MECHANICS OF NURSING RESEARCH
MECHANICS OF NURSING RESEARCH
Jestoni Dulva Maniago, RN., RM., MAN., MA.Ed. (ip) DNSc (ip)Open Researcher and Contributor ID number 0000-0002-7084-8045
[email protected] / [email protected]
Executive Assistant to the VP for Research and Technology DevelopmentUniversity Research Coordinator for Health Sciences
Campus Clinical CoordinatorFaculty, College of Nursing
RAMON MAGSAYSAY TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITYIba, Zambales PHILIPPINES
MIDTERM DISCUSSIONS
Check Your Preparation:> Writing Skills> Methodology Skills> Environmental Support> Computer Access and Skills> Time Management Skills> Interpersonal Skills
Examine Your Cognitive Ecology
…is characterized by many different attributes:> it is based on the work of others> it can be replicated > it is generalizable to other settings> it is based on some logical rationale tied to theory> it is doable> it generates new questions or is
cyclical in nature > it is incremental> it is an apolitical activity that should be
undertaken for the betterment of society.
Asking the Question
Asking New Question Identifying the Important Factors
Reconsidering the Theory Formulating a Hypothesis
Working with the Hypothesis Collecting Relevant Information
Testing the Hypothesis
PHASES IN RESEARCH PHASE 1: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE
Step 1: Formulating the Problem
> The Statement of the Problem (SOP) sets the tone of the entire research. It has two parts: The Main Problem and the Specific Problems.
* The Main Problem presents the primary objective of the research undertaking
* The Specific Problem points out the details of the research questions to be
Sample Statement of the Problem
This study aims to determine the effect of art therapy on the level of pain tolerance of the selected students diagnosed with cancer.
Specifically, it will seek answers to the following questions:1. What is the profile of the respondent cancer students in terms of:
1.1 sex;1.2 age;1.3 health history and1.4 socio-economic status?
2. What is the level of pain tolerance of the cancer students who are exposed to the different treatments in terms of: 2.1 pharmaceutical meds; 2.2 art therapy?
3. Is there a significant difference in the level of pain tolerance of the cancer students exposed in either pharmaceutical meds or art therapy?
4. Based on the findings of the study, what health teaching plans may be proposed?
Sample Statement of the Problem
PHASE 1: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE
Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature
Step 3: Defining the Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
Step 4: Formulating Hypothesis
PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
PHASE 1: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE
Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature
Step 3: Defining the Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
Step 4: Formulating Hypothesis
PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
PHASE 2: THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
Step 5: Selecting a Research Design
Step 6: Identifying the Participants of the Study
Step 7: Specifying Instruments to be Used
PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
PHASE 3: THE EMPIRICAL PHASEStep 8: Collecting and or Gathering of
the Data PHASE 4: THE ANALYTIC PHASEStep 9: Analyzing the Data by Applying
a Statistical TestStep 10. Interpreting Results Step 11: Making Conclusions and
Recommendations
PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
PHASE 5: THE DISSEMINATION AND UTILIZATION PHASE
Step 12: Communicating the Findings
Step 13: Utilizing the Findings
PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Selecting a Problem:
* select a problem that your are genuinely interested in * be realistic and attempt only on what you can finish, given other demands on your time and energy
Defining Your Interests
* personal experiences and firsthand knowledge: don’t disregard personal experiences as an important source of ideas* using ideas from your mentor or instructor* look for a research question that reflects the next step in the research process
Ideas are products of luxurious thinking:
> beliefs, conceptions, suppositions, assumptions, what if’s, guesses, etc.> are articulations best done in writing> implying relationship between two or more variables
Research Question> a stated expression of interest and intent @ put the research question in researchable form
> Null Hypothesis> Researcher’s Hypothesis/Alternative Hypothesis
> is stated in declarative form> reflects a relationship between variables> reflects a theory of body of literature that they are based on> is brief and to the point > very importantly, is testable
Idea Research Research Question Hypothesis
Literature
Review
Idea Literature Review
Research Question Research Hypothesis
FRAMEWORKS OF RESEARCH A Framework is an underlying context a study or the broad area of concern under which a researcher situates the problem. For example, the specific problem focuses on DIET OF FEMALE SIXTH GRADERS, the framework may be taken from NUTRITION. If the problem is on SMOKING, the framework could be on RESPIRATORY INTEGRITY OR STRESS. If the problem is on INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP, the framework could be on EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
> this is used when the research involves testing of a particular theory or that the research is based on a theory
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
> this is utilized if the research is anchored on a particular concept, yet the researcher develops first his/her concept of the study he/she would like to undertake.
