1LABORATORY MANUAL
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BIO 264
Department of Biological SciencesBrigham Young University Idaho
Rexburg, Idaho
BIO 264 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LABORATORY
COURSE DESCRIPTION: This is the laboratory component of the first semester of Human Anatomy and Physiology (BIO 264). The lab exercises will focus primarily on the application and demonstration of concepts presented in lecture.
Unit 1 - Histology
Histology is the study of the tissues of the body. Moreover, tissues are groups of similar cells along with the extracellular material that surrounds those cells. Based on this definition the 10-100 trillion cells of the human body can be grouped into for major tissue types: epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscle and nervous tissue. In this unit you will learn to identify each of these tissue types as well as the subclasses within each tissue.
Epithelial Tissue
General Characteristics of Epithelial tissues1. Composed almost entirely of close-packed cells with very little
extracellular material.2. Usually form a barrier therefore, the cells are arranged in a dense and
closely packed fashion.3. Have a free surface (apical surface) which is exposed to the body
exterior (skin) or the cavity of an internal organ (body cavities, blood vessels, heart, digestive and respiratory system passageways, covering of internal organs, etc.)
4 Have a basement membrane (composed of glycoprotein material plus collagen fibers) -- anchors basal surface of epithelium to the underlying connective tissue
5. Do not have blood vessels (avascular): the blood supply is in the underlying loose connective tissue.
6. Cells are held together by specialized contacts including tight junctions and desmosomes.
General Functions of Epithelial tissues1. Protect underlying structures.
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2. Act as a barrier to prevent movement of substances through the epithelial layer.
3. Permit movement of some substances through the epithelial layer such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.
4. Secretion of substances such mucous, sweat, and digestive enzymes.5. Adsorption of substances such as nutrients in the digestive system
Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the various types of epithelial tissues, cell types, and
structures summarized in the list of terms below.2. Be able to specify where each of the different types of epithelial tissues
would be found in the body.List of terms
Simple Squamous epitheliumSimple cuboidal epitheliumSimple columnar epitheliumPseudostratifed columnar
epithelium Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium
Non- Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium
Transitional epitheliumApical surfaceBasal surfaceGoblet cell CiliaMicrovilli (Brush Border)Basement membrane
Epithelial Types
Simple Epithelium - single layer
A. Simple Squamous epithelium: This tissue is composed of a single layer of flattened cells with nuclei that resemble flattened ovals. The cells are very thin and the nuclei are often thicker than the rest of the cell and bulge into the free space giving the tissue the appearance of a fried egg. This tissue forms the walls of capillaries in the cardiovascular system and alveoli in the lungs. It lines all blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and the chambers of the heart, and forms Bowman’s capsule in the kidneys. Additionally, the serous membranes you learned about in lecture in chapter 1 are composed of simple squamous epithelium.
B. Simple Cuboidal epithelium : This tissue is composed of a single layer of cells that are have roughly the same height as width. The most distinguishing characteristic of simple cuboidal epithelium is their large round nuclei that are typically located near the center of the cell. This tissue often forms ducts or tubes. When viewed in cross-section, the
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round nuclei are lined up in a single row around the circumference of the tube while in longitudinal section the nuclei resemble a string of beads. Simple cuboidal epithelium is found forming the tubules of the kidneys, forming exocrine glands and their ducts, forming the choroid plexus of the brain and on the surfaces of the ovaries.
C. Simple Columnar epithelium: Simple columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells that are taller than they are wide. As a result, the nuclei reflect this shape by becoming elongated ovals that run perpendicular to the surface of the tissue. Typically the nuclei are located closer to the basal surface than the apical surface, typically in the lower ½ of the cell . Another common feature of simple columnar epithelium is the presence of specialized, mucous-secreting cells known as goblet cells. These are easily identified as the they frequently break the otherwise continuous arrangement of columnar nuclei and are much lighter in color. Under higher magnification, you will be able to see the presence of a microvilli (brush border) on the apical surface of the columnar cells. Microvilli are finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that greatly increase the surface area of the apical surface. In addition, some simple columnar epithelium possess another cell surface modification on their apical surface known as cilia. Cilia are thread like projection capable of wave-like motion and assist in propelling substances over the surface of the cells. Simple columnar epithelium is found throughout the digestive system, lining the chambers of the stomach, small intestines and large intestines. In addition if is found lining the chambers of the uterus, uterine tubes, gall bladder and bile ducts.
D. Pseudostratified Columnar epithelium: Although it looks like it is multi-layered, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, is actually a single layer of cells. Each cell is connected to the basement membrane, however, not all cells project all the way to the free surface. The “shorter”, basal cells are wedge shaped with their nuclei are near the basement membrane while the nuclei of the “taller”, apical cells are located higher in the tissue. The overall all effect is of several layers of nuclei giving it a stratified appearance. Like simple columnar epithelium, pseudostratified columnar epithelium typically contains goblet cells and cilia. This tissue is found lining the nasal cavity, the nasal sinuses, the auditory tubes, the trachea and the bronchi of the lungs.
Stratified Epithelium - multiple layers
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A. Keratinized Stratified Squamous epithelium : The name implies, that this tissue is composed of squamous-type cells that are piled into a multi-layered tissue. However, stratified epithelia are named based on the shape of the cells on the apical surface. As you examine this tissue you will see that at the basal surface the cells are actually columnar shaped and then transition as they move toward the surface to cuboidal and finally to squamous shaped cells. Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium is characterized by the presence of a keratinized layer at the apical surface composed of dead, squamous shaped cells that are filled with the tough protein keratin. Another distinct characteristic of stratified squamous is its wavy basement membrane. The is formed by projections of the underlying dermis called papillae that protrude into the epithelium of the epidermis. Keratinized stratified squamous is found on the skin
B. Non-keratinized Stratified Squamous epithelium: This tissue looks very much like the keratinized stratified squamous with the exception that it lacks the keratinized layer. One key feature of all stratified squamous epithelium is that the lowest layer of cells stains dark purple. Cells that are more superior become gradually lighter toward the apical surface. This tissue is found lining the mouth, the throat, the esophagus, the vagina, the anus and the cornea
C. Transitional epithelium: Although this is a stratified epithelium we do not include the term stratified in the name. Transitional epithelium is found in the urinary bladder and some of the other structures of the urinary system. It can have two different appearances depending on the state of the organ so it is named transitional epithelium. For example, when the urinary bladder is in its empty or relaxed state, the epithelium will appear like stratified cuboidal epithelium. When it is filled or stretched, it will appear more like stratified squamous. All of the images you will see are of the tissue in the relaxed state. In addition to stratification also look for the characteristic Brick cells on the free surface that will cover 2-3 of the cells below them and often bulge into the lumen organ. Transitional epithelium is found lining the urinary bladder, the ureters and the superior urethra.
