LEADERSHIP THEORIES
TRAIT THEORYGHISELLI
BASES OF INFLUENCE (POWER)FRENCH & RAVEN
BEHAVIORAL THEORIESOHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
BLAKE & MOUTON
CONTINGENCY THEORIESFIEDLER
HOUSE & MITCHELL
VROOM & YETTON
ROLE THEORIESMINTZBERG
TRAIT APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIPGHISELLI
LEADERS ARE “BORN,” NOT MADE
• PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICSAPPEARANCE, HEIGHT, AGE
• PERSONALITYEXTROVERSION, PERSISTENCE, SELF-ASSURANCE, DECISIVENESS
• INTELLIGENCEKNOWLEDGE, ABILITY, JUDGMENT
• SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICSTACT, DIPLOMACY, SOCIABILITY, FLUENCY
THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS
*** EXTROVERSION (AMBITION, ENERGY)
** CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
** OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
* EMOTIONAL STABILITY (SELF-CONFIDENCE)
AGREEABLENESS
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
• VISION & ARTICULATIONPROPOSES A BETTER FUTURE – AN OPTIMISTIC GOALDELIVERED CLEARLY IN A CONVINCING FASHION
• PERSONAL RISKWILLING TO TAKE RISKS & INCUR COSTS TO ACHIEVE THE VISIONSELF-SACRIFICE WILL BE NECESSARY
• ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITYKNOWS WHETHER THE ENVIRONMENT WILL BE SUPPORTIVEKNOWS WHAT RESOURCES ARE NEEDED TO BRING ABOUT CHANGE
• SENSITIVITY TO FOLLOWERSPERCEPTIVE OF OTHERS’ ABILITIES, NEEDS & FEELINGSTAPS INTO FOLLOWER EMOTIONS
• UNCONVENTIONAL BEHAVIORMAY DO THINGS THAT ARE NOVEL, OR CONTRARY TO THE NORMS
IS THE VISION VALUE-BASED? WILL THE FOLLOWERS BECOME ENTHUSIASTIC?DO THE PEOPLE BELIEVE THE VISION IS ATTAINABLE?ARE CHARISMATIC LEADERS “BORN” OR CAN THEY BE TAUGHT?
CORRELATED WITH HIGH SATISFACTION AMONG FOLLOWERSEFFECTIVE WHEN THERE IS AN IDEOLOGICAL PART TO THE TASK, OR FACING STRESS & UNCERTAINTY CHARISMATIC LEADERS – DON’T TOLERATE CRITICISM, SURROUND THEMSELVES WITH “YES” PEOPLE29 FIRMS STUDY --- FOUND AN ABSENCE OF EGO-DRIVEN CHARISMATIC LEADERS
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
• INSPIRATIONAL, IDEA-ORIENTED, VISIONARY• DRAMATIC, AROUSES INTENSE FEELINGS• COMMUNICATES HIGH EXPECTATIONS & A NEED FOR CHANGE• UNPREDICTABLE
– RELIES ON REFERENT OR CHARISMATIC POWER– RAISES LEVEL OF AWARENESS AND COMMITMENT– GETS FOLLOWERS TO TRANSCEND THEIR SELF-INTERESTS– REQUIRES TRUST AND BELIEF IN THE VISION PRESENTED
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP• EXCHANGES REWARDS FOR SERVICES• MANAGEMENT BY EXCEPTION (Watches for deviations)• KEEPS THE SYSTEM OPERATING SMOOTHLY
– USES REWARD AND COERCIVE POWER BASES– RECOGNIZES WHAT WORKERS WANT & TRIES TO DELIVER IT– REWARDS ACCORDING TO WORKER EFFORT– RESPONSIVE TO WORKER SELF-INTERESTS
IS TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP BUILT “ON TOP OF” TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP, OR IS IT JUST A SPECIAL CASE OF CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP?
SUMMARY OF TRAIT APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
ASSUMPTIONLEADERS ARE BORN, NOT MADE!
