The by-products could also be exported to earn foreign
exchange. The mineral resources in Table 1 have been left in the hands of private
entrepreneurs or illegal miners. They should have been developed to sustain the economy as
it is done in countries like Ghana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra
Leone and Zambia.
There has been a running battle between Government and illegal miners in Ilesha.
Millions of Naira are lost yearly through the activities of the unscrupulous individuals.
Deaths also occur because of lack of standards. It is not only gold in Illesha, where this takes
place; the activities of miners not approved by government are also widespread in the
northern part of the country. Minerals are smuggled through the boarders to other parts of the
continent without paying royalties to the Government.
2.60 STRATEGIC MINERALS
Iron-Manganese Niobotantalate ore (Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta)5O6 is known to occur naturally in
certain locations in the Jos-Bukuru and Benue valley areas of the North. This ore is the major
source of two of the most strategic metals in the chemical and metallurgical industries, i.e.
Niobium (Nb) and Tantalum (Ta). Nigeria is known to account for about three-quarters of the
world production of niobite. Niobum metal is best known in connection with HSLA (High
Strength Low Alloy) Steel, heat resistant alloys in aerospace vehicle engines and supersonic
air crafts (Onyemaobi et al, 1999c). To date the ore is not fully developed. It is apparent that
if full-scale development and processing of the ore are carried out, the product will be useful
in biomedical engineering and manufacture of chemical equipment used in surgery. It is also
used in steel making, electronic components mainly tantalum capacitors, and high
temperature applications will gain from the development of tantalum ores. Private
entrepreneurs can plough some of their funds into the development of the solid mineral
sector. Products from this sector can be used as refractories, ingots, metal powders and
alloys. This will reduce the flight of foreign exchange that is used in the importation of the
above. At present, some of these ores are exploited and shipped abroad. The establishment of
the processing section is imperative for sustainable development. There are some of the by
products from the processing plant that are very useful in this era of information technology.
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2.70 IRON AND STEEL SECTOR
Nigeria has toyed with steel production since the 1970's. A nation that controls steel
controls the world. Many advanced countries dump cheap subsidized steel into the third
world. Three rolling mills were established in Oshogbo, Jos and Katsina in addition to
Ajaokuta Steel Complex Limited(ASCL) and Delta Steel Complex (DSC), Aladja. Ajaokuta
is to be fed with super concentrates from Itakpe, Kogi State. The quality of ore from Itakpe is
of low Fe content and there is no coking coal in Nigeria. The Iron Ore from Itakpe is not
suitable for Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) of DSC. The Itakpe deposit has a reserve of about
300 million metric tonnes (Onyemaobi, I989a; Uwadiale, 1989; Onyemaobi, 1991a and
Bassev 2001). The Nigerian Iron Ore Mining Company (NIOMC) has over the years
produced iron ore concentrate and stock piled it for onward transmission to Ajaokuta for the
Blast Furnace (BF) Operations. It is envisaged that NIOMC would supply Ajaokuta Steel
Company 2.15 million tonnes of the iron concentrate annually while DSC would import
1.5million tonnes for its Direct Reduction Process (Bassey, Olich and Ovwata, 2001).
However in between the line Government decided to import billets from abroad. This
has gulped Billions of Naira. We know the effect on our economy. The government should
have used the research findings at National Metallurgical Centre, Jos, the Universities and
other Research Centres that had worked on upgrading of Itakpe Iron Ore for Steel
Production.
2.80 EQUIPMENT NEEDED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF MINERALS
It is ironical that most of the equipment required in this subsector are imported from abroad.
To develop a mine heavy machinery like Bulldozers, Scrapers, Power Shovels, Compressors,
Jack Hammer Drills, Trucks etc. are used. After the exploitation of the ore, the mineral is sent
to a processing plant. In this place, crushers and grinding mills reduce the ore to smaller
sizes before processing and smelting. However, if we take the case of the Lead-Zinc deposit
in Ishiagu, the ore is exploited and sent abroad for processing. The country in this way loses
a lot of money by this method. A partial list of equipment that is required for the processing
of Galena include; Jaw Crushers, Belt conveyors, Rake Classifiers, Ball mills, Den er sub-
flotation cells, Thickeners, Wifely pumps to mention a few (Taggart, 1942). As Engineers,
some of this equipment can be designed and fabricated locally. This will reduce our
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dependence on importation since a lot is said these days of transfer of technology or adapting
things to suit our environment. Development of mineral resources is capital intensive.
Souring of capital is an area that militates against mineral development. Also, the time lag
from discovering of a mineral to development should be considered. This is important in the
development of mineral resources (Onyemaobi, 2001 and Ajayi, 2001).
2.90 FINANCING OF CAPITAL FOR MINERAL DEVELOPMENT
It was mentioned in the preceding paragraph that development of solid minerals is
capital intensive. However, the National Economic Reconstruction Fund (NERFUND) is
available for entrepreneurs in the solid mineral sector. This fund came into existence in 1989
to provide medium and long-term loan to small and medium scale industries (Abboba, 1996).
Many operators have benefited from the fund. As of 1996, NERFUND had financed a
total of 39 projects in the solid minerals sector. The activities range from the extraction of
kaolin, granite, columbite, tin and production of ceramic wares. A total of N2.7 billion had
been disbursed in this sector. It is apparent that for development of the mineral resources in
this country, capital can be sourced from NERFUND. However, it is saddening to note that
the minerals in the country are not developed because of lack of funds, location, get rich
quick syndrome, ignorance and governmental policy. The few who are in the field know that
it is a rewarding venture.
2.91 ECONOMIC GAINS IN MINERAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
Some years ago, the Federal Government banned the importation of gypsum by the
cement factories. There was a lot of opposition to this policy but within seven months of this
ban the cement companies had more than 120,000 tonnes supplied to them (Mshela, 1996).
This carne to about N800, 000,000 recycled within the country. Kaolin, Barytes, Feldspar,
Gold, Marble and Tin are of economic importance. The Nigerian Mining Corporation, Jos
has opened some open pits to develop these minerals. People are employed in this sector.
This has reduced unemployment in those states and it is beneficial to the economy. Nigeria
has toyed with the steel industry for a long time. Advanced work has taken place in the iron-
ore deposit at Itakpe, Kogi State. Super concentrates have been produced to feed Ajaokuta
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Steel Mill and Aladja. The Railway line when completed is to be used to move iron ore
concentrates to the plants in Ajaokuta and Aladja. There are economic, social and political
gains if the iron ore sector is developed. A lot of money has been pumped into this sector.
The economy of the country is passing through a hard time. External debt by now is
projected to be about $29.45bn and the servicing is about $2.5bn and recently the external
reserves dropped to $9.7bn. Total dependence on oil, debt servicing and corruption have
made Nigeria one of the poor countries in the world. However, as shown in Table 1, Nigeria
is blessed with mineral resources that if they are harnessed will bail us out of the present
predicament. The demand for Nigerian coal is improving. More coal could be produced,
exported and some for domestic consumption. China depends a lot on her coal fields. The
development of coking coal from Lafia-Obi or Bauchi Coal field, and coal briquettes from
Okaba should be intensified by research in different places. It is apparent that the
development of the minerals should be accelerated and activities of the miners monitored.