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Connective Tissue
General Characteristics of connective tissues1. Very few cells compared to other tissues.
2. Large amounts of extracellular (intercellular) substance called matrix (matrix = ground substance plus fibers).
3. Contains various fibers.4. Vascular, meaning blood vessels are present (exceptions are
cartilage and dense connective tissue).
General functions of connective tissues1. Connect and bind other tissues together.2. Support and give structure to the body.3. Protect and cushion organs.4. Defense against disease (inflammation and immunity).5. Storage of energy and minerals.6. Repair of damaged tissue.7. Transport of nutrients, gases and wastes.
Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the various types of connective tissues, cell types, and
structures summarized in the list of terms below.2. Be able to specify where each of the different types of connective tissues
would be found in the body.
List of terms
Loose fibrous (areolar) connective tissueCollagen fiber
FibroblastMast Cell
Dense regularly arranged connective tissue
FibroblastsDense irregularly arranged
connective tissueFibroblasts
Adipose connective tissueHyaline cartilage
ChondrocyteLacunaPerichondrium
Elastic cartilageElastic fibersChondrocyteLacuna
Bone (compact)Osteon (Haversian system)Haversian (central) canal
OsteocyteLacunaCanaliculi
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Volksmann canalConcentric lamella
Interstitial lamella(Periosteum)
Connective Tissue Types
Loose Connective Tissues
A. Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue (Areolar Connective Tissue): This tissue is often lacy in appearance and is found in numerous fluid-filled spaces. It constitutes the loose packing material in many organs. Loose fibrous connective tissue connects the skin to underlying structures and is composed of collagen fibers, elastic fibers and a variety of cells including fibroblasts and mast cells . In can be found directly under all epithelial tissue where its appearance can be quite variable.
B. Adipose Tissue: Adipose tissue is widely distributed throughout the body and has very typical characteristics. Unlike the other connect tissues, adipose tissue has very little extracellular matrix. This tissue is characterized by large round open spaces separated by very thin plasma membranes. Adipose cells (adipocytes) contain a large lipid droplet inside that is dissolved away during preparation of the slides making them appear clear and open. The lipid droplet pushes the nucleus and other organelles of the cell up against the plasma membrane. The nucleus is small and flattened and is usually visible in most of the cells. These nuclei resemble the nuclei of simple squamous epithelium. This tissue is one of the easier tissues to identify in that it looks much like a hair net. Most of our adipose tissue is found in the subcutaneous areas. It can also be found in the mesenteries, the renal pelvis, in the mammary glands, around the kidneys and attached to the surface of the colon.
Dense Connective Tissues
A. Dense Regularly Arranged Fibrous Connective Tissue: This tissue is composed primarily of very large collagen fibers that are tightly packed in parallel bundles. Scattered among the parallel collagen fibers are the elongate, sliver-like nuclei of the fibroblasts that run parallel to the direction of the fibers. This tissue has a very poor blood supply, consequently when it is damaged it takes a long time to heal. Dense regularly arranged fibrous connective tissue is found forming tendons and ligaments.
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B. Dense Irregularly Arranged Fibrous Connective Tissue: Like regularly arranged connective tissue, irregularly arranged connective tissue is also composed of large collagen fibers. In this tissue, however, the fibers are not all parallel but run in several different directions. In addition, nuclei of the fibroblasts are more oval shaped. This tissue is located in the dermis of the skin, the outer coverings of body tubes, and the fibrous capsules of organs and joints.
Cartilage
Although there are three distinct types of cartilage, all posses similar characteristics. Among these characteristics are the presence of small open spaces (lacunae) within the matrix of the cartilage and cartilage cells (chondrocytes) occupying these openings. Like Denser regularly arranged fibrous connective tissue, cartilage has a poor blood supply and thus heals slowly when damaged. We will learn to identify two of the three types, hyaline and elastic cartilage, we will not, however, be learning fibrocartilage.
A. Hyaline Cartilage: The matrix contains roughly equal amounts of collagen fibers and ground substance. Since the collagen fibers are evenly distributed throughout the matrix it generally appears as a homogenous pink or blue material. Lacunae, small open spaces, are present throughout the cartilage matrix. Chondrocytes can be found within the lacunae. Notice along the edge of this tissue the perichondrium. This tissue will contain immature chondrocytes known as chondroblasts and is composed mainly of dense regularly arranged connective tissue. Once the chondroblasts become surrounded by matrix they are called chondrocytes. Hyaline cartilage is found in the growth plates of growing long bones, the rings of the trachea and bronchi, the nose, articulating surfaces of joints and the embryonic skeleton.
B. Elastic Cartilage: This tissue looks much like to the hyaline cartilage. The major identifying feature is that the matrix contains large amounts of elastic fibers which appear dark purple in the micrographs. Elastic cartilage is found in the ears and the epiglottis.
Solid Connective Tissue
Bone is classified as a connective tissue. Like all connective tissue, it has more matrix than cellular component. In this case, the matrix is a calcified solid material surrounding collagen fibers. Under the microscope, you will see many structures and openings within the solid matrix of the bone that are essential to allow the bone tissue to live.
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A. Compact Bone: Compact bone is composed of small units called osteons or Haversian systems. Under the microscope these systems have the appearance of targets with a large bull’s eye in the center. The bull’s eye is formed by the central or Haversian canal. In living bone blood vessels pass through these canals. Surrounding the central canal are a series of concentric rings of matrix called concentric lamellae (lamella, sing.) At the borders between the lamellae are lacuanae (lacuna, sing.) and within the lacunae are the cells that maintain the matrix, the osteocytes. If you look closely under high magnification you can observe small crack-like structures radiating out from the lacunae and interconnecting the lacunae of the different lamellae. These small tubes called canaliculi allow nutrients and wastes to pass between the osteocytes and the blood. If the bone is cut just right you can see structures that connect one Haversian canal to another, these are the Volksmann canals. Compact bone is found in all bones of the body.
