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ITS
COOPERATION,STUPID
Charles Leadbeater
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ITS COOPERATION,STUPID
Why RichaRd daWkins, Thomas hobbesand milTon FRiedman goT iT WRong
cr ltr
ittut r Pu P Rr 2012
in PaRTneRshiP WiTh
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ABOUT IPPR
IPPR, the Institute or Public Policy Research, is the UKs leading
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CONTENTS
awt ........................................................ 5
1. T upt ................................... 7
2. T prt ..................................... 12
3. d r prt ....................................... 35
4. cprt p t .................................... 46
5. our prtv utur............................................. 57
Rr ................................................................. 62
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5
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
i wu t t n Pr t iPPR e m tc-prtv Uk r upprt t ppt ,
wt mr str, r prv vr pu t w
i w rt t.
iPPR w t t c-prtv Uk r tr
ttu trut t t ppr. c-
prtv Uk wr t prt, vp ut-prtv trpr. it uqu r tr
t r -prtv t p r -
prt, u c-prtv Frtt, r ttr
t wt p trt -prtv t.
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7
1. ThE ASSUMPTION OfSELfIShNESS
i u r w w t trt trr
tp u t uuu prpt. h w v u
100 ut t: u v t pt t u wt
trr. i t pr u t t pt t wt
rjt ur r t t : u v t rtur
t t t r. yu tp t xt pr ttrt, xp t tut t r. Wt
r wu u ? a u wr t rv ,
wt r wu u pt?
i u r rtr rw r t p
txt rt, prt-x t
u u ut tt rtv w r, 5, u pt. it wu v u, t prpr,
wt 95 t pr t w u t r, t
rpr, u pp t v p up 5 r
ut t. Fr t prt t rt, -
trt t t wu t w wt t .
yt tt t wt pp t t t wt r w p ut tu xprt
ut tt r r utr,
r v t t, pr-utr t r t,
t u t . o ut t pp
wt wu rr w r: quvt t
20 r t 100 t t. W w r r ,
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8
t r uu rjt ur rpr prr t
w w r r t r ut rtr t
p up 20 r t. i t vr t
xprt, w t Uttu g, ut x ut 10 prpr r r t 40: t r
tt r r t pt.
T Uttu g jut p ut
v tt w u jtt t upt, r
r tr, ur t,
tt ur ut . it tur ut w r t w rt tut.
T r t rt, w t t
t a st The Wealth o Nations, pp -
trt u r t pru t pu
r prutvt rtr . it t r t
v t utr, t rwr r t r tt wxpt ur r, st wr u, ut r tr rr t
tr w trt. evr tut -trt: tt
t u prp .
s-trt urp t r vrt
tt t t t T h, w wr
The Leviathan tt wtut vrt t rru t wu rt t t wr
t . T tt t rt t qut rt
ut t pr ut t trt r t
p: w r r . i t z-r
r, t upt t
tru w t pu p t .
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9
Tr w tt t t w t t t
t pp t ur -trt wt r tv,
tr, tt ut w.
s p ur ut urv, wvr, u t w rv t
ttu prvr , wt Rr dw
t t tr. i TheSelfsh Gene, pu 1976,
dw wr:
i u w, i , t u t wvu prt ru u
twr , u xpt tt p
r tur. lt u tr t t rt
tru, u w r r . lt u
urt wt ur w r up t,
u w t t t v t tupt tr , t w tr p
pr t .
Wt dw wr?1 Wt t u, t
t t, wt t prtv u uqu
ptt t twr rprt wrtt t w w r tru pwru t
vut utur? Wt tru t u
1 s The Selfsh Gene, dw tpr pt
wt, r t r prt vutru.
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10
tr, trt ur tu r, t tt
ur tur w t h wr t
ut rut prtv ut, tr,
prprt, -rr prtt? T upt p u t t tru t t
rt, t -t pp w r
w r t Uttu g. Wt , t, w
wr t t t ur t tru t
t prtv jrt w r r t
Uttu g?hu r r prtv t tr p
u w r p r -r r
prt: w r prpr t prt wt trr,
vr r t t, vr t
u utur. T p wr pt r
prt w r prtt t vr t u trt r ut t px , r
rut t t . yt t
ur t, ttut pu p
u t r, pvr vw urv
utrutwrt . T ppr tv rw
ut prt, uppt prtv ut wtt tt r tr tv. T r t
wr tr w .
T rut t ppt tt w u
jtt t t upt . it,
w u trt r t upt tt t t t,
t pp wt t prtv tt t t
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11
ur, prutv, ptv ut w t
rt, u r r prt. o w
prtv ppr t u w tur t
ut tt -trt.i prv pt vt wt tr p. W
r prt rt t tru
w t ur t t utur. i t
1950 60, pu p w v fu t
k bvr, t pt-wr ttt
tt ut t rt upt rt ttt qut t, utr pt.
s t 1970, t v fu
rv r , z-r ,
t r prutvt w t rt
t ut t t . a w tu, qu
ur , r u, tru twr t t xtr ppt t , w
w t w ut u w t t upt
w t ppr wr . c t
t upt . a w pt w
r, t t qut, wpr r t
r rt rt w trt,ut t trt r rt t upt.
T ttu trt pt u t ut
v tt w r, rt rt, rprtr
prtr.
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12
2. ThE SCIENCE OfCOOPERATION
our tru tur t . cprt, tru
rt r t w r pu, v t
p up u t w, vrt r ur. W
t r urv t prtv, w v t
rt t tt ur tur .