There is no reason why this sector should not be developed.
3.0 MY MODEST CONTRIBUTION THROUGH RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Mr. Vice Chancellor, Sir, I now want to go into my contributions, to the mineral
resources exploitation, processing and utilization for the metallurgical industry. However,
before we continue this lecture, a joke will be shared which we all know very well. A
Governor in the Second Republic was asked by a Journalist if there are minerals in his
State. His reply was "YES" and went on to name Coke, Sprite, 7-UP etc. as minerals that
are found in his State. At this point, let us define the keyword in this lecture - "Mineral"
A mineral is an ore found in or on the earth's crust (inorganic, organic, metallic,
nonmetallic) that can be exploited at an economic value. The partial list of common
minerals found in Nigeria is presented in Table 1.
3.10 EXPLOITATION OF COAL
Coal was first discovered in Nigeria in 1909 and the first drift was opened in 1916 at
Obwetti, Enugu under the Nigeria collieries (Onyemaobi 1988a, Onyemaobi 1992a,
Onyemaobi 199la). The coal industry and the Nigerian Railways were jointly managed but in
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the late twenties, the coal industry was separated from the Railways and became the
Government Collieries. Extensive Geologic work carried out in 1960 by the Geological
Survey Department revealed that Nigeria has large coal reserves. The coal reserves can he
conservately put at 649 million tonnes out of which at least 22 million tonnes are cokable.
Almost all the above coal is bituminous and anthracite does not exist.
As a result of demand in coal by the power plants and the Nigerian Railway
Corporation, production increased to over one million tonnes by 1950. This boom did not
continue because of the change from coal to diesel by the Nigerian Railway Corporation and
oil by the power plants. The Collieries were shut down between 1967and 1970 during the
Nigerian crisis. When hostilities ceased in 1970, the mines were reactivated, and production
started. The Nigerian Government agreed with a Polish firm KOPEX to mechanize the coal
faces using long wall system in Enugu. The impact of mechanization since then has not been
felt as flooding made it impossible for management to meet the initial objective of increased
production. Onyemaobi (1978, 1990) investigated the optimal dimensions of coal production
using four different objectives of average unit cost, internal rate of return (IRR), Profitability
index and present value of average unit cost. The two main variables, production and cost
were analyzed into different parameters. Production cost equations were developed and the
four different objectives were expressed in the form of equations. A sensitivity analysis of
the results was made by changing initial investment, project life, cycle time and cost of
capital. By the use of analysis of minimum average unit cost, the optimum dimension of the
long wall coal mining face was found to be in the range of 137m to 168m. Figure 2 shows
flow chart for the computer program. The results are very useful, as the increase in the use of
coal requires the development of the abundant coal reserves in Nigeria and the re-
mechanization of the existing mines by long wall system. The future challenge is not only to
increase coal production but also to increase coal recovery and productivity, improve health
and safety conditions, and minimize environmental disturbance from the production
processes (Onyemaobi, 1991)
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(a) Macro flow chart for average unit cost, (b) macro flow diagram of main routine (optimal
dimensions)
Fig 2: Flow-chart for computer program
In 1991 the coal imported into the UK from Onyeama was taken to Swansea in a 6300
dwt ship having been transported from Port Harcourt where there is a facility for ships up to
11,000 dwt. Principal market for the Nigerian coal is the domestic sector, although Deca
Associates, the UK importers do anticipate demand from smaller cement works. Sulphur
content of the coal is low, at 0.7% with ash at about 8%. The expected monthly total for
exported coal is 25000t, but in the long term as much as 200mt could be exploited according
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to the Nigerian Government. Port Harcourt would be the port from which shipments would
be made, thereby fulfilling the original purpose for which it was built. UPDATE (Onyemaobi
1991).
The problem of flooding was also considered (Onyemaobi, 1988a). Equipment and
machinery were abandoned at Onyeama mine which were badly corroded. Flooding
hampered production and both money and man-hours were lost. In a later part of this lecture,
the cost of corrosion on National Economy would be briefly given (Onyemaobi and
Amachaghi, 1998a). After coal is exploited it has to be cleaned or washed. A coal preparation
plant was also built in Enugu but abandoned some years ago.
3.11 CLEANING OF NIGERIAN COAL
In a study on the characterization and utilization of Nigerian coal for the Nigerian
Metallurgical Industry it was found that the volatile matter content in dry and dry ash free
basis are 36.31 % and 46.28% respectively, Onyemaobi and Dowo (1992a). These are close
to published data of 36.4% and 46.40% respectively (NCC 1986). The high volatile matter
shows it cannot be used for feedstock for metallurgical coke production since it is non-
coking. However it could be blended with anthracite from abroad or used for power plants,
cement industries or exported for foreign exchange. Also efforts are currently going on to
design and manufacture efficient coal stoves to be used by middle or low income households
(Achi 1991). This would help the government policy on afforestation. Another area where
Enugu coal is utilized is in the roasting of maize, yam, plantain, "suya" (Local Barbecue).
This usage is in the fast food sector that is patronized by most Nigerians.
3.12 PELLETIZATIONSTUDIES
Brookes and Onyemaobi (1982) studied handleability and production of large quantities
of coal fines and offered one possible solution, i.e. pelletization (see plate 1). Unsuccessful
attempts were made to relate basic results to ash of the feed material. They suggested that a
more realistic dependent variable would be the hydrophobicity of the coal surface.
Onyemaobi over the years continued the studies of Pelletization, Contact angle,
Kinetics, Handleability, Agglomeration Size Distribution, Strength and Hydrophobicity of
coal fines (Onyemaobi, 1983; Onyemaobi, 1989; Onyemaobi, 1990b; Onyemaobi, 1990;
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Onyemaobi, 1991b and Onyemaobi, 1991c). The results were interesting and affirmed that
there was no relationship between moisture content and ash content as widely believed.
Batch balling tests were conducted on the coals using a 0.5m disc (plate 2) at moisture limits
obtained from exploratory balling tests, Brookes and Onyemaobi (1982). The results revealed
that the growth kinetics followed a particular trend of increasing growth with time and
moisture content (Figure 3). Four definite regions of growth were distinguished namely:
nuclei formation, nuclei compaction and growth, ball growth and equilibrium regions. After
growth had commenced the agglomerated size distributions were very narrow and no
material appearing in the minus 4mm range. The modes of pellet growth were similar to
results of (Kapur and Fuerstenau, 1964 and Sastry and Fuerstenau, 1977). See figures 4 and
5.
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Plate 1: Pellets
Plate 2: Balling Disc
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Fig. 3: Growth Curves for Coal
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Fig. 4: Growth Curves (after Kapur and Fuerstenau)
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Fig.5: Formal representation of mechanism of size change (after Sastry and
Fuerstenau)
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The level of free moisture is confirmed as being critical to the growth rate and strength
of pellets. The size-strength relationship followed the form where Y is the
strength, D = size of pellets, K is a constant, n varied between 1.09 and 2.30. Contact angle
tests were made using suction potential method and the results were high because the
surfaces had been altered as a result of froth flotation. It is now suggested that solid surface
characteristics, in particular hydrophobicity, may exert more fundamental influence
(Onyemaobi, 1991c).