IMPLICATIONWE MUST BE VERY CAREFUL IN HOW WE SELECT OUR LEADERS
LIMITATIONSIT OVERLOOKS THE NEEDS OF FOLLOWERS
IT IGNORES SITUATIONAL FACTORS
CAUSE AND EFFECT ARE NOT CLEARLY DEFINED
DO SELF-CONFIDENT LEADERS CAUSE FIRMS TO BE SUCCESSFUL, OR DOES A SUCCESSFUL FIRM ALLOW A LEADER TO FEEL SELF-CONFIDENT?
BASES OF LEADER POWER & INFLUENCEFRENCH & RAVEN (59)
LEGITIMATE POWER
Authority to command, based on the position
REWARD POWER
Able to award positive, desired outcomes
COERCIVE POWER
Able to threaten, punish or harm
EXPERT POWER
Influence based on knowledge and information
REFERENT POWER
Influence based on charisma, identification and trust
MOST LIKELY OUTCOMES OF LEADER POWER & INFLUENCE
YUKL (89)
• RESISTANCECOERCIVE
• COMPLIANCELEGITIMATE
REWARD
• COMMITMENTEXPERT
REFERENT
GUIDELINES FOR USING POWERYUKL (89)
EXPERT POWER– ACT CONFIDENT AND DECISIVE– KEEP INFORMED– DON’T THREATEN SUBORDINATES’ SELF-ESTEEM – BE APPROACHABLE– WILLING TO SHARE YOUR KNOWLEDGE WITH OTHERS
REFERENT POWER– TREAT SUBORDINATES FAIRLY– DEFEND SUBORDINATES’ INTERESTS– BE SENSITIVE TO SUBORDINATES’ NEEDS & FEELINGS
LEGITIMATE POWER– BE CORDIAL, POLITE, AND CONFIDENT– MAKE APPROPRIATE REQUESTS– FOLLOW PROPER CHANNELS– EXERCISE POWER REGULARLY AND ENFORCE COMPLIANCE
REWARD POWER– VERIFY COMPLIANCE AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS– OFFER REWARDS FOR DESIRED ACTIONS AND BEHAVIORS– OFFER CREDIBLE REWARDS THAT ARE DESIRED BY SUBORDINATES
COERCIVE POWER– INFORM SUBORDINATES OF RULES AND PENALTIES– UNDERSTAND THE SITUATION BEFORE ACTING & WARN BEFORE PUNISHING– ADMINISTER PUNISHMENT CONSISTENTLY & PUNISH IN PRIVATE
BEHAVIORAL LEADERSHIP THEORIES
OHIO STATE STUDIESINITIATING STRUCTURE v. CONSIDERATION
FIELD STUDY: IS = Satisf down, C = Satisf up
MICHIGAN STUDIESJOB-CENTERED v. EMPLOYEE-CENTERED
FIELD EXPERIMENT: JC = Satisf down, EC = Satisf upJC = Productivity up 25%, EC = Productivity up 20%
THE MANAGERIAL GRID BLAKE & MOUTON (64)CONCERN FOR PEOPLE CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION
FIVE STYLESImpoverished, Authority/Obedience (Task), Middle of the Road, Country Club, Team
IS THERE A THIRD DIMENSION---DEVELOPMENT ORIENTED BEHAVIOR?