T wr t pt t rwr t t 1970, t ttu tw
, z-r . T tw
tut ru u t tt t
u t r rtur w u t pr
ur .
T prt w Rr dw, rt, rutv t The Selfsh Gene:
l uu c tr, ur v
urvv, r r,
pttv wr. T tt u t xpt rt
qut ur . i ru tt prtqut t xpt uu rut
. T r w uu v
r t vur.
a Rr axr put t tr The Biology
o Moral Systems,t urt t
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13
txt t t vu, puru
tr -trt, prp tr .
T vr p. T ut ut vut
p r rt t rt t . W r r t v r , w dw r
t rt rptr u. g r t
tt tur t vur t tt t t
t t p tv p . l rut,
u ptt r rprutv u w
pt uxur. evr t r t t t pp t rr. Wtvr w t put
t, w r tur.
aprt r rt t tt vr
p tu fw v t, rpr
u t , tr ut t
v tt t p rutv vw t wr wr.
Games and fairness
T rt t v r t
quvt rtr xprt: vv
, u t Uttu g, t up t tt wru prtv pp r. T xprt
w tt pp r r r ru: t t
t rjt prp w r r, v t
t t t , t r prpr t pu tr
pp w r pr- r, v p
put t tv ur t. y
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14
br, hrvr w prr r prt,
u up t r tu t
xprt t w The Penguin and the Leviathan:
r, 20 pr t t t 30 pr t pr r r rr ; 50 t 60 pr t
r prtv r rr r, w r
t t prt.
su bw hrrt gt, t wr
rrr t rprt, u up t r
t xprt tu:
m t, t tr w rt,
t v r t t tur, tt tru
t r xpt
pr. T xprt v t t
tw t tr t tt vw.Bowles and Gintis 2011
T t vrt
. T Uttu g, w w t t t
trt, t t-w: -, tw-pr r.
atr vrt, t Pu g g xpr t prt rup, vr r pr
rprttv t w .
sx pr r v 10 r t
pprtut t vt p rur. T
p vr vr ru. at t t ,
wtvr t t pt w utp tr
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15
t xprtr t pr v qu. T
r pp trut, t r t vtu p-. i
pr vt tr 10 p t t pt
ru t t t t u rv30, 20. but pur pr, wt
tr 10 r t p, t ut tt t
tr v pr trut 10 t t pt w
50. mutp tr, tt wu ut t 150,
v x w t pt wu vr p-ut 25 t
t x pr. T v pr w vt tr10 wu v wt 15: t . but t
pr w trut t wu t 25 tp
tr r 10: t wu v wt 35. T tv
t r-r p.
i t vr t , pp tur ut t
t prtr. i t ru t tvt ut tr ttt, ut twr t
trut t t zr, pp r tr w
pr r ru tr trut tt t r
ut t rpp . T t w t prtt tr
pt wt pr-ptv rtt: t pu tr
ut. evr wr rut, ut tt prpp r prpr t p t prvt pr
w wt t t pr.
cprt ut, wvr, t t
r t r rt. i prtr wr ttr,
v t t t tv, t
prt prv ur. m t r pp t
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16
u up p tr rputt r prt
t u r r tr ptt prtr t pp
t wr wt. T t tt -prtr
ut pu. i pr r t t t ruwt trut v t pprtut t
-trutr, t prt ut.
Pp rtt t -prtr wtut ru
t tr . Tt tru v t t put
t pur, w v t p t xprtr
1 t p 3. T pr t pu -prtr u t t wt t t t w
wt t. but r t t tv pp v t
up t t t up t w. i tr r t w w-
upr t prt w p.
T Pu g g p
tu t rt tt t wtt pp r r t prt. but w r
t prtr. T r pu
p t t t t rt.
T v w w r r
prtv t w tut r xprt
wt t vur .
Babies and childcare
a t w tt vr r , w t p
t rp u, rt
urt ut t v t jut t r. T
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17
ut trv pr: t t r jt
t u tr r r u. i t 90 pr t
t t w t t p t ut.
T p tr w fx rqur twpt tt r ut t ur -up tt w
t t r rt. Frt, t t ut prv
urt t ut tr t
urt wt t r tr t v. s, t
ut v pt r tru, t put tv ut
rr t p. hp wt t prt pr jut r tru tt u t p, r
t m T, t -rtr t mx P
ittut r evutr atrp lpz, w
pt t tu tru .
T wr wt t w r u t
tr p r r: t r t t w tt wt ur v prv u wt, r
utur r t t wr. dw w r r .
T rrr v u t ppt: t
r t trut; t prt wt pp
t t w. T t t r t ;
t p t ut--r jt r pp; t rrtv, pt t t t tt r.
T (2009) ru tt t t prut tur
t t pt wt tr tr rtr t
r r pr r rwr. Prv wt rwr
tt pt wtr r t t p. T t
tur pu, t t t t, t t t.
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18
i xprt, r xp, 18- 24-t-
t ut r rpp up
rw tt tr ut . a
t pp t t t t tt tur tt vt wt r tr . i rt
xprt, t ut r t r t tr ut
t p t t t t t p wt. mt t
rtur t t t t p vt pprt
wt t ur tr t t
u. T u:
it tur urr ptt r ptt
rp t t vt pt t tr t
t p. it t r t xtr rwr tt
tvt u r p.