3.20 FLOATABILITY OF ISHIAGU LEAD/ZINC AS RAW MATERIALS
FOR SMELTER
Mr. Vice Chancellor, Sir, another area that has occupied my research interest is in
processing of Ishiagu Sphalerite. In this era of raw materials substitution, attempts should be
made to help our local smelters. A survey of use of zinc in Nigeria indicates that although
there is demand for it as roofing materials, the price is prohibitive to the common man. The
net effect is that most builders especially in the Western part of Nigeria use Asbestos, Adex,
etc. which would not be allowed in developed countries because of the risk of cancer
(Onyemaobi, 1990). Zinc production in Nigeria is very low even though the country is
blessed with vast deposits of sphalerite. This can be processed, and put into ready use. Niger-
ia's lead/zinc deposits are almost localized in cretaceous sedimentary rock within the Benue
trough. The ore extends for about 600km in a narrow belt from South of Abakiliki, Ishiagu to
Gombe. This is currently being exploited by private entrepreneurs and shipped overseas. In
many commercial deposits lead sulphide and sphalerite occur together, and hand sorting is
carried out before shipping. The chemical and mineralogical composition of the ore are
shown in Table 2. The zinc sulphide is associated with other minerals that can be put into use
locally if processed in the country. (Onyemaobi, 1989b, 1990b; Onyemaobi and Anyakwo,
1996a). In the series of the above studies, xanthate was the main collector. Onyemaobi
(1990b) found out that the results of recovery at different pH show that the point of zero
charge (PZC) is at pH 9.5. The results using fuel oil as a substitute show that it can float
sphalerite as well. The practical implication of this is that fuel oil can be used in the absence
of the other reagents that are not in the country. The Chemistry of Xanthate is widely known
by workers in this field.
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The hydrolysis of Xanthate is acidic:
and the decomposition of Xanthatic acid is:
While hydrolysis decomposition is:
The oxidation to dixanthogen takes form:
1)
2)
The Xanthate is protonated and it reduces the recovery after the most negative redox
potential of point of zero charge (PZC). The flotation recovery was high and the grade of the
concentrate improved from the initial analysis of the ore (Figures 6 and 7). Various collectors
were used and it was found that Potassium Amyl Xanthate (KAX) with Dep Na2SO3 gave the
highest recovery. Since sphalerite, which is abundant in the country, is exploited and
exported abroad, and roofing sheets are expensive, one method of overcoming this shortfall
is by using fuel oil as a collector. The product from this work has a long way before usage as
it has to undergo some metallurgical processes such as smelting and refining. It is possible to
float that material without activation by copper and Figure 8 gives the route for the final
product. There are small lead recycling plants e.g. Makeri Smelting Company, Jos and Exit
Battery Industry, Ibadan that recycle lead, making the country not wholly dependent on
imports from developed countries. Usually the demands of these industries in terms of raw
materials are not adequately provided and their goods are delayed while waiting for imports
from abroad. This helps to retard industrial growth. Processing of these ores in Nigeria will
among other things help in solving the aforementioned problems
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Table 2: Mineralogical Composition of Sphalerite using X-ray Analsis
Compound PbS ZnS SO2 FeS Cu.FeS FeCO3
Composition (Wt.%) 45.84 30.63 9.96 5.49 4.38 3.63
Fig. 6: Recovery and rate data for Ishiagu sphalerite
Fig. 7: Dependence of % grade of Zn on pH
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3.30 RECYCLING OF LEAD
The cost of batteries has gone up over the years. Some years ago a 45Ah lead battery
cost about four hundred Naira but today Solite 60 Ah sells for about four thousand Naira.
Many reasons have been advanced for such increase. In the preceding section, it was
mentioned that lead recycling is practiced by some industries. Onyemaobi (1995b) studied
the production process for lead recycling from lead Battery Scraps. Figure 9 shows the flow
sheet for secondary lead smelting. The major chemical impurity of the lead produced is
antimony and in secondary recycling pure lead of 99.95% is produced. This is utilized in lead
batteries, oxide pastes, grids, bridges and terminals.
3.40 IRON ORE BENEFICIATION
The role of iron in nation building is well known. Iron when alloyed with other elements is
about the most important construction material. The cost per kilogram of iron in any country
is a measure of the standard of living of that nation (Onyemaobi, 1990a).
This is one major reason why Nigeria has joined the Steel race. Nigeria has vast deposits of
iron ore located in Toto, Agbaja, Itakpe, Muro Hill etc. The Itakpe iron ore is the one
currently developed and will serve as the main source of raw material for the steel
complexes. The Itakpe iron ore is in the low to medium grade metamorphic rocks and not
fully banded together. The iron content is between 34.47% (Aderibigbe, 1982). The Ajaokuta
Steel Complex requires one hundred percent of its ore concentrate from Itakpe of a grade of
64%. It is apparent that before usage the ore has to be beneficiated from the original compo-
sition to upgrade it to meet the requirements of the major uses.
Onyemaobi (1988b, 1990a, 1991a and 1998a) beneficiated Itakpe iron using sink and float
method, magnetic separation and froth flotation. The results of sink and float analysis
produced 66.34%Fe (0.370mm), 66.68%Fe (0.26mm) and 66.73% (0.18mm). The magnetic
separation results were 66.7%Fe for the magnetic concentrate and non-magnetic tailings
11.20% Fe. The froth flotation result at pH 7.8 has 66.40%Fe. Another interesting result was
reverse flotation where the ore was enriched to 67.30% Fe and recovery of 84.00% Fe. The
concentrate is ideal for pellet production usable by the different Steel plants.
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Fig 8: Flow sheet for Ishiagu Sphalerite ore
Fig 9: Flow sheet for Secondary Lead Smelting
ORE
EXPLOITATION
COMMUNITION
CONCENTRATION
REFINING
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However, the removal of phosphorus is still a problem and research should be intensified to
do this.
3.50 BARYTE BENEFICIATION
The Mineral baryte (barium sulphate) is one of the major sources or barium and its
compounds whose many uses are nearly hidden among the technical complexities of modern
industrial processes and products. It is extremely important it the petroleum industry where
80% of the world's production of 44 million tons in 1973 was consumed by that industry in
the form of heavy fluid which is circulated in rotary drilling. The remaining 20% went
chiefly to the production of barium chemicals. In Nigeria, baryte is used mainly for drilling
fluids by the petroleum industry. The increasing trend for its demand in the country is most
likely to continue up to the end of this century so long as the economic activity in the
petroleum sector is maintained. With an envisaged increase in the use of baryte particularly
for drilling purposes, it has become necessary to carry out some studies on the beneficiation
and recovery of baryte. Nwoko and Onyemaobi (1997), Onyemaobi and Nwoke (1996),
Onyemaobi and Nwoko (1998) did extensive studies on beneficiation of Azare Baryte and
Azare Baryte Tailings. Table 3 shows the size analysis and assay of Baryte, while Table 4
shows the results of gravity concentration using a mineral jig. Table 5 shows results of
magnetic separation. The aim of beneficiation is to produce a higher-grade ore or concentrate
in order to facilitate subsequent extraction process. The results of size analysis show a higher
distribution of Baryte in the coarse range (-1180+500micron). Using Gaudin – Schuhmann
(Figure 10) analysis, the results could be given as (
)
where Y is the cumulative
fraction or percent passing particle size x with x usually the normal or effective aperture size
of the screen; k is the size modulus and m the distribution. The values of k and m are 0.027
and 0.085 respectively (Nwoko and Onyemaobi, 1997). Magnetic separation results gave an
assay of 96.71% for the concentrate. The barium sulphate distribution from the jigging
operation as 98.95%. The slight increase from 95.07% to 98.95% after jigging operations is
considered significant since the new value conforms to the minimum requirement of 94% to
98% barium sulphate by the chemical, paint and petroleum industries.
