M. Schidlowski, S. Golubic, M.M. Kimberley, D.M. McKirdy, P.A. Trudinger (Eds.)
Early Organic Evolution Implications for Mineral and Energy Resources
With 256 Figures and 50 Tables
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest
Managing Editor
Prof. Dr. Manfred Schidlowski Chairman, IGCP Project 157
Max-Planck-Institut fUr Chemie (Otto-Hahn-Institut), Saarstr. 23, W-6500 Mainz, FRG
Editors
Prof. Dr. Stjepko Golubic Biological Science Center Boston University Boston, MA 02215, USA
Prof. Dr. Michael M. Kimberley Dept. of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC 27695-8208, USA
Dr. David M. McKirdy, Sr. Lecturer Dept. of Geology & Geophysics University of Adelaide Adelaide, S.A. 5001, Australia
Dr. Philip A. Trudinger Bureau of Mineral Resources Division of Continental Geology GPO Box 378 Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia
Proceedings of the 9th Alfred Wegener Conference being the Final Meeting of IGCP-Project 157 (Early Organic and Mineral & Energy Resources), Maria Laach, FRG, September 19-23, 1988.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Alfred Wegener-Conference (9th: 1988 : Abtei Maria Laach) Early organic evolution: implications for mineral and energy resources: proceedings of the 9th Alfred Wegener Conference, being the final meeting of IGCP-Project 157 (early organic evolution and minerals & energy resources), Maria Laach, FRG, September 19-23, 1988 / M. Schidlowski ... let al.] (eds) . Includes index. ISBN-13 978-3-642-76886-6 e-ISBN-I3: 978-3-642-76884-2 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-76884-2
1. Organic geochemistry-Congress. 2. Geology. Stratigraphic-Precambrian-Congresses. 3. Geology, Stratigraphic-Paleozoic-Congresses. 4. Stromatolites-Congresses. 5. Paleopedology-Congresses. 6. IGCP Project 157-Congresses. I. Schidlowski, M. II. IGCP Project 157. III. Title. QE516.5.A441988 553'.I-dc20
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Preface
This volume is the final outcome of a conference designed to wrap up IOCP Project 157 (" Early Organic Evolution and Mineral and Energy Resources ") after a decade of prolific activity. The picturesque solitude of Maria Laach Abbey in the Eifel Mountains (FRO) provided the appropriate setting for a conclave of some 80 specialists from the various walks of the field who, during the week of Sept. 19 - 23, 1988, strived hard to define the state of the art in the principal segments of this Earth Science frontier.
The following pages contain the essence of the conference transactions, giving a vivid cross-section of the activities pursued by IOCP Project 157 during its final years. The coverage of topics is not necessarily complete, but rather eclectic in part. With regard to single papers dealing with modern analogues of ancient processes, the book title might even be considered a grave misnomer. Nevertheless, all contributions relate to the subject in the widest sense, and the reader should be reminded that much of the heterogeneity reflected by the volume derives from the fact that it is primarily a research report from a highly interdisciplinary field rather than a textbook. To secure at least some balance between these opposite goals, each of the four subprojects is introduced by one or more review papers that summarize the field as a whole (or major facets thereof) for the benefit of those readers in need of introductory guidance. Considering the principal character of the book as a progress report from an actively evolving field, editorial efforts to eliminate occasional inconsistencies among individual contributions were kept to a minimum, the rationale being that there must be room for different viewpoints and a continuing dialogue.
As is nowadays almost common for conference proceedings, this volume also had an extended gestation period. However, the potentially adverse effects of such delay are largely offset by the fact that most papers do not concern themselves with ephemeral issues, and that the authors were given ample opportunity to apply a final touch to their texts during the copy-editing procedure. Accordingly, we may safely claim that the gist of the concepts set out on the subsequent pages is contemporaneous with the year given on the copyright page. By summarizing our current knowledge of the field, the book as a whole will hopefully serve as a springboard for shifting frontiers further into the unknown. I am convinced that future generations of students interested in early organic evolution and biologically mediated geochemical transformations will detect in this volume several ideas that have stood the test of time.