Muscle Tissue
General Characteristics of muscle1. Elongated cells in direction of contraction2. Appearance depends on direction of cut (longitudinal or cross section)
General functions of muscle1. Contracts in response to a stimulus to generate movement
a. Movement of one part with respect to anotherb. Movement of materials through the bodyc Movement of the body through space (locomotion)
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Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the three muscle types in cross section or longitudinal
section as well as the other structures in the list of terms below.2. Know where each muscle type can be found in the body.
List of terms
Skeletal muscle - longitudinal section
Skeletal muscle - cross section StriationsSarcomere
A-bandI-bandZ disk
EndomysiumPerimysium
Fasciculi (fasciculus - sing.)
EpimysiumSmooth muscle - longitudinal sectionSmooth muscle - cross sectionCardiac muscle - longitudinal section
Intercalated disksStriations
Cardiac muscle - cross section
Types of Muscles
A. Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscle makes up the majority of the tissue that we think of when we think of muscles. It is under voluntary control and is located throughout the body. Skeletal muscle is generally attached to bones by tendons and uses these bones as levers to accomplish work. However, not all skeletal muscle is anchored to bones. Some, like that in the face, is attached to fibrous connective tissue. Skeletal muscle occurs in bundles. Each skeletal muscle cell or fiber is elongated and has multiple nuclei that are located on the periphery the cell. The cells are very large and can be several centimeters long, often running the entire length of the muscle. (Note, when referring to muscles we use the terms cell and fiber interchangeably. This is not to be confused with the fibers found in the matrix of connective tissue). Skeletal muscle is also striated with alternating light and dark bands running the entire length of the cell. These striations are caused by the regular overlapping arrangement of the muscle proteins, actin and myosin. The dark band is called the “A Band” and the light band is the “I Band”. If you look carefully, you will be able to identify a very thin, dark line running down the middle of the “I Band” this represents the backbone of the actin molecule and is called the “Z-disk”.When we look at skeletal muscle in cross section we see that individual skeletal muscle fibers are surrounded by a thin layer of loose fibrous (areolar) connective tissue, the endomysium. Furthermore, we see that
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the muscle fibers not uniformly distributed throughout the muscle but are grouped into bundles called fasciculi with each fasciculus likewise surrounded by “heavier” connective tissue, the perimysium. Finally, the entire muscle is surrounded by a sheath of dense fibrous connective tissue, the epimysium. The large collagen fibers in the epimysium are continuous with those of the tendon that attaches the muscle to bone. Your biceps then is composed of many fasciculi bundled together with each fasciculus being composed of many muscle fibers.
B. Smooth Muscle: Smooth muscle is an involuntary, non-striated muscle that is found in the walls of hollow organs like, arteries and veins, the stomach, the small and large intestines, the uterus, the uterine tubes, the urinary bladder and the gall bladder to name few. Smooth muscle cells are fusiform in shape (football shaped). Each muscle cell contains one centrally located, cigar-shaped, nucleus. The cells are arranged side by side in sheets-like layers. The muscles cells are much smaller than skeletal muscle fibers and are woven together to form the sheet-like layers. Most of the digestive tract with the exception of the stomach has smooth muscle arranged in two layers; an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer. The stomach has three layers of smooth muscle in its walls.
C. Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle is involuntary, however, unlike smooth-muscle, cardiac muscle is striated. The muscle fibers resemble skeletal muscle with the following exceptions: the cells are branched, they have a single, oval, centrally located nucleus and the striations are not as pronounced. Additionally, the muscle fibers are shorter and thus are connected end-to-end. At the points of connection there are specializations called intercalated discs that both hold the cells together with desmosomes and allow communication between the cells via gap junctions. Under the microscope the intercalated discs look like very pronounced striations.
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Nervous Tissue
Characteristics and functions of nervous tissue1. Composed of neurons and neuroglial cells.2. Main function is to transmit and process information.3. Divided into two major components.
a. Central Nervous System composed of the brain and spinal cord.b. Peripheral Nervous System composed of nerves and ganglia.
Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the structures in the list of terms below.2. Know the location of the various components of the nervous system
List of terms
NeuronSoma (Cell Body)AxonDendrite
Spinal chordGray matterWhit matterCentral canalVentral hornDorsal hornLateral hornGray commissureVentral columnDorsal columnLateral columnAnterior median fissurePosterior median sulcusDorsal root ganglion
In the spinal cord smear identifySomaNeuroglial cell nucleiAxons and Dendrites
Peripheral nerve - longitudinal section
Node of RanvierAxonMyeline sheath
Peripheral nerve - cross sectionEndoneuriumPerineuriumEpineurium
Overview of the nervous system
The nervous system is uniquely designed for gathering, transmitting, processing and storing information. It controls voluntary as well as most involuntary functions. The nervous system is divided into two major components. The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) contains those structures outside of the brain and spinal cord, namely nerves and ganglia. Two classes of cells are found in the nervous system; neurons which
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transmit the nerve impulses and neuroglial cells which carry out support functions in the nervous system. Most neurons have three parts: the soma, the axon and the dendrites. The soma or neuron cell body houses the nucleus of the cell and most of the other organelles. In the CNS soma are usually found in gray matter whereas in the PNS they are located in discrete clusters called ganglia. In addition to the soma neurons possess two types of processes: axons and dendrites. Dendrites are short, branched processes designed to transmit information toward the soma (incoming signals). Typical neurons have many dendrites which are found in the same locations as the soma. Axons are processes that carry information away from the soma (outgoing signals). A neuron typically has a single axon that in some cases can be as long as a meter. Axons in the CNS are located in the white matter and in the PNS are the principle component of nerves. Specialized neuroglial cells in the CNS (oligodendrocytes) and PNS (Schwann cells) wrap themselves around the axon producing a coating called the myeline sheath that can run the entire length of the axon. Each Schwann cell can produce a segment of myeline sheath that will cover about 1 mm of the axon. Between each segment of the myeline sheath is a small un-myelinated gap called a node of Ranvier.
A. Neuron: In the spinal cord smear we can see neuron cell bodies. In these slides gray matter from the spinal cord is literally smeared across the microscope slide disrupting the normal histology of the gray matter. This process, however, allows us to see the large, multi-shaped neuron cell bodies or soma . Axons and dendrites can be observed attached to the cell body but there is really no reliable way to determine which is an axon and which is a dendrite. In the background you will see many small dark nuclei. These are the nuclei of the various neuroglial cells.