FRAMEWORKS OF RESEARCH
NOTE: > In special cases, theoretical and conceptual frameworks are used when the nature of the study necessitates such that the Research starts anchoring its study on a particular theory and tries to situate it in the context where the theory is applied. In the course of contextualizing, modifications are made in the original variables of the theory:
Example: BUSINESS THEORY: Deming’s TQM ModelConceptual Reference of the Study: Educational Institution
Modifications: Inclusion of Curriculum Design and Development, Research Development, Community Alliances and Linkages
FRAMEWORKS OF RESEARCH
EDUCATIONAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theories of Motivations
Fayol’s Leadership and Management Theory
Communication Theory
Adler’s Counseling Theory
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory
Select a General Topic Area
Work with colleague to Develop your Ideas
Develop the Research questions> consider research in which you have been involved> avoid personally loaded topics> use recent literature> use theses and dissertations cautiously
Put the research question in researchable form> phrase the question as a question> make sure the question suggests a relationship
to be examined> make sure the question is empirically testable
Develop scientific hypothesis
The review of literature provides a framework for the research proposal.
Literature review involves:
> finding
> reading
> analyzing
> summarizing
> reconstructing
Define your idea in as general terms as possible by using general sources
Search through the primary sources
Search through the secondary sources
Organize your notes
Write down your review
Identify key authors and journals Use bibliographic reference sources Use computerized literature searches Obtain reprints and preprints Look at literature from other disciplines Scan tables of contents of key journals Use reference lists from articles,
chapters and books
Use primary and secondary sources Avoid the popular press
- identify themes
- identify strengths and weaknesses on individual article
- identify strength and weaknesses of field as a whole
- collect photocopies or notes
- investigate length and format parameters
- make a preliminary outline:> include page allocations> limit the scope of your review> organize the literature you will
cover
- Write the introduction
- Write subsections:> use transitions and integrative
phrasing> synthesize and critically analyze
the literature
- Introduce your study and hypotheses
- Be careful not to plagiarize
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
The method is arbitrary in nature which depends on the Nature of the Study
The method section includes the following elements:
> Research Design > Participants> Instruments> Data Gathering Procedure> Data Analysis
The research design of the study is simply the general approach in conducting the research study.
It greatly depends on the nature of the study’s hypotheses, variables, and the participants included in the research agenda.
The use of quantitative and qualitative approaches to research is relative to the nature of the study in general.
BASIC DESIGNS AND METHODS OF RESEARCH
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Objective:
To reconstruct the past objectively & accurately, often in relation to the tenability of the hypothesis.
A study on the study habits of Aeta pupils
of Pampanga resettled in Botolan, Zambales: Basis for a Proposed
Indigenous Educational Plan(ETHNOGRAPHY
)
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
OBJECTIVE:
To describe systematically a situation of area of interest factually and accurately.
Population census studies; public opinion survey, Fact-finding surveys, status studies, task analysis Studies, questionnaire & interview studies, observation studies, job description, surveys of the literature , documentary analysis, anecdotal records, critical incidents reports, test score analysis and normative data.
Example: TEACHERS’ SPIRITUAL WELL-BEING AND THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS AMONG SELECTED ELEMETARY CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN THE PHILIPPINES
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
OBJECTIVE
To investigate patterns and sequences of progress and/or change as a function of time.
A cross-sectional growth analysis among fraternal twins: Individual Differences
> Development of a Prototype Alternative
Leaning Delivery System in Education Graduate Studies:
The E-Modularized Approach
CASE AND FIELD STUDIES
OBJECTIVE
To study intensively the background, currentstatus and environmental interaction of a given social unit: an individual, group,institution or community.
> The places to rear a child with an above averageIQ but with severe learning disabilities> an intensive study of a group of teenager on probationfor drug abuse> an intensive study of typical sub-urban community in the province in terms of itssocio-economic characteristics.A study on coping mechanisms of Cancer Survivor Students
CORRELATIONAL/ REGRESSIONAL RESEARCH
OBJECTIVE
To investigate the extent to which variationIn one factor corresponds with variation inOne or more other factors based on correlation coefficients.
Factors Contributing to the Level of
Emotional Quotient of School Supervisors in Selected Districts of
Zambales
Relationship Between Life Style
and Life Span
CAUSAL COMPARATIVE or “EX POST FACTO”
OBJECTIVE
To investigate possible cause and effect relationships by observing some existingconsequence and searching back through thedata for plausible causal factors.