Ibid
a p r t p vur prv
rt. cpz tr p t r
pt ut rt r tr; 12-t- r .
Rrr t up tut w 12-t- t
wt w ut tp ppr ttr. T ut tt t r tr ut tr, v t tpr t
t t w. W t rt ut rtur t
r v r t tpr. at t r pt
t t tpr t : t urt wt t ut w
tr t v, r t wr twrt, r
tt t u p, pt ut wr t ut .
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19
otr xprt t t mx P ittut v
pr w u t tr pz
utrprt r . cpz wr v
pt pu tr tw r t t t tr. T rt r vr tr t tr w .
T wu vr t tr w
t tr ur , t xtr t. T pz
pu rt. etr t t urt tt
t tr tr wt t tr ur r t t r.
cr r 25 t t , w rtwt t , vrw t t qut
pt. T pu t r.
T pt r prt xt p
xprt t rp tt. hu t v
rtr pt r r r prt.
cpz t prr pr ttrqur t t prt; t t t, t
prpt t t t pz wr
prt. cr, t tr , w t t
rp ru w t rt rr
trut . ev t r t
wt, t t t qur t up tv.T pt t wr t ut t ut t
trut t p prt , r t
T. a w tt v t trt wt
t pp t t r t t
tr . cpz t t pp
prt u r ut.
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20
T t tt r r -
prtv t t. nr tt ur
tr ur prtv vur. cutur ur
r t prtv w t utuu t t rpp . gut, , rputt,
ru, r, ttut rwr p r
tr prt. T pt :
T vpt trut t
u r r p t.but t rrv t t pr wt prpt
r pu prt.
Ibid
sx rr t t rt dw tr
. T pt x t p ur . Tt w t: t x tr pprtut
t pr tr . F v t u r
utu u t ur pr. T
ru r tr t, urvvr w t prv
t wt t t p tr . Tt
w, r t t t tr xu t, r pr w w
tr . sx rut t
w ptt t r tt
trt. s r x , ru.
J Rur, prr vutr t
str Uvrt, ru tt r t ptt
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21
prtv t. sw tru
u pu rt . T u
r t jut trt t qut t
r ut w tttv t w prt,tr x t pr v t
ut.
sr br hr (2009), prr trp
t t Uvrt cr, tr t rt ur
pt r utu urt t t vut
prtv r. W r tt vpw t r. mtr utr-trr
tr p, p r r w, t p
wt -rr uppt t rut
utr. T t t urvv wu
v t t upprt, w pr-
t t. mtr w prtvr prtv wu v
t p wt v r r, t r r
uu. ar t hr, prtv r
xp t prt r w: t t
v r tv ut t p ut vr-trt
tr. b w r t vt r rw p rr r wu v r
uu t t w wr t rut
t t ut.
T tr v r t rrr
w v rt rut t t r
urt ur tur.
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22
Hunter-gatherers and food
T tt tur, r w vt w, r
r, vrt ttut, w t
rt ptt w t p t rtt t t tr r t tr . yt w
rrr t z t wr t r
-, r tr-r utr-trr t,
t tt v w u v r ur
tu r r t vt rutur
t, t u tt prt w wpr, vwt trr, p qut ptt
t r, utur r
rtr t w.
bw gt wr wt rrr t p
vr t uttu pu 15
- t, r ur tt, r thz t ar t t lr i
t Turuu tr a. T u tt
-rr vur w t t r;
prt w t t trt. a t w-
ut lr, r xp, 63 pr t prpr
t Uttu g v t p qu, t t w v t rr r w. i r
, t lr v t wt tuu r.
ewr, 79 pr t prpr t a
Pru r 40 r 50 pr t 16 pr t r
t v w r t . F tr t t
vp t r.
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23
F r r, r t brtt
brt. mrt uxur w u r trv. but
brt w pt wr. Fr t u tr
t ur w t t rur w tv t prtv . sr t
prprt t t t
t tvt w urt, w w w r rt
t wrr u ut t r
t .
dt tu t t r rr, t !ku ar, w tt vu
rr t vr rtur wt u t
tv tr pt vr . o
w tr rt t r urpu tr
w r. sr p
ur p. T a, r xp, r tr w, rr t. a
pru t 1,000 r pr r ut
qurtr t t, ut tr r wt tr 3 pr
t t t t tu up wt t u
t t (gt t 2005).
it vrtu p r vu t ut rr . hut r rqur p, pt,
rt, ut pt: t
t twr tr w ptt x
u t t v. T wt v t trut t
tr t tr j; t tr v t trut t utr
t r t p.
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24
Prt r wt r w t ut.
F r . aut wt - t
r . Wt utr-trr , r t r
t t pru r ut 20 r. T t ut tr pp v t u pp t
w t r t rt. i t tr
w ut t t wu v r t v
wr pr r t t ut r t r tv
r r .
Rr Wr (2009), prr trp t hrvr, ru tt ur r r
vv u ur tr wr ut w t
t t r t t prv r
r. hut, t ttr rqur
prt rwr trt tprt. m
r , ur tr t w t t rttr t ru t wtut ut wt
tr. T tt t tprt t t wr
r t t r , t rw tr t
r r uu. T tt ut t. W r
t pr uu prtr: pp w u
t ru r wt tr r t t prv t ut t , r, r r.