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Table 3: Size and Assay Distribution of Azare Baryte
Size in micron Wt. % Cum. Wt.%
retained
Cum.
Wt.%
passing
Assay
Ba%
SO4
Analysis
Assay
BaSO4
Ba
Distr.
BaSO4
Distr.
-1180+I000 9.73 9.73 90.27 57.70 40.33 98.03 9.94 10.03
-1100+710 23.39 33.12 66.88 57.50 40.19 97.69 23.81 24.03
-710+500 24.56 57.68 42.32 56.20 39.28 95.48 24.44 24.69
-500+355 13.08 70.76 29.24 56.00 39.14 95.14 12.97 13.09
-335+250 8.41 79.17 20.83 56.20 39.28 95.48 8.37 8.45
-250+180 8.98 88.15 11.85 55.90 39.07 94.97 8.89 8.97
-I80+125 3.79 91.94 8.06 56.30 39.35 95.65 3.78 3.81
-125+ 90 4.39 96.33 3.67 56.00 39.14 75.14 4.35 3.49
-90+63
2.54 98.87 1.13 57.50 40.19 97.69 2.59 2.61
-63 1.13 100.00 43.00 30.07 73.07 0.86 0.89
Head calculated 100 56.48 40.30 95.07 100.00 100.00
Table 4: Result of Gravity Concentration of Azare Baryte using a Mineral Jig
Product Weight,% BaSO4, % assay BaSO4, % distribution
Concentrate 80.11 98.95 95.87
Tailing 19.89 17.19 4.13
Head (calculated) 100.00 82.69 100.00
Table 5: Result of Magnetic Separation of Azare Baryte
Product Weight,% BaSO4, %
Concentrate 99.94 96.71
Tailing 0.06 -
Head (calculated) 100.00 95.07
Onyemaobi and Nwoke (1996) introduced the concept of efficiency of separation. They
found that efficiency ranges between 0.686 and 0.874 and this increases with pH. The
efficiency is highest at the optimum pH 10 beyond which any further tests would be
prohibitive in terms of costs of reagents and no increase in recovery (Figure 11).
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Efficiency of Recovery for Barite:
Where
= Barite Recovery (%)
= Barite Content in Concentrate (%)
=Barite Content in Feed (%)
Fig. 10: Gaudin – Schuhmann plot for Azare baryte
Fig. 11: Correlation between Efficiency and pH
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3.60 DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL CLAY MATERIALS
No country develops strictly on importation of goods. Our major seaports are jammed
with imports like cars, spare parts, machinery and tools that could have been fabricated
locally. Recently industrialists in Nnewi etc have been fabricating spare parts. These spare
parts are fabricated using high temperature furnaces that require refractories as linings. Most
of the refractories consumed in this country are sourced from abroad. There are many clay
deposits in Nigeria that could be used as refractories. Another area that has interested me of
late is the use of local clays as refractory materials. Omotoyinbo, Onyemaobi and Borode
(2000), Onyemaobi, Omotoyinbo and Borode (1997), Onyemaobi (1998), Onyemaobi.
Omotoyinbo and Borode (2000) have worked on the suitability of various clays as furnace
linings. The results of the studies can be summarized as:
1) The chemical analysis of the different clays tested and also blended indicate that
they are suitable as alumino-silicate refractory materials.
2) The refractory of the blends was 1600°C, 1500°C and 1450°C. The blends were
higher than pure clay materials from the same locations.
3) The blends had a thermal shock or spalling resistance of 30 cycles.
4) However the linear shrinkage of the tested blends was low.
5) The compressive strength (Optimum) was 3.75 x 104 KN/M
2 at 90°C.
6) In one of the studies a 15:15:20:50 ratio gave the best refractory properties.
The results gave far reaching implications that local clays are also useful as refractory
materials for iron blast, reheating and glass melting furnaces.
Engineering properties of Amuro-Okigwe fired clay Bricks for Building work were also
investigated (Onyemaobi, 1997). Red clay is one of the most common burrow materials in
Nigeria. When red clay is fired, different types of reactions take place involving loss of
hydroscopic, hydrated water etc. There are many brick making factories in Nigeria. As a
result of the economic situation in Nigeria these factories operate at less than fifty percent
capacity. The Federal Government’s new housing policy has to be supported by looking for
alternative materials instead of sandcrete blocks.
Results of recent studies on the fired clay bricks show that:
1) The firing of Amuro bricks should be in the range of 750 - 1050°C.
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2) The chemical composition has a high silica content of 47.50%, Al2O3 of 17.09% and
Fe2O3 of 10.97%. The Na2O content of 10.17% is a probable cause of high shrinkage.
3) The modulus of rupture is appropriate for building and is comparable to ASTM
standards.
4) The bulk density of 1.77 – 1.94g/cm3 is good as a building brick. The water absorption
is appropriate as a building material; for example the ASTM standard is 19 while that
obtained was 16.52.
5) The saturation coefficient maximum obtained was 0.75 compared to ASTM standard
of 0.80.
It is concluded that a revitalization of bunt bricks for housing should he encouraged. Burnt
brick bungalows have a beauty that cannot be compared to painted sandcrete block houses.
3.70 MY OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS IN ANOTHER AREA OF INTEREST
In an earlier paragraph it was mentioned that equipment abandoned underground have
corroded. Batteries that are made from Lead-Zinc corrode, steels and galvanized iron sheets
corrode etc. As a result of this I felt like doing some work in the area of corrosion. Our oil
industry has spent a lot of money preventing corrosion. According to Wall Street Journal,
September 11, 1981 cost of corrosion to oil and gas is nearly 2 billion dollars (Onyemaobi
and Amachaghi, 1998). It is sad to loose such a colossal sum to corrosion. Although
corrosion cannot be prevented, it can be minimized. The cost of corrosion to our economy
cannot be quantified especially when youths also help to vandalize the pipe lines. In the
series of studies undertaken under corrosion, the different modes of corrosion, causes and
remedies were elucidated (Onyemaobi, Owa and Anyakwo, 1996; Onyemaobi and
Amachaghi, 1998a; Onyemaobi, Ohiaeri and Umezuruike, 1999; Onyemaobi and Ohakosim,
1998; and Onyemaobi, Amachaghi and Akalonu, 1999). The results can be summarized for
brevity as:
1) In the case of steel in sulphite solutions the steels were susceptible to general
corrosion in sulphite medium with Hg2+
ions, followed by S2–
ions. However this
medium shows some inhibitive properties as the quantity of S2–
ions present increases
(Onyemaobi, Owa and Anyakwo 1996).