THE MANAGERIAL GRIDBLAKE & MOUTON (64)
9 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- COUNTRY-CLUB TEAM (1,9) (9,9)
CONCERN FOR MIDDLE OF ROAD PEOPLE (5,5)
IMPOVERISHED TASK1 (1,1) (9,1)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 9
CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION
SUMMARY OF BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
ASSUMPTION
Leaders are effective because of the actions they take
IMPLICATION
We can learn to become leaders by studying what effective leaders do
LIMITATIONS
Situational factors that influence success or failure are ignored
Leaders need to be flexible…you can’t lead the same way all the time
LEADERSHIP PERSPECTIVESJAGO (82)
APPROACH
UNIVERSAL CONTINGENT
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TRAITS TRAIT FIEDLER’S
THEORIES CONTINGENCY
THEORY
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OHIO STATE PATH-GOAL
MICH STUDIES VROOM-YETTON
BEHAVIORS LEADER GRID LIFE-CYCLE
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CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIPFIEDLER (65)
LEADER CHARACTERISTICS (Least-Preferred Coworker Scale)HIGH LPC --- EMPLOYEE RELATIONS ORIENTED
LOW LPC --- TASK ORIENTED
SITUATIONAL CONSIDERATIONSLEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS
TASK STRUCTURE
LEADER POSITION POWER
FAVORABLE LEADER SITUATIONSMOST FAVORABLE - - - - - - - - - - - - - LEAST FAVORABLE
LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS G G G G N N N N
TASK STRUCTURE G G N N G G N N
LEADER POSITION POWER G N G N G N G N
EFFECTIVE STYLE TASK EMPLOYEE TASK
FIEDLER’S CONTRIBUTIONS1. LEADER EFFECTIVENESS IS SITUATIONAL
2. TASK LEADERSHIP IS VALUABLE AND IMPORTANT
3. MODIFY SITUATIONS TO FIT THE LEADER’S STYLE
MANIPULATING THE SITUATION
MODIFY LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONSSPEND MORE (OR LESS) TIME WITH SUBORDINATESORGANIZE SOME OFF-WORK GROUP ACTIVITIESINCREASE (OR DECREASE) YOUR AVAILABILITY TO WORKERSRAISE MORALE BY OBTAINING POSITIVE OUTCOMES FOR SUBORDINATESTRANSFER SUBORDINATES INTO (OR OUT OF) YOUR UNITREQUEST COMPATIBLE PEOPLE FOR WORK IN YOUR GROUP
MODIFY TASK STRUCTUREASK FOR TASKS WHICH ARE MORE STUCTUREDLEARN ALL YOU CAN ABOUT THE TASKBREAK THE JOB DOWN INTO SMALLER SUB-TASKSLEAVE THE TASK IN RELATIVELY VAGUE FORMENRICH JOBS THROUGH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL EXPANSION
MODIFY POSITION POWERSHOW SUBORDINATES WHO’ BOSS --- EXERCISE YOUR POWERS FULLYBECOME AN EXPERT ABOUT JOBS AS SOON AS POSSIBLEALL INFORMATION AND FEEDBACK TO SUBORDINATES IS CHANNELED THROUGH YOUASK MEMBERS TO PARTICIPATE IN DECISIONS AND PLANNINGTRY TO BE “ONE OF THE GANG” --- DOWNPLAY YOUR POWERLET ASSISTANTS EXERCISE MORE POWERASK MANAGEMENT TO GIVE YOU MORE DISCRETION AND AUTONOMY
LIFE-CYCLE (MATURITY) THEORY (SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY) HERSEY & BLANCHARD (77)
LEADER BEHAVIORS NEED TO VARY, DEPENDING ON THE MATURITY OF THE WORKERS
DIRECTIVE STYLE (TELLING)
GIVES CLEAR DIRECTION & INSTRUCTIONS TO IMMATURE EMPLOYEES
FOLLOWERS ARE UNABLE AND UNWILLING (INSECURE)
COACHING STYLE (SELLING)
EXPANDS TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION, HELPS MATURING EMPLOYEES BUILD CONFIDENCE AND MOTIVATION
FOLLOWERS ARE UNABLE, BUT WILLING TO TRY
SUPPORTING STYLE (PARTICIPATING)
EMPLOYEE FEEL COMPETENT, ACTIVE TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION STILL NEEDED FOR SHARED DECISIONS
FOLLOWERS ARE ABLE BUT APPREHENSIVE
AUTONOMOUS STYLE (DELEGATING)
GIVES RESPONSIBILITIES FOR PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING TO HIGHLY MATURE EMPLOYEES
FOLLOWERS ARE ABLE AND WILLING
TASK BEHAVIORS START OUT HIGH, AND GRADUALLY DECLINE
RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIORS START LOW, BUILD, THEN DECLINE AGAIN
AN INTUITIVE THEORY, BUT EMPIRICAL SUPPORT HAS NOT BEEN STRONG
PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIPHOUSE & MITCHELL (74)
SITUATIONAL FACTORSCHARACTERISTICS OF SUBORDINATES
LOCUS OF CONTROL
EXPERIENCE
PERCEIVED ABILITY
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENVIRONMENTTASK STRUCTURE
FORMAL AUTHORITY SYSTEM
WORK GROUP
LEADER STYLESDIRECTIVE
SUPPORTIVE
ACHIEVEMENT-ORIENTED
PARTICIPATIVE
THE LEADER COMPENSATES FOR THINGS LACKING IN EITHER THE EMPLOYEE OR THE WORK SETTING TO HELP THE WORKER PERFORM EFFECTIVELY
PATH-GOAL LEADERSHIP STYLES
DIRECTIVELETS SUBORDINATES KNOW WHAT IS EXPECTEDPLANS AND SCHEDULES WORK TO BE DONEGIVES SPECIFIC GUIDANCE -- WHAT SHOULD BE DONE AND HOW IT SHOULD BE DONEMAINTAINS CLEAR STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
SUPPORTIVESHOWS CONCERN FOR WELL-BEING OF SUBORDINATESTREATS MEMBERS AS EQUALSDOES LITTLE THINGS TO MAKE THE WORK MORE PLEASANTIS FRIENDLY AND APPROACHABLE
ACHIEVEMENT-ORIENTEDSETS CHALLENGING GOALSEXPECTS SUBORDINATES TO PERFORM AT THE HIGHEST LEVELSEEKS IMPROVEMENT IN PERFORMANCE, WHILE SHOWING CONFIDENCE IN WORKERS
PARTICIPATIVECONSULTS WITH SUBORDINATESSOLICITS SUGGESTIONSTAKES SUGGESTIONS SERIOUSLY INTO CONSIDERATION BEFORE MAKING DECISIONS
VERTICAL DYAD (EXCHANGE) MODEL(LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE MODEL) GRAEN (75)
• LEADERS INVEST THEIR TIME & ATTENTION IN THOSE EXPECTED TO PERFORM BEST• LEADER CREATES AN “IN-GROUP” (THE “FAVORED FEW”) & AN “OUT-GROUP”• IN-GROUPS AND OUT-GROUPS MAY DEMONSTRATE THE “SELF-FULFILLING PROPHESY”
IN-GROUPS• RECEIVE SPECIAL DUTIES AND HAVE SPECIAL PRIVILEGES• ARE GIVEN MORE AUTONOMY AND RESPONSIBILITY• EXPERIENCE HIGHER SATISFACTION• ARE MORE PRODUCTIVE• ARE PART OF THE LEADER’S SUPPORT NETWORK
OUT_GROUPS• ARE NOT TRUSTED• ARE NOT GIVEN DESIRABLE WORK ASSIGNMENTS• RECEIVE LESS LEADER TIME AND ATTENTION• “LIVE DOWN” TO LEADER EXPECTATIONS• ARE LESS LIKELY TO SUPPORT THE LEADER
IN-GROUP MEMBERS SELECTED BASED ON:• COMPETENCE AND ABILITY• PERSONAL COMPATIBILITY WITH THE LEADER
SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIPKERR & JERIMER (78)
SUBSTITUTES ARE FACTORS THAT CAN NEUTRALIZE THE INFLUENCE OF LEADER BEHAVIOR
LOOK FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF:
THE SUBORDINATES
THE TASK
THE ORGANIZATION
FOR INITIATING STRUCTUREABILITY AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF SUBORDINATES
STANDARDIZED, UNAMBIGUOUS, ROUTINIZED TASKS
DETAILED RULES & PROCEDURES PROVIDED BY THE ORGANIZATION
FOR CONSIDERATIONINTRINSIC APPEAL OF THE TASK ITSELF
ESTEEM OF PROFESSIONAL COLLEAGUES
SUPPORTIVE AND COHESIVE WORK GROUP
SUMMARY OF CONTINGENCY THEORIES
THE CONTINGENCY THEORYFiedler (65)
PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP THEORYVroom & Yetton (73)
PATH-GOAL THEORYHouse & Mitchell (74)
VERTICAL DYAD (LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE) THEORYGraen (75)
LIFE-CYCLE (MATURITY) THEORYHersey & Blanchard (77)
SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIPKerr & Jerimer (78)
CONCLUSIONS RE: CONTINGENCY THEORIESTHERE IS NO “ONE BEST WAY” TO LEADLEADERS SHOULD KNOW THEIR OWN PREFERRED STYLEKNOW HOW TO CAREFULLY DIAGNOSE YOUR WORK SITUATIONUNDERSTAND WHICH ACTIONS TO TAKE TO IMPROVE THE SITUATION
MANAGERIAL ROLESMINTZBERG (73)
INTERPERSONAL ROLES• Figurehead (Ceremonial)
• Leader (Supervisor)
• Liaison (Linking-Pin)
INFORMATIONAL ROLES• Monitor
• Disseminator
• Spokesperson
DECISIONAL ROLES• Innovator (Entrepreneur)
• Disturbance Handler (Crisis)
• Resource Allocator
• Negotiator
LEADERSHIP AND TRUSTAN EXPECTATION THAT THE LEADER WILL NOT TAKE UNFAIR ADVANTAGE OF MEIS MY LEADER TRUSTWORTHY?