T w crtpr b u up ur r,
tu t rtrt 154
, tr-r rr t w t
r t t r ru 1.6 r
t t vt rutur ut 12,000 r :
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25
T prtv , ut-
tp t urt
z, w vr, t ru
2030 vu wt t v r t tr. b pt tr
tt tr w w tr rup
tur r tr ur t,
r rt t tr
t t qut tr u
tr r t w p ptt t.
Boehm 2011
evutr t w v w r rv t
ur t rpt ur r t put v
prt. T xp t w tr -trt.mu prt tur, u u prt,
tt-r-tt x: u rt , i rt ur.
T tr xpt t: w r r t
trut twr pp w r ur . W r
prpr t r r , pr v
u, ut t r pp w r r tt rt.Tt-r-tt p xp prt
vr, rt, ft wr, vpr t tr,
ut t t ut r t t ttv
r u prt. hu prt p
w. W prt wt trr, t jut ur w .
W r tt rp wt pp w r t
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26
t rt t r tr .
W prt wt pp - utr v w
tr prpt t rprt.
a prt pr t t trv t x tt rqur tt pt: u r
t r rtur prt vrt. W w
v up r prt w tr prpt
rt rtur t u p u w v u
r u up r t r . W
v r ptt t t prt prtt tr p.
W rv t t prtv vur rt
prtt tr t tr v, ut u
r p r r px rr t
prt.
cprt t t t r ur tur;t wrtt t w w r. W r rwr t r
ut t w tr. our vutr u
p ur t r px pr-v, r
w t ut t t ttr t r
tr rv px pr-v p
prt. mrt nw, prr tt t hrvr, ru SuperCooperators (2011)
tt prt, wt tur t utt,
t t rtv r , p r u.
Tt u w vut prp u twr
prt, utur u up tt , v
utp t t.
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Culture and cooperation
Frt, ut p prt. T r
tt pp ut r r t r
prt . a Rrt Wrt ru (2000)tr u ut u u
tr r tut w pp prt
t rt rr p t r. our pt r rpr
tru, ur pt t r wp vur
wtut p t, t r urt
t tvt wt , r urt t ut. lu p prtt
t rt r rprt. Tt-r-tt prt
u rt i rt ur p
t r . irt
rprt, rr vur , p
u up rputt, w rqur tv .
nw put t tw ut
prt t w:
a ur u tr, trt t
r r pt. W tr wr rpprtut r pt, put, prt
ft wt w pt u
t t upprt tr t ,
r t rt Wt rut
pt v tp wt tr
w -vut, pr twr r r
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pxt u w r v
r put pt ut r
rt prt.
Nowack 2011
s, prt trv r.
our r tr u t v prpr wtut
prt t u prt r,
w tur p r pt t r ut
wt pp t tr. T pt t rjut xpr pt xprt
ut mr hur, rtr t ctv
evut l t hrvr Uvrt ( hur 2006). T
t u t.
i u tr pr r t r
vr rw tr u rw rr twr u, ut tr. T pr w w
t rr t t ur t t t tr. yu u
f wt rrt t rr w wr t
wu w t t ut tt w
pp t t . or u u trw t pr
t xt t u t r tt wu tp trr. i uttr tr, t t t t tw t
t : pr t v pp. W
t pr w p t tu pp ru t
wr, hur u tr rt: t
wu trw t pr t r. W ppr t
rwr t tu tw t tt v
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pp ur pr urt t
tt v pp u rt
qu ur t.
hur tr vutr pt vut r xprt t r
t u: u vutr vt
t r r pt t -r r
, t t pt w ur ur t
t prt. hur ru t v tt
r pt rwr t u w t utwt ttr t tr pp trt tr
pt vw.
hur t ru tt ur tr ur
r. a pt r rt prt
p ut rt w rt utur. Jt
ht, prr p t t Uvrt Vr, ru tt rt t tt (2005).
our tu v t rptr r wt, vur,
t, ttr ur. W w tt t ttr w
t t pu ; t wt, w r rw
t t r. yt vr utur t w u, t w
w t p t tt rptr. T ttrptr uvr ut tt t v ru
p r utur vrt. Jut wt rt: w v
uvr rptr r r, r t,
t tr, tt rt w
u r r, ut utur t w
r rp r t tt.
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d kr (2011) ru tt ur r
r t x w w u t prt
t rt px trt
t t tr prptv t ttu; t r rtt rt ur
t t ur tr t t xp tr; t
w t rv ft r w tt rtr rup
; t ur t r-rr, rr
t w p t trt r
rup w t u tr pwr t qur t r. mrt wrtt t u t, utur,
r rt, ut t t r vut
ptt.
Tr, ur pt r t prtv urp
ut t v, rttu, r, ut,
, rtu w t t u t t w tt ppr rrt r rrw, ut,
-trt pt vw. W rjt w r t
Uttu g u w r rt. gut p
t rtr r t r ru;
trt tt, trptv rt tt
w v rt tr w pt ur w;rtu t -tt tt w t
r t rt t. W t t t tt r
r u, t t rt, x. m
tu w tt w t pur r ru,
pu. W prtv w
urv w w r.