B. Spinal cord: Under low magnification the spinal cord looks like a large circle with an “H” or butterfly shaped structure in its center. The H is the gray matter and hence contains neuron cell bodies. The lighter colored tissue around the gray matter is the white matter, containing axons that run up and down the spinal cord. Two grooves divide the spinal cord into right and left sides. These are the anterior median fissure and the posterior median sulcus. In the very center of the spinal cord is a small, fluid filled open space called the central canal. The gray matter around the central canal is the gray commissure which connects the right and left sides. The rest of the gray matter is subdivided into three horns; the right and left ventral, dorsal and lateral horns. The white matter is subdivided into columns, the right and left ventral, dorsal and lateral columns. If you have a good preparation you will be able to see a dorsal root ganglion which is
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actually a cluster of soma in the PNS. It can be seen just lateral to the spinal cord.
Higher magnification of the ventral horn of the gray matter will reveal the large neuron cell bodies of the motor neurons that originate in this tissue. White matter under high magnification reveals tissue composed of small, clear circles with dark dots in the center (kind of like a doughnut). The dark dots are axons and the clear area around the axon is the myeline sheath.
C. Nerve: In longitudinal section a nerve has a unique appearance. At first it may look very nondescript but on closer observation you will be able to see a Node of Ranvier. It will look something like a “+” sign. The horizontal line is an axon and the vertical line is a Node of Ranvier. Once you have located a Node you should be able to make out the myelin sheath on either side of the Node. A nerve is composed entirely of axons surrounded by layers of connective tissue.
In cross section nerves look somewhat like white matter of the spinal cord, that is dark dots with light circles around them. Again the dots are axons and the lighter circles are the myeline sheath. If we observe this tissue under low magnification we see that nerves are arranged somewhat like skeletal muscle, that is groups of axons are bundled into fasciuli and each nerve is composed of many fasciculi. Also like skeletal muscle these structures are surrounded by connective tissue layers. Individual axons are surrounded by the endoneurium, fasciculi are surrounded by perineurium and the entire nerve is surrounded by epineurium.
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Unit 2 - The Skeletal System
The skeletal system can be divided into two parts, the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axil skeleton includes the skull, the vertebrae, the sacrum, the sternum and the ribs. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the appendages plus the bones of the girdles that attach the appendages, i.e. the scapula and clavicles for the upper limb and the coxal bones for the lower limbs.
In this unit we will spend three weeks learning the names of all of the bones as well as many features of the bones. We will use a team approach to learning the bones. To accomplish this the lab time will be organized as follows: The students at each lab table will be assigned by the instructor to one of for groups, 1-4. Since there are 6 tables in the lab there should be six number ones, six number twos, etc. At the beginning of the lab period all of the ones will meet in one corner of the room, all of the twos will meet in
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another corner of the room, all of the threes in another and the fours in another. Each group will then learn the structures assigned to that group for the day. For example on the first week of this unit the “ones” will learn all of the structures listed under “ Week 1, Group 1" in the lab manual. Students should prepare prior to class by reviewing their assigned structures so that they can help each other within their group master the structures. After 30-40 minutes each student will return to their original tables and take turns teaching the other three members of their team the structures they have learned.
Before coming to the first lab section on this unit you should identify the following general terms that relate to the skeletal system:
Sesamoid boneCompact bonespongy bone (cancellous bone)diploediaphysisepiphysisepiphyseal platemedullary cavity
articular cartilagenutrient foramenperiosteumaxial skeletonappendicular skeleton
Week 1 - Axial Skeleton - Bones of the Skull
Regions of the floor of the cranial cavity
Anterior Cranial Fossa Fig 7.11
Middle Cranial Fossa Fig 7.11
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Posterior Cranial FossaFig 7.11
Sutures
Sagittal Suture Fig 7.2, 7.3 - In sagittal plane
Coronal Suture Fig 7.2, 7.4 - In coronal plane
Squamous Suture Fig 7.4
Lambdoid Suture Fig 7.2, 7.3 - Forms Greek letter Lambda with sagittal suture
Frontal Bone
Supraorbital margin Fig 7.4, 7.6
Supraorbital foramen Fig 7.4, 7.6
Zygomatic process Table 7.7 c - Attaches to Zygomatic bone
Glabella Fig 7.6
Frontal Sinus Fig 7.9 - Only seen if bone is cut or broken
Maxilla
Frontal process Table 7.7 h - Attaches to Frontal bone
Zygomatic process Table 7.7 h - Attaches to Zygomatic bone
Infraorbital foramen Fig 7.6
Anterior nasal spine Fig 7.6
Alveolar process Fig 7.6 - Contains sockets for teeth
Maxillary sinus Fig 7.10 - Only seen if bone is cut or broken
Palatine process Fig 7.12 - With palatine bone forms hard palate
Parietal Bone
Temporal Lines Fig 7.4
Temporal Bone
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Squamous portionFig 7.11
Petrous portion Fig 7.11
Zygomatic process Fig 7.4 - Attaches to Zygomatic bone, part of Zygomatic arch
Mandibular fossa Fig 7.12 - Forms joint with Mandible
External acoustic meatus (auditory)
Fig 7.4
Styloid process Fig 7.4, 7.12 - “Pen-like”
Mastoid process Fig 7.4, 7.12 - “Breast-like”
Stylomastoid foramen Fig 7.12
Carotid canal Fig 7.11. 7.12 -S-shaped canal in petrous portion of bone
Internal acoustic meatus (auditory)
Fig 7.11
Jugular foramen Fig 7.11, 7.12
Zygomatic Bone
Temporal process Fig 7.4 - Attaches to Temporal bone, part of zygomatic arch
Infraorbital margin Fig 7.4, 7.6
Zygomatic arch Fig 7.4 - Formed from zygomatic process of temporal and temporal process of zygomatic bones
Lacrimal Bone Fig 7.4, 7.6
Nasolacrimal canal Fig 7.4 - Drains tears into nose
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Nasal Bone Fig 7.4, 7.6
Sphenoid Bone
Greater wing Fig 7.11
Lesser wing Fig 7.11
Inferior orbital fissure Fig 7.8
Superior orbital fissure Fig 7.6
Sphenoid sinus Fig 7.8 - Only seen if bone is cut or broken
Sella turcica Fig 7.11 “Turkish saddle”
Medial pterygoid plate Fig 7.12
Lateral pterygoid plate Fig 7.12
Optic canal Fig 7.11, 7.16
Foramen spinosum Fig 7.11 These three holes are all in a row
Foramen ovale Fig 7.11 and are kind of a SORry mess, hence
Foramen rotundum Fig 7.11 Spinosum, Ovale, Rotundum.