As organizer of the conference that has materialized in this volume, it remains for me to acknowledge the generous support given by the UNESCOIOCP Organisation (Paris), the Alfred Wegener Foundation (Bonn), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Bonn) and the Max Planck Society (Munich). Moreover, special thanks are due to my subproject leaders for their unfailing commitment, notably as coeditors of this volume (which, in the case of Dave McKirdy, included the virtual rewriting of five papers of his section!). Hubert
VI Preface
Wiggering volunteered to compile the index, and a legion of reviewers (see separate list) helped to secure a high scientific standard. Last, but not least, I should like to mention the monasterial hospitality offered by the resident Benedictine community, and a donation by Mr. Harald Eckes. Nieder-Olm. which substantially added to both the flavour and the spirits of the meeting.
Mainz, October 1991 Manfred Schidlowski
The Editors would like to greatfully acknowledge the help of the following re-viewers:
P. Aharon J. Hahn A. E. Ringwood R. Alexander T. C. Hoering J. D. Saxby S. M. Awramik C. F. Hoffmann M. Schidlowski B. D. Batts H. D. Holland Shen Su Sun R.A. Berner B. Horsfield G. W. Skyring E. N. Cameron H. Jannasch M. Smyth A. R. Chivas R. J. F. Jenkins B. Spiro J. Connan R.l. Kagi E. F. Stumpfl A. C. Cook M. M. Kimberley R. E. Summons D. J. Des Marais A. H. Knoll G.H. Taylor T. H. Donnelly A. Kra use-Mirus W. R. Taylor S. Eldridge G. W. M. Lijmbach P. A. Trudinger M. H. Engel S.A. Macko H. G. Triiper C. B. Foster D. M. McKirdy J. Veizer H. Friedrichsen D. A. Mossman J. K. Volkmann A. P. Gize S. Pickering M. R. Walter S. Golubic T. G. Powell M. A. Wilson J. D. Gorter R. Raiswell D. E. Grandstaff G. Retallack
List of Contributors
Aharon, P., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4104, USA
AI-Biatty, H.J., Dr. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
Awramik, S. M., Prof. Dr. Department of Geological Sciences, University of Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
Banerjee, D. M., Dr. Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
Bertrand-Sarfati, J., Dr. CNRS, Centre Geologique et Geophysique de l'Universite des Sciences et Techniques, Place Eugene Bataillon, 34060 Montpellier Cedex, France
Bharati, S., Dr. Geology Department, University of Oslo, Postboks 1047, 0316 Blindern, Oslo 3, Norway
Brongersma-Sanders, M., Dr. National Naturhistorisch Museum, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
Bustin, M., Dr. Department of Geological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 2B4, Canada
Carl, N., M. Sc. Environmental Science Division, School of Applied Science and Technology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
Crick, 1. H., Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Division of Continental Geology, GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
Deb, M., Dr. Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
x List of Contributors
Deines, P., Prof. Dr. Department of Geosciences. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802. USA
Des Marais. D. L Dr. NASA Ames Research, Center, Moffett Field. California 94035. USA
Donnelly, T. H., Dr. CSIRO Division of Water Resources, P.O. Box 1666. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia
Dor. L Dr. Environmental Sciences Division. School of Applied Science and Technology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
Douglas, A. G., Dr. NRG in Fossil Fuels of Environmental Geochemistry, University Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Drummond Building, Newcastle upon Tyne. NEI 7RU, UK
Dypvik, H., Dr. Geology Department. University of Oslo. Postboks 1047, 0316 Blindern, Oslo 3. Norway
Eglinton, T. L Dr. Organic Geochemistry Unit. Technical University of Delft. 2628 RZ Delft, The Netherlands
Fan. P., Prof. Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000, PR China
Farrow, C. E. G., Dr. Department of Geology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario. KIS 5B6, Canada
Foster. C. B., Dr. Western Mining Corp. Ltd., Petroleum Division, 28 Ventnor Avenue. West Perth W.A. 6005, Australia
Fowler, M. G., Dr. Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Geological Survey of Canada, 3303-33rd St. N.W., Calgary, Alberta T2L 2A 7, Canada
von Gehlen, K., Prof. Dr. Institut fUr Geochemie, Petrologie und Lagerstiittenkunde. Senckenberg-Anlage 28, W-6000 Frankfurt a.M. L FRG
Glaessner. M. F.. Prof. Dr. (deceased) Department of Geology and Geophysics. The University of Adelaide. Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
Goodarzi, F, Dr. Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Geological Survey of Canada, 3303-33rd St. N.W., Calgary. Alberta T2L 2A 7, Canada
List of Contributors
Golubic, S., Prof. Dr. Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA 0221S, USA
Gorzawski, H., Dr. Max-Planck-Institut fur Chemie, Saarstr. 23, W-6S00 Mainz, FRG
Hayes, J. M., Prof. Dr. Biogeochemical Laboratories, Department of Chemistry and Geology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 4740S, USA
Hirner, A. v., Prof. Dr. Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitiit, Theresienstr. 41, W-8000 Munchen 2, FRG
Holland, H. D., Prof. Dr.