Example
> Lifestyle Patterns of Selected Students Diagnosed with DM-II
> Factors associated with Hypertension Based on the Medical Records/Individual Profile Patients Available on File
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: TRUE EXPERIMENTS
OBJECTIVE
To investigate possible cause and effect relationships by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatmentconditions and comparing the results to oneor more control groups not receiving the treatment (random assignment being essential.
To investigate the effect of the Three
Pharmaceutical Variants on the Level of Stress Among Teachers with Time-Shift Schedules
To determine the effect of Five
Different Herbal Derivatives on the Level of Fertility Among Selected
Male Adults
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: QUASI-EXPERIMENTS
OBJECTIVE
To approximate the conditions of the true experiment in a setting which does not allow the control and/or manipulation of all relevant variables. The researchers must clearly understand what compromise exists in the internaland the external validity of his design and proceeds within these limitations (no random assignment of respondents)
Most so-called field experiments operational research, and even the
most sophisticated forms of action research which attempt to get at causal
factors in real life settings where only partial control
is possible; example
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: QUASI-EXPERIMENTS
The effect of music as a form of therapy on the level of pain at
postoperative stage among surgery patients
The effect Blended Online and Classroom Instruction on the Academic Performance of the
Students
now being widely used
explores relationships among traits
Research
may be
qualitative
is
has
features
has emphasis on studies in naturalsetting
uses verbal descriptions (rather than statistical report)
quantitative
has
features
reliance on control, statistics, measurements
uses numerical indices to summarize/ describe
such assuch
as
Is the study true or quasi-
experimental?
Is the study experimental or
nonexperimental?
Is the study ex post facto,
comparative, or correlational?
Is the study ethnographic or
analytical?
Is the research
quantitative or
qualitative?
Is the article or report
empirical research??
EXPERIMENTAL
NONEXPERIMENTAL
Ex Post FactoComparative
Correlational
Ethnographic
Analytical
QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE
YES
NO
True ExperimentalQuasi-Experimental
Quantitative Research may
be
non-experimental
suggests
researcher has no control over what may influence subject's responses "naturally occurring"
experimental
suggests
researcher has control over factors or variables that may influence responses of subject
manipulation of "treatments" & does not use randomly assigned treatment groups
Experimental Research may
be
quasi - experimental
involves
true experimental
involves
use of comparison groups, randomly assigned
Non - experimentalincludes
correlational
investigates
ex post facto (after the fact)
referred to
comparative
investigates
relationship among variable via correlation rather than difference
relationship between two or more variables by examining differences that exist between two or more groups of subjects
casual-comparative examines phenomenon that has occurred and attempt to infer cause-effect relationship
Qualitative Researchmay
be
analytical
analysis of documents, written summaries (data not actively gathered by the researcher)
ethnographicinvolves
direct engagement with the participants and environment via observation, interview
historical, legal & policy concepts and events
The heading Participants is one of the subsections under method.
In describing the participants, the researcher should clearly define the number of respondents included in the study, criteria for inclusion and exclusion, the characteristics of the samples, the sampling procedure, and the nature of the population from which the sample was drawn.
The study will consist of two intact Educational Research classes at Ramon Magsaysay Technological University who will be all third year students pursuing the Bachelor of Elementary Education program. The two selected classes will be assigned to either the control group or the experimental group at random. To minimize the teacher factor effect, the researcher will handle both classes.
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Samples are representatives of the entire population and thus should be selected properly employing the scientific techniques
Samples are used instead of population for three main reasons:
> TIME, EFFORT, AND MONEY (TEM)
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
DETERMINING THE IDEAL SAMPLE SIZE
This implies calculating the desirable number of respondents to be included in the study from a group of a particular population
This employs: SLOVIN’S FORMULA (to be discussed further in the review)
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
A. RANDOM OR PROBABILITY SAMPLING
> This means that every member of the population has the equal chance to becoming part of the sample group
Samples are picked up at random
A. RANDOM OR PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Simple Random Assignment – direct random selection of respondents; the quickest way of randomly determining the samples
2. Use of Table of Random Numbers 3. Fishbowl or Lottery 4. Systematic Random Sampling 5. Stratified Random Sampling – most reliable
sampling technique 6. Cluster Random Sampling 7. Multi-Stage Random Sampling
This method does provide equal opportunity or chance for every member of the population to become part of the sample group
Extra caution should be observed in using these techniques and justification should be done whenever these are employed to address the issue of BIAS
B. NONRANDOM OR NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Purposive Sampling2. Quota Sampling 3. Convenience Sampling
B. NONRANDOM OR NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
This section provides a description of the measures or instruments that are to be used in the collecting the data for the study. It articulates justification for selecting such measures or instruments.