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Conclusions
T ut t vutr r ur pt t
prt w t pru vr. o rt tt
xprt, u t Uttu g, r t trvt t u u ut r . Tr r t t t
xprt, ut tt t t r wrt,
p w t v r rut tr
rpt tu t rt t.
a gt bw pt ut, t r t r
rv r t w pp rr ut p r, u w t u
r r.
s ru tt ur prtv tur r
vutr vr r pr w ur tr
v -t rup t t
prt. T rut tt r, u,trt t t prpt t prt
p: w r tu wt tt tt vp
pt rt r. yt b tr v
w, ur r tr v ur tu
r wr r r pt t t
utr wt trr wr p.T tt ur pt r prt rwr
t u tru vut w r pp wr t
tr, rp w r t t
ptt vt vutr xpt
prt. T ru tt ur predispose u t
prt: w v tr prr t r
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32
ut t w tr pp t jut ur
. but t t tr tt w w
prt, r w. Wt w wt ur t rt
p ur utur ur . Ptr Rr,Rrt b Jp hr, vutr
pt r t Us, r pr xpt -
vut:
it prp ur pp wt
prpt, t pt pt tt r pt prt tru
vr utur ttut our t
p ur t u
r t vut px t, w
utu tr t p t
t.Boyd and Richerson 2005
cprt t w . cr
prt, r rt pt prt
pr-tr qu. i t 1940 50, pp t
t t w t prtv u u tr. Pp prt t w t r
tt tt t w prt v w t r t
r prt wt t tt vv t t t
trut t u.
b Wrt tr Non Zero (2000) r px,
prutv, vtv r r tru t
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rtv pwr prt: pp tt -zr-
u ut, w tr p- r r,
trup zr-u ut, w tr ptt
vr x p rur. Wrt vrt ast : rtv prt uu xp
t rur w v v, wr ptt
uu jut v up wt w v. cprt
generative: t rt r ut t rur.
nw ut prt ,
rv r vut wt r r prt ut w t u:
mutt tur t r t u
t urt . yu prt t.
cprt w t prp rtt 4
r vut. cprt ut t rttr , t r , t px
utur t uprr.
F prt trut ut
cprt rw v ttr upwr
t r v rt. it rt
t pt r rtr vrt wpt, w w v
ur. cprt vut trutv
p W t v r t
rt vrt wr prt
fur w r t rp t rtv t.
Nowack 2011
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34
T qut nw v u wt t: wt
t ur vrt, utur ttut wu tr
t rtv prt w t t pr
tprr pr? hw w tur t t tw prt t pu p prt
ut?
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3. DESIGNING fORCOOPERATION
W v wr vu , rt
ur, w ttr pp wt
t puru tr w vr t , wtut
u t t trt ut. yt w
r t r prtv t w v urv rt r.
Tt t w r utr-trut t t t.W r t prtr: w t t r
rt w t t vur prtv ut u t
rt r t r vv t u
ttr. T t t t t rt,
r tt v pt t p wr
ttr. i p tr, t r t rwr ttt t tr t t r
prtv ut r t.
Framing
i t Prr d, tw pp r r. i tr prt t t 2
t prt t t 5 . cr t p t
prt. but prt t tr t,
t t tr t 10 t prtr t
t t . s t pmore t vu t t,
u t ur prtr w prt. o twt
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36
t pr utrt w t w w
tvt r tr wtr t ppr
prtv. a Us pt l R p
t Prr d wt tw rup; w t ru, ut rup w t t wr p
W strt t tr wr t t w
t cut g. T pr t cut
g prt 70 pr t t t; t W
strt jut 33 pr t t t.
T vu tt r tvt ttr v rt t u. cprt trv r
r, u pp quu r t tr
tur. cprt u rr tr r
u prt ut w t
ur. T v t Uttu g tt pp
rjt w r u t v tu r. b trt r t t.
cprt tt t r ut w p
t xpt xut tr tr w.
T sw t ert Fr rtr
v xpr w r ut uttu :
tr tt r ut pt wtw w wt.
Tt t w r brt: pp
ur t r ur brt t rr
t w t ut prt. T pt
t r pt ut br The Penguin and the
Leviathan:
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37
Wtr u r u ,
wt, r ttut, vu r t
trtut. Fr t t u tt
t tr t prt ut w t prv r vt r prutvt v
. Fr tr t tv u
prt. W r ut r, w
w v tt t t w t trt u r,
w r w t prt r tv.
Benkler 2011
etv t r t t up r
r. cprt t trt r t
ut. o r w p r r t t
tp t tv u, v tr t
brt twrt The Bill, tt t p rt t ur t v t jut r. T Pu g g
w tt pp r prpr t p t t p
put r-rr prtr. nt vr w
tp rwr t vr put, t prprt
w t w rt tr t t
w t rr tv. i r-rr rt t r-r qu tt
pt. o tt pp, r t w
r tv.
i prt rqur t rr t,
tt p t ppt: tr tv
prt prt? T v uuu:
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tr tv uu ru prt. o
t- 128 rtr tu u tt t
rwr t t v tv pt prtv
vur. Pp r t tt p xtr tprt prt p tt tr
prt r t t . Pp w
rr tt rt r t tp prt
t t tr rputt. U tv wr r
t pr ut t v p tv pt
t tr.Fr ttr: tvt r prtv,
t pp w ppr t tt t. Fr vt:
prt trv w pp tt t t
ut t ru t r r. o t tr
, t tv r prt,
ut tr tv rr prt t.
Learning
cprt wr t w tr t r r
pp t r r tr t r tr.
a n crt J Fwr (2009) pt ut Connected,tr tu t trt
t, t r r 57 pr t u
v r w . Jut w r
w t t ut r tr, w
r w t prt p wt r. cpx,
vur, r t t t prut
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39
pp u, r r w pp prt, t
ut (er 2009).
yt t ur t r t
tt pp r v w t trut: t ru t ur u t urv tt w w r
r tr t t tt w u .