XI
Harvard University, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
Horsfield, Boo Dr. Institut fur Erdol und Organische Geochemie, Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W -S170 J iilich, FRG
Hutchinson, R. W., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
Imbus, S. w., Dr. School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA
Kimberley, M. M., Prof. Dr. Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University. Raleigh. NC 2769S-8208, USA
Knoll, A. H., Prof. Dr. Botanical Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge. MA 02138, USA
Lambert. 1. B., Dr. Elisian Resources, 2 Bonwick Place, Garran, Canberra, ACT 260S, Australia
Larter, S. R., Dr. Geology Department, University of Oslo, Postboks 1047,0316 Blindern, Oslo 3, Norway
de Leeuw, J. w., Dr. Organic Geochemistry Unit, Technical University of Delft, 2628 RZ Delft, The Netherlands
Leistner, F., Dr. Institut fur Erdol und Organische Chemie, Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W-S170 Julich, FRG
Li, J., Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China
XII List of Contributors
Li, y, Dr. Laboratory of Biogeochemistry and Gas Geochemistry, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China
Li, Z., Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China
Liew, T. c., Dr. Max-Planck-Institut fur Chemie, Saarstr. 23. W-6500 Mainz. FRG
Littke, R., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Geochemie, Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, 5170 Jillich, FRG
Makarikhin, v., Dr. Geological Institute, Karelian Branch, USSR Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, 385 610, USSR
Marmo, J. S., Dr. Geological Survey of Finland, 02150 Espoo, Finland
Marzi, R., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Organische Chemie. Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W-5170 Jillich. FRG
McKirdy, D. M., Dr. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
Meng, Q., Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China
Meyers, P. A., Prof. Dr. Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1063, USA
Miller, A. R., Dr. Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OE8, Canada
Mossman, D. J., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology, Mount Allison University, Sackville. New Brunswick. EOA 3CO, Canada
Nagy, B., Prof. Dr. Laboratories of Organic Geochemistry, Department of Geosciences, The University of Arizona. Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
Needham, R. S., Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
List of Contributors
Neumann-Mahlkau, P., Prof. Dr. FB 9, Geologie, Universitiit, Gesamthochschule Essen, Postfach 103764, W-4300 Essen 1, FRG
Ohmoto, H., Prof. Dr.
