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Suppose the chief executive ofthe company where you work
asks you to find a Web-enabledway to get information to andfrom the salespeople in yourcompany. How would you start?
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Developing Business/IT Solutions
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Learning ObjectivesUse the systems development process
outlinedin this chapter and the model of IScomponents from Chapter 1 as problem-solving frameworks to help you proposeinformation systems solutions to simplebusiness problems
Describe and give examples to illustratehow you might use each of the steps of theinformation systems development cycle to
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Learning ObjectivesExplain how prototyping can be used as an
effective technique to improve the processof systems development for end users andIS specialists
Understand the basics of project managementand their importance to a successful system
development effortIdentify the activities involved in the
implementation of new information systems
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Learning ObjectivesCompare and contrast the four basic system
conversation strategies
Describe several evaluation factors thatshould be considered in evaluating theacquisition of hardware, software, and ISservices
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IS DevelopmentWhen the systems approach is applied to
the development of an information systemssolution to business problems, it is calledinformation systems development orapplication development
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The Systems ApproachA problem solving technique that uses a systemsorientation to define problems and opportunitiesand develop appropriate and feasible solutions
Analyzing a problem and formulating a solutioninvolves these interrelated activities:Recognize and define a problem or opportunity
using systems thinking
Develop and evaluate alternative system
solutionsSelect the solution that best meets your
requirements
Design the selected system solution
Implement and evaluate the success of thesystem 12-7
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What is Systems
Thinking?Seeing the forest and the trees in any
situation
Seeing interrelationships among systemsrather than linear cause-and-effect chains
Seeingprocesses of change among systemsrather than discrete snapshots of change
See the system in any situation
Find the input, processing, output, feedbackand control components
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Systems Thinking
Example
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Systems Analysis and
DesignSA&D is the overall process by which
information systems are designed andimplemented
Includes identification of business problems
Two most common approaches
Object-oriented analysis and design
Life cycle
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Systems Development
Lifecycle (SDLC)
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Systems Development
ProcessSystems Investigation
The first step in the systems development
processMay involve consideration of proposals
generated by a business/IT planning process
Also includes the preliminary feasibility study
of proposed information system solutions
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Systems Development
ProcessFeasibility Studies: a preliminary study to
determine the
Information needs of prospective usersResource requirements
Costs
Benefits
Feasibility
In some cases, a feasibility study isunnecessary
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Operational FeasibilityHow well the proposed system will
Support the business priorities of the
organizationSolve the identified problem
Fit with the existing organizational structure
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Economic FeasibilityAn assessment of
Cost savings
Increased revenueDecreased investment requirements
Increased profits
Cost/benefit analysis
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Technical FeasibilityDetermine the following can meet the needs
of a proposed system and can be acquired ordeveloped in the required time
Hardware
Software
Network
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Human Factors FeasibilityAssess the acceptance level of
Employees
CustomersSuppliers
Management support
Determine the right people for the variousnew or revised roles
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Legal/Political FeasibilityAssess
Possible patent or copyright violations
Software licensing for developer side onlyGovernmental restrictions
Changes to existing reporting structure
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Systems AnalysisAn in-depth study of end user information
needs
It produces the functional requirements used asthe basis for the design of an information system
It typically involves a detailed study of the
Information needs of a company and end users
Activities, resources, and products of one ormore of the information systems currently beingused
Information system capabilities required to meetthe information needs of business stakeholders 12-19
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Organizational AnalysisStudy of the organization, including
Management structure
PeopleBusiness activities
Environmental systems
Current information systems Input, processing, output, storage, and control
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Analysis of the Present
SystemBefore designing a new system, it is
importantto study the system to be improved orreplaced
Hardware and software
Network
People resources used to convert dataresources into information products
System activities of input, processing,output, storage, and control
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Logical AnalysisA logical model is a blueprint of the current
system
It displays what the current system does,without regard to how it does it
It allows an analyst to understand the processes,functions, and data associated with a system
without getting bogged down with hardwareand software
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Functional RequirementsThis step of systems analysis is one of the
most difficult