Foramen lacerum Fig 7.11, 7.12 - Hole in floor of carotid canal
Ethmoid Bone
Perpendicular plate Fig 7.6, 7.9 - With Vomer form nasal septum
Crista galli Fig 7.11 - Name means “Comb” or crest of a rooster
Cribriform plate Fig 7.11
Nasal conchae Fig 7.6, 7.9
Palantine Bone
Palatine foramina Fig 7.12 - Part of hard palate
Horizontal plate Fig 7.12
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Occipital Bone
Foramen magnum Fig 7.11, 7.12 - “Big Hole”
Occipital condyles Fig 7.3, 7.12 - Articulate with atlas vertebra
Hypoglossal canal Fig 7.11
External occipital protuberance
Fig 7.3, 7.12
Nuchal lines Fig 7.3, 7.12 - “Nape” of the neck
Vomer With Perpendicular plate form nasal septum
Mandible
Body Fig 7.4, 7.6, Table 7.7 l
Ramus Fig 7.4, 7.6, Table 7.7 l - “Branch”
Condylar process Fig 7.4, Table 7.7 l
Mandibular condyle Fig 7.4, Table 7.7 l -
Ball on end of condylar process
Mandibular notch Table 7.7 l
Angle Table 7.7 l
Mental foramen Fig 7.4, 7.6, Table 7.7 l
Mandibular foramen Table 7.7 l
Alveolar process Fig 7.6, Table 7.7 l - Contains sockets for teeth
Mandibular symphysis Fig 7.6
Hyoid Bone Table 7.8 - Not attached to any other bones
Bones of The Middle Ear
Malleus Fig 15.24, 15.25, 15.32 -“Hammer”
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IncusFig 15.24, 15.25, 15.32 - “Anvil”
Stapes Fig 15.24, 15.25, 15.32 - “Stirrup”
Bones of The Orbit of The Eye (P FLEMZS)
Fig 7.8
Palatine
Frontal
Lacrimal
Ethmoid
Maxilla
Zygomatic
Sphenoid
Based on various features of the skull it is possible to determine the gender of the skull. In the table below are a list of features that differ between the sexes. Look at several skulls and see if you can determine their gender. For this exercise it is better to use the real skulls rather than the models. Note, it is common for some of the features to appear more “male” and others “female”-if this happens, sex is determined by the greatest number of features. For example, if the skull demonstrates 4 male-like traits and 7 female-like traits, then you would classify the skull as females
Gender Differences in the Skull
Skull Feature Male Characteristic Female Characteristic
General size More robust More gracile/delicate
External Occipital Protuberance and nuchal lines
Well-demarcated nuchal lines and a prominent bump or “hook”
External surface of occipital bone is smooth, with no bony projection
Mastoid Process Large, projects below the external auditory canal
Smaller
Supra-orbital margin (upper orbit rim)
Thick, rounded, blunt border
Thin, sharp border
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Supra-orbital ridge (“brow ridges”) Prominent
Little or no prominence
Mandible (chin) Squarish, greater forward projection
More pointed (versus squarish), little forward projection
Angle of the mandible 125 ̊ or less 125 ̊or more
Ramus of mandible Wide Narrow
Orbit Rectangular Round
Frontal bone Flattened and sharply angled
Rounded both ways
Hard palate Definite “U” shaped “V” shaped
Week 2 - Axial Skeleton and Upper Extremity
Vertebrae - General Features
Table 7.9
Body The bodies are separated by the intervertebral disks
Vertebral arch With body forms vertebral foramen
Pedicle Forms sides (feet) of vertebral arch
Lamina Forms back of vertebral arch (Thin plate... layered)
Vertebral foramen Forms vertebral canal for spinal cord
Spinous process These are the “lumps” you feel in the center of your back
Transverse process
Superior articular process and facet
Facet is the smooth articular surface on the process
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Inferior articular process and facet
Inferior intervertebral notch
Superior intervertebral notch
Intervertebral foramen Formed by inferior intervertebral notch and superior intervertebral notch of 2 vertebra when together
Cervical vertebrae (7) Fig 7.16
Transverse foramen Vertebral arteries pass through theses
Bifid spinous process Bi- = two
Atlas (C1) Articulates with occipital condyles of skull
Axis (C2) The atlas pivots on the “axis” vertebra
Odontoid process (dens) “Tooth”
Thoracic vertebrae (12) Fig 7.17
Costal facet (articular facet on transverse process
Best “seen” with your fingers, smooth dish shaped structure
Lumbar Vertebrae (5) Fig 7.18
Sacrum (5 fused) Fig 7.19
Auricular surface Auricle = outer ear, “ear shaped” surface
Median sacral crest Modified spinous processes
Posterior (dorsal) sacral foramen
Anterior (ventral) sacral foramen
Sacral canal Continuous with vertebral canal
Coccyx (3-5 fused) Fig 7.19
We normally eat at 7:00, 12:00 and 5:00, hence 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar vertebra.