XIII
Department of Geosciences. Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
Pentecost, A., Dr. Division of Biosphere Sciences. King's College. Campden Hill Road, London W8 7 AH. UK
Pflug, H. D .• Prof. Dr. Geologisches Institut der lustus-Liebig-Universitiit. W-6300 Giel3en. FRG
Powell. T. G .• Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia
Premovic. P. L Prof. Dr. Laboratory for Geochemistry. Department of Chemistry. Faculty of Sciences. University of Nis. 18000 Nis. Yugoslavia
RaiswelL Roo Dr. Department of Earth Sciences. University of Leeds. Leeds. LS291T. UK
Reimer. T. 0 .. Dr. Bernhard-May-Str. 43. W-6200 Wiesbaden. FRG
Reitz, E .. Dr. Geologisches Institut der lustus-Liebig-Universitiit. W-6300 Giel3en. FRG
Retallack, G. 1., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology. University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1272. USA
Robinson. B. Woo Dr. Institute of Nuclear Sciences, DSIR. P.O. Box 31312. Lower Hutt. New Zealand
Ronov. A. Boo Prof. Dr. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry. USSR Academy of Sciences. 117975 Moscow V-334. USSR
Rullkatter. 1., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Organische Geochemie, Forschungszentrum liilich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W -5170 Jiilich. FRG
Schenk, H.l., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Organische Geochemie, Forschungszentrum liilich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W-5170 liilich, FRG
Schidlowski, M., Prof. Dr. Max-Planck-Institut fUr Chemie, Saarstr. 23, W-6500 Mainz, FRG
XIV List of Contributors
Selbach. H.-J .. Dipl.-Geol. FB 9. Geologic. U niversitiit. Gesamthochschule Essen. Postfach 103764. W-4300 Essen 1. FRG
Shen. P. Dr. Laboratory of Biogeochemistry and Gas Geochemistry. Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000. PR China
Sinninghe Damste. J. S .. Dr. Organic Geochemistry Unit. Technical University of Delft. 2628 RZ Delft. The Netherlands
Strauss. H .. Dr. Ruhr-Universitat Bochum. Institut fUr Geologie. W-4630 Bochum 1. FRG
Stuart-Smith. P G .. Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. Geology and Geophysics. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia
Summons. R. E .. Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. Geology and Geophysics. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia
Trudinger. P A.. Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. Division of Continental Geology. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia
Wiggering. H .. Dr. FB 9. Geologie. Universitat. Gesamthochschule Essen. Postfach 103764. W-4300 Essen 1. FRG
Xu. y. Prof. Laboratory of Biogeochemistry and Gas Geochemistry. Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000. PR China
Yu. X .. Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology. Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000. PR China
Table of Contents
Introduction
Early Organic Evolution and Mineral and Energy Resources: A Farewell Address to IGCP Project 157 M. Schidloll'ski ........................... .
1. Precambrian Weathering and Paleosols
Introduction to Precambrian Weathering and Paleosols M. M. Kimberley, H. D. Holland ............. .
How to Find a Precambrian Paleosol G. J. Retallack ............ .
Experimental Procedures to Simulate Weathering Under Atmospheres Which May Have Characterized the Early Archean
9
16
H. Wiggering, P. Neumann-Mahlkau, H.-J. Selbach . . . . . . . . 31
The Lower Proterozoic Hokkalampi Paleosol in North Karelia. Eastern Finland J. S. Marmo . ............................. .
Paleosol and Ore-Forming Processes in the Elliot Lake District of Canada
41
D. J. Mossman, C. E. G. FarroII' ......................... 67
Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Pre-1.65 Ga Paleosol Under Kombolgie Formation Sandstone of the Pine Creek Geosyncline, Northern Territory. Australia A. R. Miller, R. S. Needham, P. G. Stuart-Smith ........... 76
Carbonaceous High-Alumina Shale in the Transvaal Supergroup: Evidence of Early Proterozoic Karstic Weathering in a Marine Environment TO. Reimer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106
Significance of Precambrian Paleosols M. M. Kimberley . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Organic Matter in Precambrian and Early Paleozoic Sediments
Mantle Carbon: Concentration. Mode of Occurrence. and Isotopic Composition P. Deines . ......................... .
115
133
XVI Table of Contents
Carbon Cycle and Carbon Isotope Record: Geochemical Impact of Life over 3.8 Ga of Earth History M. Schidloll'ski, P. Aharon .................... 147
Precambrian Petroleum: A Decade of Changing Perceptions D. M. Iv!cKirdy. S. W Jmbus ................... 176
Paleontology and Biogeochemical Research: A Powerful Synergy M. F Glaessner. C. B. Foster ...................... 193
Proterozoic Organic Carbon - Its Preservation and Isotopic Record H. Strauss. D.l. des Marais, 1. M. Hayes. R. E. Summons . . . . . 203
An Assessment of the Precambrian/Cambrian Transition Events on the Basis of Carbon Isotope Records P. Aharon, T C. Liel\' ............................... 212
Stratiform and Globular Organic Matter in the Lower Proterozoic Metasediments at Elliot Lake. Ontario. Canada B. Nagy, D.l. Mossmann .................... .