Determine what type of information eachbusiness activity requires
Try to determine the information processingcapabilities required for each system activity
The goal is to identify what should be done,not how to do it
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Examples of Functional
RequirementsUser Interface: automatic entry of product
data and easy-to-use data entry screens forWeb customers
Processing: fast, automatic calculation ofsales totals and shipping costs
Storage: fast retrieval and update of data
from product, pricing, and customerdatabases
Control: signals for data entry errors andquick e-mail confirmation for customers
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Systems DesignSystems design focuses on three areas
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PrototypingPrototyping is the rapid development and
testing of working models
An interactive, iterative process used duringthe design phase
Makes development faster and easier, especiallywhen end user requirements are hard to define
Has enlarged the role of business stakeholders
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Prototyping Life Cycle
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User Interface DesignFocuses on supporting the interactions
between end users and their computer-basedapplications
Designers concentrate on the design ofattractive and efficient forms of user input andoutput
Frequently a prototyping processProduces detailed design specifications for
information products, such as display screens
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Checklist for Corporate
WebsitesRemember the customer
Aesthetics
Broadband contentEasy to navigate
Searchability
Incompatibilities
Registration forms
Dead links
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System SpecificationsFormalizing the design of
User interface methods and products
Database structuresProcessing procedures
Control procedures
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xamp es o ys emSpecifications
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User interfacespecifications
Use personalized screens that welcome repeat Webcustomers and that make product recommendations
Databasespecifications
Develop databases that use object/relational databasemanagement software to organize access to all customerand inventory data and to multimedia product information
Softwarespecifications
Acquire an e-commerce software engine to process alle-commerce transactions with fast responses, i.e., retrievenecessary product data and compute all sales amounts inless than one second
Hardware
and networkspecifications
Install redundant networked Web servers and sufficient
high-bandwidth telecommunications lines to host thecompany e-commerce website
Personnelspecifications
Hire an e-commerce manager and specialists and awebmaster and Web designer to plan, develop, andmanage e-commerce operations
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End User DevelopmentIS professionals play a consulting role, while
uses do their own application development
A staff of user consultants may be availableto help with analysis, design, and installation
Other support
Application package training
Hardware and software advice
Help gaining access to organization databases
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Focus on IS ActivitiesEnd user development should focus on the
fundamental activities of an informationsystem
Input
Processing
Output
Storage
Control
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Focus of End User
Development
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Doing End User
Development
Application development capabilities built into
software packages make it easier for endusersto develop their own solutions
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Encouraging End User Web
DevelopmentLook for tools that make sense
Some are more powerful or costly than needed
Spur creativityConsider a competition among departments
Set some limits
Limit what parts of a web page or site canbe changed and who can do it
Give managers responsibility
Make them personally responsible for content
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Encouraging End User Web
DevelopmentMake users comfortable
Training will make users more confident
It can save the IT department the troubleof fixing problems later on
It can limit the need for continuous support
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Implementing New
SystemsThe systems implementation stage involves
Hardware and software acquisition
Software developmentTesting of programs and procedures
Conversion of data resources
Conversion alternativesEducation/training of end users and
specialists who will operate the new system
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Implementation Process
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Project ManagementThe skills and knowledge necessary to be
a good project manager will translate intovirtually any project environment
The people who have acquired themare sought after by most organizations
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What is a Project?Every project hasA set of activities with a clear beginning and endGoals
ObjectivesTasksLimitations or constraintsA series of steps or phases
Managing a project effectively requiresProcessToolsTechniques
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Sample Implementation
Process
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Phases of Project
ManagementThere are five phases in most projectsInitiating/Defining
PlanningExecuting
Controlling
Closing
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Initiating/Defining PhaseExample activitiesState the problem(s) and/or goal(s)
Identify the objectivesSecure resources
Explore the costs/benefits in the feasibility study
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Planning PhaseExample activitiesIdentify and sequence activities
Identify the critical pathEstimate the time and resources needed for
project completion
Write a detailed project plan
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Execution PhaseExample activitiesCommit resources to specific tasks
Add additional resources and/or personnelif necessary
Initiate work on the project