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2) The corrosion resistance of aluminum in different media in order to simulate polluted
atmosphere, acidic, alkaline and marine environments, where aluminum alloys are
normally exposed while in service revealed that sodium hydroxide environment as
most corrosive followed by hydrochloric acid. Increase in temperature and
concentration increased the corrosion rate except in nitric acid in which increase in
concentration passivated the alloy the more. However increase in purity of the alloys
decreased the corrosion (Onyemaobi and Ohakosim, 1998; Onyemaobi, Ohiaeri and
Umezurike, 1999), and
3) In the case of localized corrosion of different aluminum alloys the corrosion rate for
various alloys increased with increasing percentage of NaCl but after a critical value
decreased. Corrosion rates also followed the order of heterogeneity of the different
alloys the higher the pitting factor the lower the corrosion rate (Onyemaobi,
Amachaghi and Akalonu, 1999). It is concluded that corrosion can be minimized by
applying different corrosion prevention methods.
4.0 UTILIZATION OF MINERALS
Although this part of this inaugural lecture has been listed under Table 1, brief mention
will be made here. The picture (Plate 3) shows some of the products of processed ore. Steel
produced from iron ore provides essential material for the many and varied needs of man.
Okorie (2000) put it this way recently "Of all industrial input materials, steel is ranked as the
most important, with aluminum coming second. Based on this, the level of production and
consumption of steel by a nation have become generally regarded as reliable indicators of the
extent of industrialization, quality of life, military alertness, and economic well-being of the
nation". It is widely known that the influence of steel will spread to a large number of
upstream and downstream spin-off industries. At the downstream side, there will be
consumption of steel in the construction, agricultural, fabrication, machinery and equipment,
transportation, automobile, foundry, consumer good, packaging and defence industries
(Onyemaobi, 1995a and Okorie, 2000).
Zinc roofing sheets are produced from our Lead/Zinc deposits at Ishiagu. Batteries used
in cars are also from processed sphalerite, phosphates are used for fertilizer for agriculture.
Gold from Ilesha is for making jewelries etc.
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Plate 3: PICTURE OF UTILIZATED MINERALS
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Kaolin clay is for manufacture of ceramics. What about glass? Every home makes use of
glass. Aluminum pots are made from Bauxite. Coal is used for heating and cement clinker.
Tantalum, tungsten and titanium form the group of high melting point metals which are used
as additives to high temperature alloys for the nuclear and spacecraft industries (Tobins and
Oforka, 2002).
Utilization of exploited and processed minerals is a sine qua non for the Metallurgical
industry. There are many ferro and non-ferro minerals that are currently exploited by
individuals and smuggled out of the country. The current attitude where these minerals are
exported to the West, they do the processing and then send the final product to us should be
discouraged. The over dependence on oil is not good for the economy. It is apparent from
this lecture that the country has many minerals that can make Nigeria a giant of Africa if they
are properly harnessed and utilized for industrial growth
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this inaugural lecture, I have attempted to highlight the mineral resources
exploitation, processing and utilization - a sine qua non for Nigeria's metallurgical industrial
development. The processing and use of mineral resources for the development of the
country which has been my area of research for the past 25 years have also been discussed.
Although we talk of foreign investors, we have enough mineral resources to make
Nigeria self- reliant. The over dependence on oil has not helped the country. Nigeria can he
sustained from revenue from the mineral sector. Most of the minerals that are located all
over the country are needed in the advanced countries and are sources of foreign exchange
if properly harnessed. They can reduce the inflationary trend in the country and
unemployment. There is no reason why a. bag of cement that cost N20.00 (Twenty Naira) in
1988 should cost N600 in 2002 when limestone, the major source of raw material for
cement making abounds in the country. The cost of iron rods will drastically go down if the
steel mills come on stream. Ghana, Ivory Coast, Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa and
Liberia depend on mineral resources for existence. The economy can be sustained if
adequate steps are taken to develop the solid mineral sector. It is in the light of these that I
wish to make some recommendations which I believe would move the country forward
towards achieving sustainable environment for man, plants, metallurgical and other
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industries.
1) The activities of illegal miners, unpatriotic Nigerians and neglect of solid minerals
should be stopped by enforcing laws that make it punishable to smuggle solid
minerals out of the country.
2) The Raw Materials Development Centre Abuja should make data available that are
useful in minerals utilization.
3) The Ministry of Solid Minerals should he reorganized. It should establish R and D
Department (if not already done), to work hand in hand with the Nigeria
Metallurgical Development Centre, Jos.
4) The research findings in Nigerian Metallurgical Development Centre and those
mentioned in this lecture should be put into immediate use.
5) A Mineral Processing Plant and a Smelter should he built in Ishiagu for the processing
and smelting of Galena, Sphalerite etc as suggested by me in one of my papers years
ago.
6) Nigeria's proven deposits of many several nonferrous and ferro-alloy minerals such as
tin and columbite, talc. silver, gold, nickel, coal and others referred in Table 1 should
be exploited, processed and utilized for the good of all and sundry.
7) The attitude of few, greedy and powerful Nigerians who smuggle these minerals out of
the country should change. When they are shipped out of the country royalties should
be paid to government. The tax collectors must be honest, patriotic and not steal
government money.
8) The Southern part the country especially the South East is blessed with minerals. The
government should establish a well-equipped Mineral Processing Laboratory and if
possible a mini smelting plant in this region. The laboratory should have an Atomic
Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). This should he established at the Federal Univ ersity
of Technology Owerri bearing in mind its unique location and the contribution of staff
to research in this area. This will also help the Bentonite project of the government.
9) Mini processing plants should he established by individuals in this area. There are
many essential concentrates in the minerals useful for our industrial growth.
10) The foundries in this locality should make use of local clays as furnace
Adaptation by Engr. Udochukwu Mark on 08/12/2011
38
linings. Utilization of local clays will help the Metallurgical industry.
11) The Ezinachi Burnt Brick factory should be reactivated to produce burnt bricks that are
affordable to the generality of the public.
12) The research findings in iron ore should be put into use immediately. The completion
of the Rail line from Itakpe to Warri and Ajaokuta should be accelerated so that super
concentrates are used to produce billets. Iron rods and sheet metal should be affordable
and the raw materials starved industries would operate at optimum capacity. The steel
plants should be completed immediately. Honest men should be put at the hem of
affairs. Nigeria has spent so much money on Ajaokuta and Delta Steel Projects. It
seems the prophecy by the Professor I mentioned earlier is coming to pass.
13) Uranium deposits in Sokoto and Yobe States should be exploited, processed and
utilized. This would put Nigeria into the Atomic Age. Iraq, Israel, India and Pakistan
are feared by the Western nations because of their nuclear capability. Our Uranium
should be put into immediate use.
14) Titanium, tantalum, niobium – important alloying elements abundant in Jos area –
should be processed. This will help the metallurgical industry and the country at large.
15) Aluminum smelting should recommence, as aluminum is very important to the
economy of the country.