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SternumFig 7.20
Manubrium Shaped like a handle - In this case the handle of a sword
Body
Xiphoid process
Sternal angle
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch Not labeled in text - Notches on manubrium where clavicles attach
Costal notches Not labeled in text- Notches on body where costal cartilage attaches
Ribs Fib 7.20
Costal cartilage Connects ribs to sternum or other ribs
True ribs (7 pair) Costal cartilage attaches directly to sternum
False ribs (5 pair) Costal cartilage attaches to that of rib above, or
Floating ribs do not attach to other ribs
Costal Groove Not labeled in text - Feel it with your fingers on the inner side of the angle
Head
Tubercle
Neck Between the head and tubercle
Angle
Body
Clavicle Fig 7.23
Sternal (medial) end Larger, blunt end
Acromial (lateral) end Flatter end, the acromial region is the point of the shoulder
Conoid process Not labeled in text - Bump near medial end
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Scapula Fig 7.23
Spine
Supraspinous fossa Above spine
Infraspinous fossa Below spine
Subscapular fossa On inside of scapula
Acromion process Attaches to acromial end of clavicle
Coracoid Process
Glenoid cavity Articulates with Humerus
Vertebral (medial) border
Axillary (lateral) border Axilla - armpit
Superior border
Superior angle
Inferior angle
Scapular notch
Humerus Fig 7.24
Head
Anatomical neck Ring around the head
Surgical neck When bone breaks here it requires surgery to repair - Ring around the shaft
Greater tubercle Easier to differentiate tubercles if you lookat the bone from the proximal end
Lesser tubercle
Intertubercular groove
Deltoid tuberosity Attachment site for Deltoid muscle
Capitulum The word means head - articulates with head of radius
Trochlea The work means pulley or spool - articulates with ulna
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Lateral epicondyles
Medial epicondyles
Coronoid fossa Coronoid process of ulna enters when arm flexed
Olecranon fossa Olecronon process of ulna enters when arm extends
Radial fossa Head of radius enters when arm flexes
Ulna Fig 7.25
Trochlear (semilunar) notch Articulates with trochlea of humerus
Coronoid process Enters coronoid fossa when arm flexes - “Coron” = Raven, refers to Raven’s beak
Olecranon process Enters olecranon fossa when arm extends
Radial notch Notch on proximal end for radius
Head
Styloid process
Ulnar tuberosity
Radius Fig 7.25
Head
Neck
Radial tuberosity
Styloid process
Ulnar notch Notch on distal end for ulna
Carpals Fig 7.26
Scaphoid Some - This mnemonic may help you
Lunate Lawyers remember the order of these bones
Triquetrum Take
Pisiform Profits
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TrapeziumThat
Trapazoid They
Capitate Can’t
Hamate Have
Metacarpals (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5)
Fig 7.26
Digits Fig 7.26
Proximal phalanx
Middle phalanx Thumb lacks middle phalanx
Distal phalanx
Week 3 - Lower Extremity
Coxal bone (Os Coxae)
Symphysis pubis Fig 7.29, 7.30 - Joins Coxae in front
Acetabulum Fig 7.29, 7.30 - “Vinegar cup”
Ilium Fig 7.29, 7.30
Iliac crest Fib 7.30
Anterior superior iliac spine Fig 7.29, 7.30 - Prominent surface landmark
Anterior inferior iliac spine Fib 7.30
Posterior superior iliac spine
Fib 7.30
Posterior inferior iliac spine Fib 7.30
Greater sciatic (ischiatic) notch
Fib 7.30
Iliac fossa Fib 7.30
Auricular surface Fib 7.30 - “Ear shaped” surface that articulates with auricular surface of the sacrum
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IschiumFig 7.29, 7.30
Ischial spine Fib 7.30
Lesser sciatic (ischiatic) notch
Fib 7.30
Ischial tuberosity Fib 7.30
Obturator foramen Fig 7.29, 7.30
Ischial ramus Fib 7.30
Pubis Fig 7.29, 7.30
Superior pubic ramus Fib 7.30
Inferior pubic ramus Fib 7.30
Pubic crest Fib 7.30
As with the skull there are gender differences with respect to the pelvic girdle. Look at the articulated skeletons and see if you can determine their gender
Gender Differences in the Os Coxae
Os Coxae Feature Male Characteristic Female Characteristic
Pelvic Inlet Heart shaped Spacious, wide and oval
General Size More robust and muscle marked
Less robust
obturator foramen Larger and oval Smaller and triangular
Acetabulum larger, directed mor forward
Smaller, directed more laterally
Greater Sciatic Notch Narrow and deep Wide and shallow
Body of Pubis Short, triangular Longer, more rectangular
Subpubic angle (area underneath the two pubic bones)
Narrow, V-shaped Broader, more convex
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FemurFig 7.33
Head
Fovea capitis Small pit in the head
Neck
Body
Greater trochanter
Lesser trochanter
Intertrochanteric crest
Gluteal tuberosity Attachment site gluteus maximus
Linea aspera
Medial condyle
Lateral condyle
Intercondylar fossa
Patellar groove
Medial epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle
Patella Fig 7.34
Apex Not labeled in text - Pointed end, inferior side
Base Not labeled in text -Rounded end, superior side
Anterior surface “Rough” surface
Posterior surface Side with articular facets
Medial articular facet Smaller and more convex
Lateral articular facet Larger and more concave
Tibia Fig 7.35
Medial condyles
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Lateral condyles
Intercondylar eminence
Tibial tuberosity Bump just below knee
Anterior crest Shin
Medial malleolus Forms large bump on inside of ankle
Fibular notch Not labeled in text - On distal end where fibula touches
Fibula Fig 7.35
Head Articular facet on top of head
Lateral malleolus Articular facet on side of malleolus
Tarsals Fig 7.37
Talus Tall - This mnemonic may help you
Calcaneous Chicks the order of the tarsals
Navicular Never
Medial cuneiform Meet
Intermediate cuneiform In
Lateral cuneiform Log
Cuboid Cabins
Metatarsals (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5)
Fig 7.37
Digits Fig 7.37
Proximal phalanx
Middle phalanx Big toe lacks middle phalanx
Distal phalanx
Articulations and movements
Articulations
Fibrous joints Table 8.1
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SutureFig 8.1, 8.2
Syndesmoses Fig 8.3
Gomphoses Fig 8.4
Cartilaginous joints Table 8.1
Synchondroses Fig 8.5
Symphysis Fig 8.6
Synovial joints Table 8.2, Fig 8.7
Plane (Gliding) Fig 8.8
Saddle Fig 8.9
Hinge Fig 8.10
Pivot Fig 8.11
Ball and Socket Fig 8.12
Ellipsoid (condyloid) Fig 8.13
Movements
Types of Movements
Flexion and Extension Fig 8.14, 8.15, 8.16
Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion
Abduction and Adduction Fig 8.18
Rotation Fig 8.19
Supination and Pronation Fig 8.20
Circumduction Fig 8.21
Special Movements
Elevation and Depression Fig 8.22
Protraction and Retraction Fig 8.23
Lateral and Medial Excursion
Fig 8.24
Opposition and Reposition Fig 8.25
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Inversion and EversionFig 8.26
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Unit 3 - MusclesSkeletal muscles are voluntary muscles which we consciously control. In this unit you will be learning the names of the major muscles of the body as well as the origins, insertions and actions of those muscles. In addition to learning the muscles on the models, you will also learn to identify many of the muscles on the cadavers. We will spend three weeks on this unit. As with the bones each days material will be divided into 4 groups which one member of each group (table) will learn and teach to the rest of the group. Once again it is essential that you come to class prepared, having reviewed the muscles for which you are responsible that day.