T , wvr, t t t r
t ru r prt prtv t. R
r ru rv ut t -t- v--t
pp jut t tr r w t t .o pt er otr tu w rr
r t rur tt
r t t t rv ut t r
rprt, w pr-v w
t t pu t v--t prtv vur
(otr 1990). cprt wr t w t ttrtv r pp t put t rt t rut
tr p prt v (gt t 2005).
ntr vrt rut r t r w
r t pwr tr tv wr wtut
rrvr r tt ut prt. Putv
t r u t rwr r vur rt tv w t r ut t t rtr
trt, rtr t p r t ut. Pp
r prtv vur r tr. b
r u r r t w tr r
r prur r t t ut t
t qut . cprtv ut wr t
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40
wr tr t r p-, ut t p
t p v tru t trt xt wt
vr t t t . i t rut,
w pp wrvr t vt ,pp v t trut prt wt tr.
Communication
Prp t t prtt tr v
prtv ppr wtr pp r tut wt tr. o tu t -1990
Us rrr dv s u tt r t 100
xprt, ut wt tu
ujt vr vr , v prt r
45 pr t w pr wr w t ut -
t-. T prt u ut p t prt r pr: t pp t prt r r
t put tv t tr pr . T r
ur v r t pr, trt putr-
rt t t w r t ut prt.
W t putr tr r pp t r
r r pt. yt t pwr tw t r w pp r u t t tur
ut t prt r tt
t t t ttr. br u:
nt r ut t prt t
ut. T t p; tru t w
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41
t ur prr, , r
tut; t u utu pt; tt wt
r r pprprt wt ur t r;
t u trut urt tr cprtv t r t v t
: T p ut.
Benkler 2011
T ru tt p u pr
vp w t p prt, trt ut wtt ru tur w u t p tr wt uu
rt. J sr Making the Social World
R Tu The Philosophy o Socialityxpr wt
t r t w w rt r rt. T
ru u r uqu p r pt vw
t rt rt, prt t,pt trt rr. sr ru tt t
wr rt ur r tt, wt
p t p t, w w r t r
w rt t , r xp, r up
t w r t t u t
r prt r drt. W ttut rt t w w t rt t tr.
Tt p u w v pt r r
t tt, t r ut t t
w wr ttr. it t jut tt u p
u t prt t wr, t u t rt r
wr ttut rtt.
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Reputation
cprt trv w pp r t u up
rputt r prtr, rputt tt
r t vu ttu. i t t pp t r u rputt, u r
rt r t t tt p r
prt, t t u urpr tt t wtr
w. i prtr t r wt t
ur rr rputt, t w t ut tr.
Rputt-u r w prtv vur rv. i pp t r t tr
tt t r jt up r r tt
t r r tr t w ut. i prtv vur
rv t t r r pt t t r r
ut t ut. c p rur r u
r t w tr tv, p, pr-t-pr tr w t r u r. Pp r
r t t t rv r rur t
tr pu tt t . cprt trv
w pp tr t w vu
rputt ut up prt.
Membership
cprt wt rup t r
t rup rut ttr t
tr u tw prt
v. bw gt prt
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depends r trrup rvr. it p
r r tr wt rup ut
ur rw ru rup t rt
r tt. Tt r wr t v t w rr, trt
ur t t vtv: F, ir, Tw,
spr. ivt t vv t trt
wr , -t rup w ut
t w .
T t tw p pt prt r w t t uuu
. gt ut, ru tv ,
rrupt r p- jurt u
, tr w, t prtv. ev w r
rwr t prt, w t t t wtr
w r prtv r t rt r wt t rtpp. W t t t r prt
w t trw urv t t. W r w t
prt wt, w?
T qut t t rt t urrt t vr
brt. i t pt, t tt r
utur prv wr: w prtwt pp u, w t r brt. but t t
brt r rt vr
t pu w. o t r
prt r ut t Uk tt
pu trtv t r t rp r rt
t rtur tt.
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44
Conclusion
Pp r r t prt w:
t tvt r w tt urprt
tr r rwr r, u tv
t t r-rr
pp r t r r rprt pr-
t-pr r t r t, rtr t tr
tv trt ru, t w t tur prt
tr r t pprtut r ut,
u -t-, t prt pr
t pt r purp
t r prtr t tr u
t r t ut t p pp u up vu rputt pp w
trut t tr r r t wr
pp tt tr r prt t rup.
W r t prtr: w prt w t
t r rt. our prt vr-r pr,r, ru- t tr tv tt
pp t -trt r r xtu ur
utur prt. T t v -
u: t ur t vr -trt vur
t r t .
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45
Wt w t r t, t, pu
p ttut w r t rw ut ur
prtv rtr. T pu p t
t u t rtr t t, t t tt w trt t prp r
prt t p ttv t t r .
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4. COOPERATION POLICyIN ACTION
mr t 5,000 trpr brt prt r t
prtv prp. T prtv tr rw
u tr t t Uk w. yt rw t
tr prtv rt jut ppt
prt p. T pt t t tur vr rt
t prtv ut t w w rt u t r r prtv.
T t prtt ppt prt p
w rr tprr pu p .