16) In the advanced countries, money is invested in research. However, Nigerians are only
ready to import finished goods from abroad. The time has come for Nigeria to invest,
promote and encourage research in the mineral sector. The mistakes of the past
governments in Ajaokuta and Delta Steel should not be repeated. Some of the
developments abroad could not have been possible without huge financial commitment
in Research and Development. It is hereby recommended that Entrepreneurs,
Government (both Federal and State) should make special funds available for
establishment of Research Centres in the area of Mineral Processing and Utilization.
17) I am appealing to rich individuals and Corporate bodies to endow Chairs in Mineral
Processing Engineering in the Universities in the Six Geo Political Zones of the
Federation.
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39
Finally, Mr. Vice Chancellor, Sir, Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen as you leave this
lecture, think of Mineral Resources, Exploitation, Processing and Utilization. The Limousine
you drive, the clothes you wear, the GSM phone you handle, the food on your table, the
mansion you live in, the TV set, the computer, the aircraft, household appliances, electrical
packaging, machinery equipment, Bulldozers, Scrappers and all other Construction
Machinery, Electrical Cables, NEPA Transformers, the Rig for Oil Drilling and Water
Boreholes to name a few; are from minerals that have been processed and utilized. Who
made these? The Bible has the answer. "In the beginning, God created the heaven and earth"
(Gen 1:1, KJV). That means that God is the first Professor in Mineral Processing Engineer-
ing.
Adaptation by Engr. Udochukwu Mark on 08/12/2011
40
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I will like the audience to bear with me as I might follow the format of my FUTA
Inaugural Lecturers in this part of the lecture. For promotion cometh neither from the east or
from the west, nor from the South. But God is the judge: He putteth down one and setteth up
another (Psalm 75:6,7). God has been good to me. I grew up as a poor boy at Nbawsi but
today have been able to give this lecture. In those days in Primary School, I did not know
what the future held. I never imagined that one day I would be addressing a University
audience as a university Professor. It is a privilege and I give God all the glory.
God spared my life in Owerri on Easter Sunday 1969 when my Sergeant tripped on a
booby trap at Emekuku. I could have died that day and gone to hell. After the war (1970) I
met Jesus, was Born Again in Enugu and life changed. God has helped me so far and I am
grateful to Him. I want to thank my mother’s friend Mrs. Damaris Onyewu from Egbu who
encouraged my mother, Mrs. Eunice Onyemaobi to send us to secondary school. In those
days at Nbawsi only the rich were able to go to secondary schools. I want to thank my
teachers at St. George’s Primary School, Nbawsi and my lesson teacher at St. Anthony's
School, Nbawsi. I will mention a few of them, Sir Udumagala, Mr. Elekwachi, Mr. Onwuka,
Mr. Dureke, Miss Opa. Thank you for laying the foundation. To some of my classmates in
St. Georges School who challenged me: Dr. Captain Major, Miss Salome Onwuagha, Dr.
Amadike Ezeibe, Mr. Job Onwuaghara, Mr. Friday Ikonne and Mr. Amos Eze, I say thank
you.
In 1962 I carried my box to Government Secondary School, Afikpo for a journey of
over seven years. Mr. Marriot offered me a Secondary Scholarship (Form 1 to Upper Six).
Mr. Ema and Bassey (Mantisa) my Mathematics teachers. Mr. Ndu (my Biology Teacher),
the Mathews, my Physics and Chemistry Teachers, Mr. Onyeaghala, my English Teacher; I
thank all of you. Dr. Hinco Ohiaeri, my House Captain in 1966, your philosophy has helped
me over the years. I appreciate those boys in those days who bullied me when I erred as a
fag. Thank you. I will not forget Late Dr. G. Akabogu (Egbe), our Principal from Umuahia
who helped build Afikpo in those days.
I am grateful to late Sister Yinka Ajayi who made sure my Federal Government
scholarship form that was missing in Lagos was found. You were a mother, a friend and a
sister to me. Without your effort my name would not have appeared for the Federal
Adaptation by Engr. Udochukwu Mark on 08/12/2011
41
Government Scholarship in 1974. I am indebted to the Federal Government of Nigeria that
gave me the Scholarship. My Professors and classmates in University of Nevada, Reno were
wonderful. I am grateful to Professor Ross Smith who introduced me to Mineral Processing,
and gave me the position of Graduate Research Assistant in 1977. I will also remember Prof.
Scheid, Prof. Linz and Prof. Hubbard who helped me in those days in Nevada.
My special thanks go to mother Ruth Ashwell (late), late Uncle Lloyd Ashwell, late
Rev. Wallace, Rev. Bob Hanlin. Rev. Reul Green, Bob Green and others of the Apostolic
Faith Church, Portland who made my stay in the United States of America interesting. I also
appreciate my Supervisor Prof. E. Topaz for my Master’s Degree. He encouraged me to
persevere in life.
When I came back to Nigeria in Dec. 1978, I was employed by late Prof. E.K.
Ohiakor and Dr. B.I.C. Ijioma now, Prof. B.I.C. Ijioma (Ekpoma) at the Federal Polytechnic
Akure. Late Prof. E. Obiakor encouraged me, helped and facilitated my getting a Staff
Development to do a Ph.D. in University of Nottingham, UK. Messrs Olu Ajayi and E.
Akibamini signed my guarantors forms. Late Bro. P. Akomolede was good to me in those
days at Akure. Rev. E. Aina, Late Rev. T.G. Oshokoya and Late Rev. J. Soyinka prayed for
me in those days. I also thank Revs. Soji Oni. Soji Olamijulo and Rev. Paul Akazue. I will
not forget Bro. G. Alao and Cpl. C. Ononiwu my present Landlord in Akure.
In the UK, I appreciate the help of my Ph.D. Supervisor, late Dr. G.F. Brookes, you
sharpened my research interest and I wish you were here today to know that “Okey” is now
a Professor. Our team under “Gerald” was wonderful; many of us are Professors now and for
this I give the glory to God. Rev. V. Okusanya my London Pastor was kind to me. Thank
you. I will not forget my friend late Davy Chukwudinma and Bro. and Sister Akinwumi who
lodged us in London. Bro. and Sister Abdulahi, I thank you for your help in those days.
Sister and late Pa Ladende, I am grateful for your hospitality in London. I also thank the rest
of the Apostolic Faith Church in London who helped me during my sojourn in London.
I met wonderful friends in FUTA in 1986. These are Professors T.I. Francis (late), the
founding Vice Chancellor, L.B. Kolawole, E.A. Adeyemi, and O.C. Ademosun. These
people helped me. I have other friends in FUTA who have been good to me, Dr. Borode
(Tunde), Engr. Bade Omotinybo, Engr. Adewuyi, Dr. Ray Osemenam, Prof.C.O. Adegoke,
Dr. O. Ojo, late Dr. S. Adepoju, late Prof O.T. Adepoju, my first Dean in SEET (FUTA), I
Adaptation by Engr. Udochukwu Mark on 08/12/2011
42
thank you. I will not forget Mr. Ukut and others in FUTA who typed my papers while in
FUTA. I also thank the authorities of FUTA who have allowed me to spend two Sabbatical
leaves in my former Department where I was the first Coordinator.
My movement from FUTA to FUTO was one good thing that happened to me in life.