Organic Carbon Isotopic Composition of Proterozoic Sedimentary Rocks from India: Preliminary Results
224
D. M. Banerjee, M. Deb, H. Strauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 232
Organic Free Radicals in Precambrian and Paleozoic Rocks: Origin and Significance P. 1. PrenlOvic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
On the Atypical Petroleum-Generating Characteristics of Alginite in the Cambrian Alum Shale B. Horsfield, S. Bharati, S. R. Larter, F Leistner, R. Littke. H. 1. Schenk. H. Dypvik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Distribution and Structure of Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Sulfur Compounds Released from Four Kerogens of Ordovician Age by Means of Flash Pyrolysis A. G. Douglas, 1. S. SinningIJe Damste, 1. W de Leew\" T 1. Eglin ton , M. G. FOI\'ler .............................. 267
Thermal Maturity of Early Paleozoic Sediments as Determined by the Optical Properties of Marine-Derived Organic Matter - A Review F Goodar:::i. M. G. FOI\'/er. M. Bustill. D. M. McKirdy . . . . . .. 279
Hydrocarbon Composition of the Late Proterozoic Oils of the Siberian Platform: Implications for the Depositional Environment of Source Rocks R. E. Summons, T G. POI\'el/ ....................... 296
Biomarkers and Other Hydrocarbons in Upper Sinian Stromatolitic Dolostones from Southwest China P. Fan. 1. Li. Q. Meng. X. Yu. Z. Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Table of Contents XVII
Natural Gas in Sinian Reservoirs of the Weiyuan Area, Sichuan Province: The Oldest Gas in China y. Xu, P. Shen, Y. Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Biological Markers in Paleozoic Sedimentary Rocks and Crude Oils from the Michigan Basin: Reassessment of Sources and Thermal History of Organic Matter J. Rullkotter, R. Marzi, P. A. Meyers ..................... 324
The Influence of Gloeocapsomorpha prisca on the Organic Geochemistry of Oils and Organic-Rich Rocks of Late Ordovician Age from Canada M. F. Fowler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 336
3. Antiquity and Metallogenic Potential of Bacterial Sulfate Reduction
Sulfur in the Earth's Mantle - A Review K. von Gehlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Bacterial Sulfate Reduction: Current Status and Possible Origin
359
P. A. Trudinger ............................. 367
Biogeochemistry of Sulfur and the Mechanisms of Sulfide-Sulfate Mineralization in Archean Oceans H. Ohmoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Biological and Abiological Sulfate Reduction in Two Northern Australian Proterozoic Basins T H. Donnelly, I. H. Crick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 398
Global Oxidation and a Supercontinent in the Proterozoic: Evidence from Stable Isotopic Trends I. B. Lambert, T H. Donnelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depositional and Diagenetic C - S - Fe Signatures and the Potential of Shales to Generate Metal-Rich Fluids
408
R. Raiswell, H. J. Al-Biatty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Genetic Relationship Between Elementary, Organic, and Pyritic Sulfur in Sediments A. V. Hirner, B. W Robinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
4. Fossil Microbial Ecosystems of the" Stromatolitic" Type and Their Modern Analogs
The History and Significance of Stromatolites S. M. Awramik ............. .
Proterozoic and Living Cyanobacteria A. H. Knoll, S. Golubic ......... .
Lower Precambrian Stromatolite Associations of Karelia V. Makarikhin ......................... .
435
450
463
XVIII Table of Contents
Tussocky Microstructure, a Biological Event in Upper Proterozoic Stromatolites: Comparisons with Modern Freshwater Stromatolite Builders J. Bertrand-Sarlati, A. Pentecost ............. .
On the Association of Ore Deposits with Stromatolites M. Brongersma-Sanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental Hypersaline Ponds as Model Environments for Stromatolite Formation 1. Microbenthos Composition and Biomass Accumulation
468
478
1. Dor, N. Carl, M. SchidlOlt'ski ......................... 483
Experimental Hypersaline Ponds as Model Environments for Stromatolite Formation 2. Isotopic Biogeochemistry M. SchidIOlt'ski, H. Gorzawski, I. Dor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 494
Palynostratigraphy in Phanerozoic and Precambrian Metamorphic Rocks H. D. Pflug, E. Reitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 508
5. General Topics
Mineral Deposits and Metallogeny: Indicators of Earth's Evolution R. W Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Chemical Evolution of Sedimentary and Magmatic Rocks in the Earth's Crust A. B. RonoL' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 551
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