Fr w v u t r pr
tru t t rt. Wt w
tur tt t t tru t prt? T t rf t tr p u:
t rt e vr t ur 2011, t
t vr rt, t rr t t.
The riotersT t w t urt t rt t wt wt wr
w t t put t rt tru t prt.
T rt t tt wpt tru brt t
t ur 2011 w ut pu p
prtv utur. T rt ut tt t
h wr t , r pprtut,
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47
tr, ur jut t t ur ur,
pt t t pr pr t p,
r t rupt t t t r tru t vr
rptt.T tt tt r u t t
r prt p wr pu prtv vur
quz t t r, wr ur r
ut wrr t t t t t. Tr tt
p tv r u pp r t tt
t u up rputt r prt tru wr r vur. Tr tt t -
tur . hwvr, r rt u pp,
trt r t rr r
prtv vur: utur. T v u
pp r r r v tr t v
tt t tt t r t t rw pt v u, pt w tr
xp, jurt w t t
t tr p.
T rtr rv tr r t r v
t, tr , w w t
p t w rup pt t u g srt t r t tut t wr prt
t p. a w t p trr, wtut xpt
t rtur, t r ttv u
prt; t rt wr t u pp
up wt trr r Jd sprt ut u t
tt t t u r r. T rt
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wr t prut prtrt p t t
t ut prt, p t
t tt. hw u prt prt
rut?cprt p r-rr pu. s
u t v t t put w t
r. but t ru, prt w t rut
tru t, w ru r v- p. i
t, tt wu u urtr w r -tr ut.
Fr t t ru w rv ut wt : rw prtv r -vr. nr
t lur prt pr rutv rtqu t u
vr r: t tt u pp tr u,
, t ut t w w wtrw
jut r t tt rvv ru . mtr
tv u t r tt t prt prt.a ttr p t trt wu wt t vr
t r: t rrt r v prt.
Wtr t Tur ppr w ttr
t tr p st nwt; t pp w
ut ttr t up wr trt; t
rup w r t rp rr p Ttt; t t t-w--v--up--t
vt t vr t v prt u
t t t r t -tr pu p rp.
o xp wt tt t t prtv
ut- p c ut
Us pt tt ar Fu (2004). c
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ut p ttv trt wt t p rt
tt, w t t v rur, t w t pp
t ut w t w tvt t
u t tv. T t w t wr ttr.Frt, t c p prtt t r
rp rp ut put t t wr ut
pt, t trt, v t t t t t
t rt. T, t ut pt
t t t wt ut ur t r
. Tru t -t- t t ut up trut u tr :
t ruptv r tr ut. T, t
trvr, t r cu erv vt
r t ut, tru t ur, t j
wt p r prr v t t
ru trt rr. T v wr uttu: t u p rt tt
t r w urp tr jt rt t
ut p. cut p wr w t
rt trut t prt ut tt
tur u pt rt.
ittut t tr t rw utr t rw prtv trut. extr trvt,
r p r wr t, w t r
xpr tr fu, rw ut tr
tvt. s-trt -t ur
vu rp prtv. T t
t u tr tvt twr prt.
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The immigrants
ctrvr vr rt r ut
u w w r prpr t prt wt.
at-rt u tt t pr rt t u-f w prtr.
irt v tr w u-utur. F-t-
trt wt pp ut tr ut r rr.
it u rt t p e fut
t ut r r prt ut t
t. T t pr pt rt r-rr, t vt ur w: t t
u u-r urutt w
up t nhs. h v rt r t rt
p vr pt ur t, w
tr ur pt r prt. i rt
u, t rut , t prtv, tutur w pt p. T r bw
gt rt rprt tt prt wt
rup w t rup ttr t
. Fr , rt prv jut tt
, t tt t rtr r tt.
a pt prt w u t t rrtv, t xtt, tt rt r prt. s, t w,
t rtr ur pt r t , rt
t trt t r-rr t
rv ut. yt t u pt br
d, w ut t fu bnP wt
wr r t r rt,
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w wt t rr
ru prtv pt t t rtr vrt.
cprtv p t x rur. it t vt
tt prt w vrw utur vrt.it p w rtv w rp.
a prtv rp wu u t r
r vu wt trut rt : t
r t t t t Uk, t r t
v t u t brt utur. it wu rt w r
rt t u up tr rputt prtr trutr, t tp t vr t rrr
u ut, rt tv t
rt utur. i , t
t trtr tt r tr put r r-
rr w.
W t tur ur rt, r w turt t r r brt w
tt r fu. at vrt brt
utur r tr wr . W v t
w, r rtv pttr prt tt v u,
tut rt, w t j ttr ut.
The bankers
i t Uttu g, w w t t t trt,
prpr v u , uu ut 100,
t t r t tr, t rpr. i t
rpr rjt t r, t w 100 t: t
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t t xprtr. i t vr t ,
t t, rpr rjt r w 25 pr
t (r 25 t ), u t r r
t trt ur. T r 50 pr t, t pp r r t tt. W w
t t ru r, r, prpr
t jut t r t t . it t onlytt t
rpr r t pt r r. Prpr
t r ru. T rut v
vr t w dttr, w trpr t v t pt rjt t r:
v t, w t prpr t rpr t tr
r, t t t r r (kr 2011). mt
pp r t ut ut t trt.
hwvr trt vrt t Uttu
g t ut w tt xp urprt wt t r rp r t
r. i t prpr putr t pp r
r r t pt w r. Pp t t tr
u pt tt r wt putr prr tt
r. T r pr, ru-
vr putr ur x , t t r t ut prt. i tr twt, t tw
pr v tt t w u
t prpr, t t rpr r r t pt
w r. Pp pt tt u prpr rv t
p r t . it t ut t w t p
ut ur t: rup pp, r r xp,
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pru t rt u t r upr-rt, tt tr
rt r vr t wr, w r r
t pt tt t u t u u w ur w
r r w .F, prpr r t vr pt
rpr, prt r , t prpr t
w wt w r u t r r t
rpr w w urut tr pr.