Mrs. Nkoli Onyechi was the School Officer when I was interviewed; Prof. Duru was the
Dean and Prof. V.O. Nwoko was the Head of Department. To all these people who helped
me I say thank you. Prof. Ejike was the Acting Vice Chancellor, you might have forgotten,
you were used in those days to make me get used to Ibo land. I want to appreciate all the
good friends in FUTO. Dr. C. Anyakwo, Dr. L. Aririatu, Dr. E. Anyanwu, Dr. G. Onyeze,
Mr. A. Ogbonna, Mr. C.S Nwobodo, Mr. M. Okoro. Dr. J. Ovri, Engr. G. Nwandikom, Mr.
M. Mbakwe, Dr. J. Iwuagwu, Engr. A. Orumuyi, Prof. Mrs. B. Anyanwu, Rev. Fr. Prof. L.
Asiegbu, Prof. C. Asiabaka, Mrs. Ohazurike, Mr. S. Ofoegbu, Dr.J. Ononiwu, Mrs Oguguo,
Miss J. Anyanwu, Engr. E. Okafor, Dr. O.R. Owen, Mr. Nkata, Prof. K. Osondu and the CIS
Staff etc. all have to be appreciated.
There are special people to be mentioned here. Prof. C.O.G. Obah, Prof. Mike Iloeje,
Prof. G. Ojiako, Prof. C.C. Ntamere, Prof. L.C. Ogude, Mr. M.E. Onye, Dr. K. Ibe, Dr.
O.Oguoma, Prof. M.E. Enyiegbulam. Prof. B.A. Nwachukwu, Prof. M.A. Nwachukwu,
Prof. A. Udedibia. Mrs. U. Ogundu (SAAT), Prof B.N. Onwuagba, Prince J.A. Faleye.
Chike Ezenwa. Mrs. Ahiarakwe, Mr. Nwokocha. Prof P.B.U. Achi, Prof A. Nduka. Prof E.
Banigo. Dr. Joe Uzuegbu, Prof. J. Ejimanya, Mr. M. Okoye. Prof. M. Nwufoh, Prof J.
Obiefuna, Prof. O. Okorafor, Prof Osuji, Prof. M.O.E. Iwuala. Prof. O. Duru, Mr. J. Anufulu
and my senior in Afikpo, Engr. Prof. C.I. ljioma, I am very thankful for the various roles
they have individually played in making me what I am today. Lastly, I appreciate the present
V.C., Prof. Jude Ejike Njoku for his humility and hard work, a man God has placed to run
the affairs of FUTO now.
I would not be in Owerri if God had not used Rev. S. Nnodim to let me apply to
FUTO. Many of my Brothers and Sisters have prayed for me over the years. These are Late
Rev. S. Okorie, Late Rev. O Machie, Late Rev. W. Totty, Rev. N.N. Ufere, my Overseer,
Rev. O.Olamijulo, Rev. J. Emelike (Oteh). May God bless all of you. My present Pastor,
Rev. E. Ukadike you also should be acknowledged and many of my friends too numerous
to mention. I also acknowledge Dr. Juliet Orlu.
Adaptation by Engr. Udochukwu Mark on 08/12/2011
43
I post-humously appreciate the simplicity of the life of my limber, Mr. John
Onyemaobi II, and also my father in-law, Late Pa Elijah Efughi. After my dad and his
brother, John Onyemaobi I, departed this world the one left in our kindred is Rev. Canon
Anyanwu. May He continue to live for Jesus. I want to appreciate my immediate and
extended family, Chief A. Onyemaobi, Lolo M, Mr. Joe Onyemaobi, Engr. Chinedu
Onyemaobi, Mrs. Joy Izuazu and the husband, Mrs. Uche Onyemaobi and Mrs. Oluchi
Onyemaobi. The Brothers and Sisters of our wives are equally important to me. All my
relations in Avutu-Obowo are also acknowledged. I especially appreciate the following
people from Obowo who have been of help to me: Chief S. Anyanwu, Dr. Goddy Eke, Dr.
Ndu Eke, and Dr. C. Osuagwu.
Today is a day of special joy to me. It is said that behind a successful man is a
woman. I wish to appreciate my wife.
I met Mrs. Gloria A. Onyemaobi in the Church in 1973. I appreciate her humility,
patience and sacrifice. In Proverbs 31:10-31 the Bible describes a virtuous woman. Mrs.
Gloria Onyemaobi, B.Sc. (UNN), M.Sc. (London) is one. I appreciate her and may God
bless her richly. Our four children: IK Onyemobi (FUTO), Ijeoma (IMSU), Oluchi who has
just finished SSS from FGGC, Owerri and Kelechi (FGGC) Owerri have been wonderful.
Please forgive me if I did not mention your name. I want to end this lecture like a friend did
in Akure recently. Finally of making many books, there is no end, and much study is a
weariness of the flesh, let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God and keep his
commandments; for this is the whole duty of man. Ecclesiastes12:12-13.
Mr. Vice-Chancellor, distinguished ladies and gentlemen, I am done with my lecture
and thank you for listening. May God bless you and grant you safe journey. JESUS IS
LORD and is Coming Back to take the Righteous. Are you ready for the coming of the
Lord?
Adaptation by Engr. Udochukwu Mark on 08/12/2011
44
REFERENCES
Taggart, A.F., (1942), Handbook of Mineral Dressing, John Holley and Sons, New York, pp
2-184
Kapur, P.C. and Fuerstenau, D.W., (1964), Kinetics of Green Pelletization, Trans. AIME,
Vol. 229, pp 348-355
Taha, H.A., (1971), Operations Research, An Introduction, Macmillan Publishing Co, New
York, pp 383-384
Sastry, K.V.S. and Fuerstenau, D.W., (1977), Kinetics and Process Analysis of the
Agglomeration of Particulate Materials by Green Pelletization, Proc of Int. Symp. On
Agglom. 2nd Atlanta, GA, Ed. K. V.S. Sastry et al., pp 381-402.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1978), Optimization of Longwall Panel Dimensions, MSc. Thesis, V.P.I.
and S.U, B’Burg, VA, USA.
Aderibigbe, A.A., (1982), Scope and Role of Metallurgical Engineering in the Iron and Steel
Industry, Nigerian Engineer, 17 (1), pp 37-39
Brookes, G.F. and Onyemaobi, O.O., (1982), Disc Pelletization of Coal Fines. J. Chem. E.
Jubilee Symposium. London, G22 – G29.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1983), The Effect of Free Moisture on the Pelletization of Froth Floated
Coals, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nottingam. UK.
Nigerian Coal Corporation, Enugu, (1986), NCC Information on the Coal Industry, Book
Prepared by NCC. 1-19.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1988a), Problems Encountered in Dewatering a Nigerian Coal Mine,
Third International Water Congress, Melbourne Australia, pp 41-47
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1988b), Beneficiation of Itakpe Iron Ore. A Preliminary Studs on Itakpe
Iron Ore.
Adaptation by Engr. Udochukwu Mark on 08/12/2011
45
Uwadile, G.G.O., (1989), Upgrading Nigeria Iron Ores, Minerals and Metallurgical
Processing, August, pp 117-122.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1989a), The Effect of Hydrophobicity on Pelletization of Coal. Ni,,.