FIVE DIMENSIONS OF TRUSTINTEGRITY -- honest and truthfulCOMPETENCE -- has good technical knowledge & interpersonal skillsCONSISTENCY -- is reliable, predictable, and has good judgementLOYALTY -- will look out for me and protect me; won’t take advantageOPENNESS -- will talk to me and tell me the truth (what’s going on)
DETERRENCE-BASED TRUST --WE CAN RETALIATE OR STRIKE BACK IF HARMED…DON’T REALLY HAVE A HISTORYKNOWLEDGE-BASED TRUST --CAN PREDICT WHAT WILL HAPPEN BASED ON EXPERIENCE…GIVE A SECOND CHANCE?IDENTIFICATION-BASED TRUST --- KNOW EACH OTHER INTIMATELY, ACT FOR EACH OTHER
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TRUSTMISTRUST DRIVES OUT TRUSTTRUST BEGETS TRUSTGROWTH OFTEN MASKS DISTRUSTDECLINE OR DOWNSIZING TESTS THE HIGHEST LEVELS OF TRUSTTRUST INCREASES COHESIONMISTRUSTING GROUPS SELF-DESTRUCTMISTRUST GENERALLY REDUCES PRODUCTIVITY
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP1. DO MEN & WOMEN LEAD DIFFERENTLY?
The similarities outweigh the differences
A SLIGHT TENDENCY FOR WOMEN Lean toward participative, negotiable, information-sharing stylesThis tendency declines when women are in male-dominated jobs
A SLIGHT TENDENCY FOR MENTo be more directive and rely on the formal authority of their position
2. TEAM LEADERSHIPDifficult for managers to switch from traditional roles
LEARN TO BECOME:A FacilitatorA LiaisonA TroubleshooterA Conflict ManagerA Coach
3. EMPOWERMENTBe careful about jumping on the bandwagon -- does it “fit?”
IT ASSUMES A UNIVERSAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIPDOES THE SITUATION CALL FOR MORE EMPOWERMENT?
4. IMPORTANCE OF FOLLOWERS
The qualities of effective followers:THEY MANAGE THEMSELVES WELL – CAN THINK, WORK INDEPENDENTLY
THEY ARE COMMITTED TO THEIR WORK
THEY ARE COMPETENT AND WORK TO HIGHER STANDARDS THAN THEIR JOB REQUIRES
THEY ARE HONEST AND CREDIBLE
5. IMPACT OF NATIONAL CULTURE
Culture is an important situational variable
HIGHER POWER-DISTANCE – autocratic leadership style is preferred
Arab, Far East, Latin countires
LOWER POWER-DISTANCE – more success with the participative styleUSA Canada, Scandinavian countries
6. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS ON LEADERSHIP
Seratonin improves sociability and reduces aggression (PROZAC)
Testosterone increases competitive drive and assertiveness
Women in professional jobs have higher levels
7. MORAL DIMENSIONS OF LEADERSHIPWhat sort of example does the leader set?
IS THE LEADER A GOOD ROLE MODEL?
CORRUPTION WITHIN THE FIRM OFTEN STARTS WITH BAD EXAMPLES AT THE TOP
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