W t Uttu g t up r
utr, wt r pwr, rpr rjtr t rr ur prpr r wt t
ru prtv. but t ru trt
putr t r pp w t v p
w tt t t w w, r
t rpr tv pt wt tr
t t wtvr t , t t t tttwr r t pt.
o rt pp r tv, rt utr
w utru , w r t Uttu
g. o rt pp r r-rr t Pu
g g, w p t prt r tr w pr
v rt. i t t rup, w t r rt rprt, up ru
u t, u up wt t w r
r p v u r t uupprt r
puru r vt,
t t tv, r ut txpr,
w t v t r t t tru r pu
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utrt. Put t tr w: r t t 15 r, brt
t tt x t Uttu g
Pu g g, w t rt 2008
wt t r w wt t p, v u wr t w p t r r t .
T r t pu t tr jut r.
T rt r w wt putr tt
tr rt. Tt p put t ut t rt
t r rt r r r. mrvr,
pp r r t pt ur r t prpr t v p . T ct vt v
rputt r p t t t rtt,
pp p u pxt prur.
T rv utr tt -
trt; r t xpt ur .
it tr wt t t w wt.i 2007, 40 pr t rprt prt t Uk
r t tr. mt t tur ut t ppr-
t. T rt 1,000 t wr rprt pr-tx
prt $800 t r 2007/08, r 150 pr
t r 2000/01. yt t t prt wr u,
t prut r rrw r w rt, t r , t pp w u t
r t rp t, t u prprt tt w tur ut t
vrtu wrt. i t qurtr 2008, t r pr
t jr ru 50 pr t,
rt vu $640 . T t u
w t t r t vur.
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Tr r tr tt trt.
yt tr r r v rp: t oup
vt t p u t rr ur tr
rrt r , prt rprt.T vt t t t ptt w t up r
t r v prt tt t r
v fut.
s-trt r w ut t r.
o prt, t r pu ru tz,
v t t. o prt w v tgr it . o prt tw
a, eurp t Us w v t vp wr
r r r.
cprt trv w prtr
tr. yt t r t v u pt
ut t trut t prtrp wt utr- t,tvt tr . Tt w w r
prt rt prt t t. i t
prt t , t putv tr
vtt r, wr pt , t t utr-
u tr t t tr. Tt wu
v t rt u r r vr r prtv t wr urv.
cprt trv w pp r
rputt pu, ut t t rpt
v t r t tt rputt r
. T r pu p t
r trt t v r gv r h k,
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t r tx t u r tr u r pp.
T tvt r-tr, trprur u
xutv r vt t t utr vr.
yt u prtv u vt, t r ttvt trut. a rtv rup upr-trut
vutr, vr, rr t t t r prt
r wr t. i w wr t t upr-trut
u t wr t wtrw t tr , t ur
t pt t rt prt wu t
w. i w r prpr t u tx p t rwrpttv r-tr, wt p u
pt t prt t qu prtt upr-trut
w r vt t prt? it pu
p t pt b d, w ut t t
prt t upr-trut ur t?
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p r ur, u, vr,
vut t tt p twr, t
tr t pr t pr trt
w pp vr . Pp w tvur prt v w tr r t
vt , rt r-rr v tt trt
w tr rt p t qut tr w v. W
v t wr pp prz t vu r
xpr t t t rt t.
yt t t r prtv rrt, tt t tr rvt. W v t pt
xpt ru, r t tr tv,
w t t rv ut prt. it, w t
u r ut vr r
trut, rtr t t ru, ppr
t pu p w p up t pprtut rprt rtr t t w r t utt.
cprt r r qut rt
u t t prt t t, t
uu r, prt . b
vr , w w urt r
ut w t ut prt tru r,ut, r rputt-u. T w
r wr vur prt,
p rr rtp. sr
prt r r tr t ur utur
wt t r grup ar bb. crt
prt t t rt ur t vtv tvt
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, utur u. crtvt vr
r ut tt r rut ttr
u. ivt t vr jut
t, r t t ru u, r r pt. T rr t wr tt u
rt t t wtr rtp
rprt. a t brz trt Rrt
Ur put t, rt t wr qu t
pt. mw, t rvv pt pr rt
wt t c pt ppr mr kw prtv tzp: tz r t
rtv, u wt tr wt vrt.
Pt trt rt t r w rw
trt vr vt t rt rt
vr, r Pp b, t R Tr, t mr
str Everyday Democracy.nw r prt w t vr v
ur v, r t tt,
t , rur pt, ut ,
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gt bw u t w:
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T h ru tt w t tt
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t . h w wr: ur tt tur prt
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References
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pt--tt--rt
T m (2008) Origins o Human Communication, T miT
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T m (2009) Why We Cooperate, bt Rvw
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Wr R (2009) Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human,Pr
Wrt R (2000) Non Zero: History, Evolution and Human
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POSITIVE IDEAS
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