J.Tech.Res, pp 115-120
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1989b), Floatability of Ishiagu Galena as Raw Materials for Smelters,
Nigerian Journal of Applied Science, Vol. 8, pp 93-101.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1990a), Treatment of Itakpe Iron Ore for Recovery of Products Usable
for Steel Production, Technical Report. URC, FUTA, 12 pp.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1990b). Pelletization of Various Coal Fines: Kinetics and agglomeration
Size Distribution (ASD). Ife Journal of Techn, Vol. 1, No. 2 pp 41-48
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1990c), Optimal Determination of Longwall Panel Dimensions for Coal
Mining, Mining Engineering Journal, Vol. 71, pp 61 -66
Onvemaobi, O.O., (1990d), The Effect of Moisture on Strength of Pellets from Floth
Floated Coals, Mining Science and Technology, 11, pp 287-297.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1990e), Evaluation of Flotation Performance of Nigeria's Sphalerite
(ZnS) W/o activation by Copper, Ife Journal of Techn. Vol.2. No. 2 pp 21-25
Achi, P.B.U., (1991), The Design and Manufacture of an Efficient Coal Stove. National
Conf. on Technological Progress in the Third World Countries, ASUTECH.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1991a), Beneficiation Performance of Itakpe Iron Ore. National
Conference of Techn Progress in the 3rd World, Enugu, 18 pp.
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46
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1991b), Coal Production Problem at Onyeama Mine, Colliery Guardian,
Vol. 239, No. 5, July, pp 145-149
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1991c), Contact Angle Measurement on Treated Particles Using Suction
Potential Method, Nigeria Engineer. Vol. 26, No. 2, pp 63-74.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1991d), Factors Affecting the Pelletization of Froth Floated Coals,
Powder Technology, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp 191-198
Onyemaobi, O.O., and Dowo, S.A., (1992a), Characterization and Utilization of Nigerian
Coal for the Nigerian Metallurgical Industry, AJST, Series A, Vol. 10, No. 2. pp 10-13.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1995a), Appropriate Usage of Materials for Improved Agricultural and
Food Production, Proceedings NSAE, Vol. 17, pp 341-345
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1995b), Preliminary Feasibility Study of Okitipupa Tar Sand.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1995c), Production Processes for Lead Recycling from Lead Battery
Scraps, NSE Technical Transaction, Vol.30, No. 3, pp 1-7.
Abbaoba, M.I., (1996), Financing of Solid Minerals Enterprises, Proceedings of the
National Symposium on Strategies for the Development of Solid Minerals for National Self-
Reliance and Economic Growth, Kaduna Polytechnic, pp 28-35.
Mshela, P.D., (1996), Private Entrepreneurship in the Solid Mineral Sector of the Nigerian
Economy in Ref Ahbaoba 1996, pp 7-12.
Onyemaobi, O.O., and Anyakwo, C.N, (1996a), Factors Affecting the Performance of
Nigeria's Lead and Zinc Ores for Industrial Usage, JSFT, 3 (1), March, pp 293-303.
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47
Onyemaobi, O.O, Owa, A.F. and Anyakwo, C.N., (1996b), The Effect of Sn2+
, Hg2+
, and
S2–
Ions on Corrosion of Steel in Sulphide Solutions, JSET, Vol. 3, No.1, pp 480-490
Onyemaobi, O.O., and Nwoke, M.A.U, (1996), Recovery of Barites from Tailings of Azare
Processing Plant. NSF Technical Transactions, Vol. 31. No 4. pp 67-75
Nwoko, V.O. and Onyemaobi, O.O., (1997), Beneficiation Study on a Nigerian Baryte Ore
for Industrial Use. J. Mater. Sci, Technol. Vol. 13, pp 76-78
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1997), Engineering Properties of Amuro-Okigwe Fired Clay Bricks for
Building Work. NSF Technical Transactions, Vol. 32, No.1.pp 32-40
Onyemaobi, O.O., Omotoyinbo, A. and Borode, J.O., (1997), Effect of Porters Clay and
Additive on the Moulding Properties of Igbokodu Silica Sand, GJPAS. Vol. 3. No.3. pp 341-
352.
Onyemaobi, O.O., and Amachaghi, A.O., (1998), The Effect of Corrosion on the National
Economy. Proc of Nat. Corrosion Conference, PH, pp 73-79
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1998a), Assessment of Laboratory Concentrator Performance of
Nigeria's Iron Ore for Steel Production. JSET. Vol. 5, No. 1 (March). pp 1026-1037.
Onyemaobi, O.O., (1998b), Assessment of Physical Characteristics of Ezinachi Okigwe
Clay as Furnace Lining. JSET, Vol. 5. No. 1 . pp 898-907.
Onyemaobi, O.O., and Nwoko. V.O. (1998), Separation Performance of Nigeria’s Arare
Barite Ores by Froth Flotation, Nigeria Society of Chemical Engineers. Vol. 12-14, pp 24-31
Onyemaobi, O.O. and Ohakosim. E.C. (1998), Some Factors Affecting Corrosion
Resistance of Aluminum Alloys, Nigerian Corrosion Journal. Vol. 1. No.1, pp 45-60
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48
Onyemaobi, O.O., Amachaghi, A.O., and Akalonu, I.O. (1999), Localized Corrosion of
Aluminum Alloys. Proc.of Sccond Int. Corrosion Conf. pp 62-70
Onyemaobi, O.O., Ohiaeri, K.E. and Umezurike, A.A., (1999), Corrosion of Diff.
Aluminum Alloys. Nig Corrosion Journal (NCJ).Vol.2, pp111-118.
Ogbonna, A.I., Nwakudu, S. and Onyemaobi, O.O., (1999), Strategic Mineral Deposits in
Nigeria: The Neglected Case of Niobotantalates. Proc of the Nig. Metallurgical Society, 16th
Annual Conf., pp 59-66.
Okorie, B.A., (2000), Metallurgical Industry and National Development; Keynote Address,
at FUTO 2000. Annual Conf. of NAMMES, 8 pp.
Onyemaobi, O.O., Omotoyinbo, J.A, and Borode, J.O., (2000a), Suitability of some Clays
as Refractory Materials, NJEM, Vol. 1. No. 3. pp 14-18.
Omotoyinbo, J.A, Onyemaobi, O.O., and Borode. J.O, (2000b). Development of Selected
Local Clays as Refractory Materials Suitable for Surface Lining, JSET, Vol. 7. No. 3, pp
2503-2511
Onyemaobi, O.O., (2001). Sustainable National Mineral Resources Development. Proc. of
Engr. Conf. and AGM. 5th-9th Nov, pp 12-25.
Ajayi, J.A., (2001), Sustainable Infrastructural Development, Proceedings of NSE AGM, pp
157-165.
Bassey, E.N., Olich, R.A., and Ovwata, E.I. (2001). Development in Iron Ore Sourcing for
Sustainable Production of Direct Reduced Iron in Nigeria, Proceedings of NSE, Nov.5-9. pp
107-114.
Tobins, F.H., and Oforka. N.C. (2002), Recovery of Tantalum and Niobium from Jos Tin
Slag, NJERD, Vol. 1, No. 1. pp 1-6.
Udeala, S. (2002), Vanguard, May 22, p.3.
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