WEEK 1
Muscles of Face Action
occipotofrontalis
Frontalis Wrinkles forehead and wrinkles eyebrows
Occipitalis Moves scalp backwards
Epicranial (galea) aponeurosis : broad tendon across the top of the scalp
Corrugator Furrows the eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi Closes eye
Nasalis Dilates nostrils
Orbicularis oris Closes and purses lips
Levator labii superioris
Elevates upper lip
Zygomaticus major Elevates corners of mouth
Zygomaticus minor Elevates upper lip
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RisoriusDraws angles of mouth laterally
Depressor anguli oris
Depresses corner of mouth
Depressor labii inferiorus
Depresses lower lip
Mentalis elevates skin over chin and protrudes lower lip
Platysma Depresses lower lip and wrinkles skin of neck
Buccinator Flattens cheek
Muscles of Mastication
Origin Insertion Action
Temporalis Temporal lines of temporal bone
Coronoid process of mandible Elevates and retracts
mandible
Masseter Zygomatic arch
Ramus of mandible
Medial pterygoid Medial pterygoid plate
Mandible Protracts and elevates mandible
Lateral pterygoid Lateral pterygoid plate
Condyler process of mandibible
Protracts and depresses mandible
Muscles of the Neck
Origin Insertion Action
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Sternocleidomastoid Manubrium,
clavicle
Mastoid process of temporal
Turns head to side, flexes neck
Digastric (anterior and posterior bellies)
Mastoid Process (Posterior belly)
Mandible (Anterior Belly)
Opens mouth
Mylohyoid Body of Mandible
Hyoid bone Elevates floor of mouth
Stylohyoid Styloid process of temporal bone
Hyoid bone Elevates hyoid
Muscles that act on the Scapula
Origin Insertion Action
Serratus anterior upper eight ribs
Vertebral border of scapula
Pulls scapula forward and downward
Pectoralis minor Sternal ends of 3rd 4th and 5th ribs
Coracoid process of scapula
Pulls scapula forward and downward
Trapezius Occipital bone and spines of 7th cervical vertebrae and all thoracic vertebrae
Clavicle, spine of scapula and acromion process
Elevates scapula, draws head back, adducts scapula, braces shoulders
Levator scapulae 1st - 4th cervical vertebrae
Superior angle of scapula
Elevates scapula
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Rhomboideus major Spines of T1 -
T4 vertebrae
Vertebral border of scapula
Elevates and adducts scapula
Rhomboideus minor
Spines of C7
and T1
vertebrae
Vertebral border of scapula
Elevates and adducts scapula
Muscles that move the Humerus
Origin Insertion Action
Pectoralis major Clavicle, sternum, costal cartilage
Greater tubercle of humerus
Flexes shoulder, adducts arm and rotates arm medially
Latissimus dorsi Spines of lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae, sacrum
Intertubercular groove of humerus
Extends shoulder, adducts humerus, and rotates humerus medially
Deltoid Clavicle, acromion process and spine of scapula
Deltoid tuberosity of humerus
abducts arm, extends and flexes shoulder
Supraspinatus* Supraspinous fossa of scapula
Greater tubercle of humerus
Abducts arm, holds head of humerus in place
Infraspinatus* infraspinous fossa of scapula
Greater tubercle of humerus
Rotates arm laterally, holds head of humerus in place
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Teres minor*lateral border of scapula
greater tubercle and groove of humerus
rotates arm laterally, holds head of humerus in place
Teres major Lateral border of scapula
Intertubercular groove of humerus
extends shoulder, adducts and rotates arm medially
Subscapularis* Subscapular fossa of scapula
Lesser tubercle of humerus
Rotates arm medially, holds head of humerus in place
Coracobrachialis Coracoid process of scapula
Shaft of humerus Flexes and adducts shoulder
* muscles of the rotator cuff - remember SITS Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres minor, Subscapularis
WEEK 2
Muscles that act on the Forearm
Origin Insertion Action
Biceps brachii Coracoid process; supraglenoid fossa of scapula
Radial tuberosity of radius
Flexes and supinates forearm
Brachialis Anterior surface of humerus
Coronoid process of ulna Flexes forearm
Brachioradialis Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
Styloid process of radius
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Triceps brachiiInfraglenoid fossa of scapula; posterior and lateral humerus
Olecranon porcess of ulna
Extends forearm
Muscles that move the hand
Origin Insertion Action
Extensor carpi radialis longus Lateral
epicondyle of humerus
Second metacarpal Extends and abducts wrist
Extensor carpi radialis brevis
5th metacarpal Extends and abducts wrist
Abductor pollicus longus
Posterior radius and ulna
Base of first metacarpal
Abducts thumb
Extensor pollicus brevis
Shaft of Radius
Proximal phalanx of thumb
Extends and abducts thumb
Extensor pollicus longus
Shaft of ulna Distal phalanx of thumb
Extends thumb
Extensor digitorum Lateral epicondyle of humerus
phalanges of 2nd - 5th digits
Extends wrist and digits
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Base of 5th metacarpal
Extends and adducts wrist
Flexor carpi ulnarisMedial epicondyle of humerus
Carpals and metacarpals
Flexes and adducts wrist
Flexor digitorum superficialis
Middle phalanges of digits 2-5
Flexes wrist, hand and digits
Palmaris longus Palmar fascia Flexes wrist
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Flexor carpi radialis
Base of 2nd and 3rd metacarpals Flexes and abducts
hands
Flexor digitorum profundus
Ulna Distal phalanges of digits 2-5
Flexes digits
Flexor pollicus longus
Shaft of radius
Distal phalanx of thumb
Flexes thumb
Pronator teres Medial epicondyle of humerus
Radius Pronates forearm
Supinator Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Radius Supinates forearm
Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
Origin Insertion Action
External abdominal oblique
Lower eight ribs
Iliac crest, linea alba, inguinal ligament
Compresses abdomen, lateral rotation of trunk
Inguinal ligament
Ligament connecting between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic crest
Linea alba Thick tendon running down the midline of the abdomen
Internal abdominal oblique
Iliac crest inguinal ligament
Linea alba, costal cartilage
Compresses abdomen, lateral rotation of trunk
Transverse abdominus
Xiphoid process, linea alba
Compresses abdomen
Rectus abdominus Pubic crest, symphysis pubis
Costal cartilage of ribs
Flexes vertebral column, compresses abdomen
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Muscles of the Vertebral Column Origin
Insertion Action
Quadratus lumborum
Iliac crest and ileolumbar ligament
12th rib and transverse processes upper lumbar vertebrae
Lateral flexion of vertebral column
Sacrospinalis (erector spinae) - consists of three groups of muscles listed below
Iliocostalis Sacrum, crest of ilium, and ribs
Ribs and vertebrae
Extends spineLongissimus Transverse
processes of thoracic vertebrae
Transverse process of all thoracic vertebrae
Spinalis Spinous processes of upper lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae
Spinous processes of middle and upper thoracic veretebrae
Muscles of the Hip Origin Insertion Action
Iliopsoas A combination of the iliacus and psoas major after it passes through the inguinal region.