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Controlling PhaseExample activitiesEstablish reporting obligations
Create reporting toolsCompare actual progress with baseline
Initiate control interventions, if necessary
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Closing PhaseExample activitiesInstall all deliverables
Finalize all obligations and commitmentsMeet with stakeholders
Release project resources
Document the projectIssue a final report
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Evaluating Hardware,
Software, ServicesEstablish minimum physical and performancecharacteristics for all hardware and software
Formalize these requirements in an RFP/RFP
Send RFQ to appropriate vendors
Evaluate bids when received
All claims must be demonstrated
Obtain recommendations from other usersSearch independent sources for evaluations
Benchmark test programs and test data
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Hardware Evaluation
FactorsMajor evaluation factorsPerformance
Cost
ReliabilityCompatibility
Technology
Ergonomics
ConnectivityScalability
Software
Support
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Software Evaluation
FactorsHardware evaluation factors apply tosoftware, as do theseQuality
EfficiencyFlexibility
Security
Connectivity
Maintenance
Documentation
Hardware
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Software that is slow,hard to use, bug-filled,
or poorly documented
is not a good choice
at any price
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Evaluating IS ServicesExamples of IS servicesDeveloping a company website
Installation or conversion of hardware/softwareEmployee training
Hardware maintenance
System design and/or integrationContract programming
Consulting services
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IS Service Evaluation
FactorsIS evaluation factors includePerformance
Systems development
MaintenanceConversion
Training
Backup facilities and services
Accessibility to sales and supportBusiness position and financial strength
Hardware selection and compatibility
Software packages offered
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Other Implementation
ActivitiesThe keys to successful implementation of
a new business system
Testing
Data conversion
Documentation
Training
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System TestingSystem testing may involveTesting and debugging software
Testing website performanceTesting new hardware
Review of prototypes
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Data ConversionData conversion includesConverting data elements from the old database
to the new database
Correcting data errors
Filtering out unwanted data
Consolidating data from several databases
Organizing data into new data subsets
Improperly organized and formatted data is amajor cause of implementation failures
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DocumentationUser DocumentationSample data entry screens, forms, reports
System operating instructions
Systems Documentation
Method of communication among thosedeveloping, implementing, and maintaininga computer-based system
Detailed record of the system design
Extremely important when diagnosingproblems and making system changes
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TrainingEnd users must be trained to operate a newbusiness system or its implementation will fail
May involve only activities, such as data entry,
or all aspects of system useManagers and end users must understand how
the new technology impacts business operations
System training should be supplemented with
training related toHardware devices
Software packages
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Major System Conversion
Strategies
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Direct ConversionDirect conversionThe simplest conversion strategy
The most disruptive to the organization
Sometimes referred to as the slam dunk orcold-turkey strategy
May be the only viable solution in cases ofemergency implementation or if the old and
new system cannot coexistHas the highest risk of failure
Involves turning off the old system and turningon the new one
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Parallel ConversionOld and new systems are run simultaneouslyuntil everyone is satisfied thatThe new system functions correctly
The old system is no longer neededConversion to new system can be single
cutover or phased cutover
Has the lowest risk, but the highest costCan cost 4 times more than using the old system
Best choice where an automated system isreplacing a manual one
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Pilot ConversionScenarios best suited to a pilot conversionMultiple business locations
Geographically diverse locations
Advantages of single location conversion
Can select a location that best representsthe conditions across the organization
Less risky in terms of loss of time or delaysin processing
Can be evaluated and changed before furtherinstallations
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Phased ConversionA phased or gradual conversionTakes advantage of both the direct and parallel
approaches
Minimizes the risks involvedAllows the new system to be brought online
as logically ordered functional components
Disadvantages
Takes the most time
Created the most disruption to the organizationover time
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Post-Implementation
ActivitiesThe single most costly activityCorrecting errors or faults in the system
Improving system performanceAdapting the system to changes in the operating
or business environment
Requires more programmers than does
application development
May exist for years
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Systems MaintenanceThere are four basic categories of systemmaintenance
Corrective: fix bugs and logical errors
Adaptive: add new functionality
Perfective: improve performance
Preventive: reduce chances of failure
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Post-Implementation
ReviewEnsures that the newly implemented systemmeets the established business objectives
Errors must be corrected by the maintenanceprocess
Includes a periodic review/audit of the systemas well as continuous monitoring
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