In the case that the researcher develops or devices his own instrument, he should therefore discuss how the test was developed and presents base ground for reliability and validity of the instrument.
In qualitative study, the researcher should discuss the nature and the method of the data collected, e.g. interviews, observations, etc.
TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
Self-Report Instruments
> Interview Guide Questions: Oral or Written
> Unstructured/Informal Interviews
> Structured/Formal Interviews
> Focused-Group Discussions (FGD)
> Life Histories
> Autobiographies
> critical incident reports
> diaries
QUESTIONNAIRES Close-ended questions Open-ended questions Multiple-choice questions Dichotomous questions Checklist forms Rank-Order Rating Scale: Likert Scale
TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
The research procedure is the most detailed section under method.
It should provide a comprehensive description of all the steps that are to be followed in the conduct of the study, from start to finish, of which the order of time of occurrence is important.
It should describe the process and instructions the subjects are to undertake.
Discussion of time element should be reflected in the research procedure.
At the start of the research plan, the proponent should be sensitive enough to include in the plan the techniques that are to be used in analyzing the data.
Analysis of data primarily depends on the research approach or design used in the study: Quantitative or Qualitative.
In the case of quantitative study, the hypotheses serve as benchmark in determining the design of the study, and in turn determines the statistical analysis to be applied.
The choice of the analysis technique depends on the number of variables, the kind of data, and the nature of sample groupings, included in the study.(sample to follow…)
STATISTICAL TOOLS
STATISTICS is the Language of RESEARCH
COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS• Parametric and NonParametric Statistics• Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Measures of Central Tendency
> Mean, Median, ModeMeasures of Spread and Dispersion or
Variability
> Range, Standard Deviation, Variance Measures of Relative Position
> Quantiles. Skewness and Kurtosis
Measures of Relationship> Pearson Product-Moment Correlation> Spearman’s Rank Correlation> Point-Biserial Correlation > Multiserial Correlation
Measures of Differences > t-test for dependent samples> t-test for independent samples> analysis of the variance (ANOVA), MANOVA, ANCOVA, MANCOVA
(Nonparametric) Chi-Square Tests, Kappa Statistic, McNemar Test, Friedman Analysis, Kolmogorov-Smirnov
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, ANDINTERPRETATION OF DATA
In this section the researcher is entitled to present the data gathered, analyzes the results logically, and provides interpretation of the findings grounded by assumptions and speculations based on existing theories.
> In the conventional form, the presentation of the results of the study starts with the presentation of the related statistics (in the case of quantitative), followed by the explanation of the analysis of the data presented, and the interpretation (statistical decisions) of the obtained data results.
Discussion-this section gives the researcher the opportunity to draw some opinions and/or ideas interpreting the results of the study. Added to this section is the substance of pointing the relative implications of the findings supported by the concepts available in the literature. This section serves as a venue for which the researcher integrates his thoughts backed-up by the theories in the reviewed literature. Also included in this section, is announcing to the readers the limitations of the findings without compromising the generalizability of the findings
Presentation of Data-is the process of organizing
data into logical, sequential, and
meaningful categories and classifications to
make them amenable to study and interpretation.
Analysis - is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to bring out into focus the essential features of the study.
Interpretation- is the process of conveying thoughts
based on the given results in reference to some
standard point or basis of interpretation. This even
provides decision pertaining to the obtained
results of the study.
This is the last chapter of the research study, yet, the most
important part, why? Because it is here where the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are
summarized; generalizations in the form of conclusive statements are
postulated; and the recommendations for the solutions of problems
discovered in the study are addressed to those concerned, and future
directions related to the conducted study are drawn.
This chapter is subdivided into three subsections:
@ Summary> Guidelines for writing the summary of findings
@ Conclusions> Guidelines for writing the conclusions
@ Recommendations > Guidelines for writing the recommendations
Bibliography-this is usually used in the conventional format of research. This only includes a list of the materials cited in the content of the study (main text). References-this appears to be more used in the recent research format. This contains the list of sources that were consulted during the course of the research and the writing of the manuscript. References include anything from a book to a personal communication, all these things are to be entered in the reference section under a particular format (APA, 5th ed.)
An appendix usually contains information that is not essential for
understanding the content of the manuscript but is important for
getting a thorough picture of what happened. It usually contains
copies of instructions to subjects, blueprints, diagrams, data
collection instruments that are not copyrighted
pedottepedotte
The Only Thing Greater Than The Power Of The Mind Is The Courage Of The Heart
The Only Thing Greater Than The Power Of The Mind Is The Courage Of The Heart
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