Iliacus Iliac fossa of ilium Lesser trochanter of
femurFlexes thigh, rotates thigh laterally, flexes vertebral column
Psoas major Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae
Gluteus maximus Iliac crest, sacrum, coccyx
Gluteal tuberosity of femur
Extends hip and rotates thigh laterally
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Gluteus mediusLateral surface of ilium
Greater trochanter of femur
Abducts thigh and rotates thigh medially
Gluteus minimus
Piriformis Sacrum and ilium
Greater trochanter of femur
Laterally rotates extended thigh, abducts flexed thigh
Tensor fascia latae Anterior superior iliac spine
Iliotibial tract to lateral condyle of tibia
Abducts thigh
WEEK 3
Muscles of the Thigh
Origin Insertion Action
Sartorius Anterior superior iliac spine
Medial side of tibial tuberosity
Flexes hip and knee, abducts and rotates thigh laterally and rotates leg medially
Quadriceps femoris
A collective group of the next four muscles
Rectus femoris anterior inferior iliac spine Tibial tuberosity via
patellar tendonExtends leg at knee, rectus femoris also flexes hip
Vastus lateralis Greater trochanter and linea aspera
Vastus medialis Linea aspera
Vastus intermedius
Body of femur
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GracilisPubis
Medial epicondyle of tibia
Adducts thigh and flexes knee
PectineusPubis
Femur Adducts thigh
Adductor longus
Linea asperaAdducts thigh, flexes and laterally rotates hip
Adductor brevis
Adductor magnus
Hamstring A collective group of the next three muscles
Biceps femoris Ischial tuberosity and linea aspera
Lateral epicondyle of tibia
Flexes leg at knee, extends thigh at hip
SemitendinosusIschial tuberosity
Medial epicondyle of tibia
Semimembranosus
Muscles of the Leg
Origin Insertion Action
Tibialis anterior Lateral tibia 1st metatarsal Dorsiflexion and inversion
Fibularis teritius Anterior fibula 5th metatarsal Dorsiflexion and eversion
Fibularis longus Lateral tibia and shaft of fibula
Tarsals and metatarsal
Plantar flexion and eversion
Fibularis brevis Lower fibula Metatarsal Plantar flexion and eversion
Tendo callcaneous
Large tendon that attaches the calf muscles to the calcaneous
Gastrocnemius Condyles of femur
Plantar flexion and knee flexion
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CalcaneusSoleus
Posterior tibia and fibula
Plantar flexion
Plantaris Lateral epicondyle of femur
Calcaneus Plantar flexion
Popliteus Lateral epicondyle of femur
Posterior tibia Flexes knee
Tibialis posterior Posterior tibia and fibula
Tarsals Plantar flexion and inversion
Flexor digitorum longus
Posterior tibia Distal phalanges Flexes distal phalanges
Flexor hallicus longus
Posterior fibula
Distal phalanx of big toe
Flexes distal phalanx of big toe
Extensor digitorum longus
Lateral condyles tibia and anterior fibula
Middle phalanges Extends digits
Extensor hallucis Anterior fibula Distal phalanx of big toe
Extends big toe
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Unit 4 - The Nervous SystemThe nervous system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system which is made up of nerves and ganglia. The nerves in the peripheral nervous system are classified according to their origin. Cranial nerves arise directly from the brain and spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord. In this lab you will learn to identify various components of the nervous system on the models. We will follow the same pattern used on the bone and muscle units.
Coverings of the Brain and Blood supply
Dura mater Dural Sinus
Arachnoid membrane Vertebral arteries
Pia mater Basilar artery
Falx cerebri Internal carotid arteries
Falx cerebelli Arterial Circle (Circle of Willis)
Tentorium cerebelli
Ventricles of the Brain
Lateral ventricles Cerebral aqueduct
Third ventricle Choroid plexus
Fourth ventricle
Review of Spinal Cord
Gray matter Columns
White matter Ventral
Horns Lateral
Ventral Dorsal
Lateral Central canal
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DorsalAnterior median fissure
Posterior median sulcus
Dorsal root ganglion
Structures of the Cerebrum and Cerebellum
Cerebral hemispheres Frontal lobe
Gyrus Precentral gyrus
Sulcus Parietal lobe
Gray matter Postcentral gyrus
White matter Temporal lobe
Longitudinal fissure Occipital lobe
Central sulcus Cerebellum
Lateral Sulcus (or fissure) Vermis
Parietooccipital sulcus Cerebellar hemisphere
Arbor vitae
Review of Neuron
Soma Schwann cell
Axon Myeline sheath
Axon Hillock Node of Ranvier
Dendrite Endoneurium
Diencephalon and Brain Stem
Brain stem Diencephalon (cont)
Medulla oblongata Hypothalamus
Pons Mammillary body
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MidbrainPineal body
Corpora quadrigemina Corpus collosum
Superior colliculus Genu
Inferior colliculus Splenium
Diencephalon Septum pellucidum
Thalamus Fornix
Intermediate mass Pituitary gland
Infundibulum
Cranial Nerves
I. Olfactory bulb VI. Abducens nerve
Olfactory tract VII. Facial nerve
II. Optic nerve VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerve
Optic chiasma IX. Glossopharyngeal nerve
Optic tract X. Vagus nerve
III. Oculomotor nerve XI. Accessory nerve
IV. Trochlear nerve XII. Hypoglossal nerve
V. Trigeminal nerve
Helpful mnemonic for remembering the order or the cranial nerves: On Old Olympus’ Towering Tops A Fine Victorian Gentlemen Viewed A Hawk.
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