Is schooling good for Aboriginal children’s health?
Merridy MalinAboriginal Health Council of S.A.
June 2009
Overview: Drawing on a micro-ethnography of one classroom, hypothesise about health promoting
pedagogy
Connections between western schooling and health Connecting the findings of family and classroom micro-
ethnographies Examine the classroom dynamics in one classroom looking at:
– What skills did the Aboriginal children bring from home to school– How did the teacher accommodate those skills in the classroom– What was the status of the Aboriginal children at the end of the
year in that classroom What does research suggest about
– what everyday situations might be stressful to children– the impact of stressful situations on the stress hormones in
children– the impact of stress on health– moderators of stress
Extrapolations on what might be healthful pedagogy
Social Determinants literature
“The health of populations is related to features of society and its social and economic organisation … health is a matter that goes beyond the provision of health services.” Acheson, in Marmot & Wilkinson 1999, p. xi; Carson, Dunbar Chenhall and Bailie 2007, p. 9.
This literature focuses on the social environment rather than health services and individual psychology or behaviour.
Social factors include: housing, transport, racism, employment, social supports, education, etc.
Connection between Health and Education
International literature (Caldwell 1991; Boughton 2000)
Parental education child survival
10% increase in literacy rates associated with
10% decrease in child mortality.Maternal education a child survival
Mothers with more confidence, higher expectations of
medicine, more assertive in seeking health carePopulation literacy levels (Marmot 1999)Years of schooling for self (Marmot 1999)
Australian research
3 proposed pathways: Education employment income health (Tsey)
Maternal employment child health (Ewald &
Boughton)
Education social and emotional well being
From: Terry Dunbar and Margaret Scrimgeour (2007)
Malin researchMalin research
Ethnography4 Adelaide families at home (2 Nunga, 2 Anglo
Australian)
3 classrooms across school year– Participant observation– Intensive interviewing– Videotaping
Reception – Year one classes Low income Adelaide suburban school
ScenarioScenario
Naomi, Jason and Terry were 3 physically
attractive, energetic, bright and curious
Aboriginal five year olds. Outside the
classroom,
they were articulate and confident but inside
the classroom, by the end of the year, they
were in the lowest academic group for their
age, considered troublesome by their teacher,
and were largely ostracised by their non-
Aboriginal peers.
Culture defined
System of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating and acting
(Goodenough 1981)
Assumption: Culture variable & Assumption: Culture variable & constantly changingconstantly changing
People’s behaviours change with age, size of the family and gender
Different generations also vary
Commonalities, enduring traits within cultures eg middle class Australians versus middle class people from the USA
Enduring traits found in this research:
– Childrearing practices
– Communication styles
Parent preferences:Parent preferences: AutonomyAutonomy
Self regulationChildren will put on a jacket when coldWill get something to eat when hungryWill ask for assistance when it is needed
Self reliancePhysically tough, emotionally stoic, streetwise
Teacher response to autonomous childTeacher response to autonomous child
– Great practical competence, ingenuity, independence: Talents not ‘seen’ by teacher
– Not responding to teacher directives first time round:Child seen as disobedient, rebellious
– Not monitoring teacher’s presence sufficiently:Child caught out doing the wrong thing
– Wandering in mind and body while sizing up the situation:Child seen as vague: ‘on another planet’
– Not answering direct questions quickly enough:Child seen as not knowing
– Being assertive in settling disputes:Child seen as aggressive
Parent preferences:Parent preferences: AffiliationAffiliation
Collective responsibility - ‘Caring and sharing’– Sociability and social knowledge– Kinship knowledge– Acts of concern for others
– Sharing with, assisting, supporting another regardless of age
Parent preferences:Parent preferences: AffiliationAffiliation contcont
Nurturance – caring for younger sibling– Awareness of whereabouts– Offering to play, take them somewhere– Carry them– Show them something– Help, feed, give information to them– Draw the attention of another to them altruistically– Explain on their behalf to someone else– Show affection towards them– Express amusement at them in good natured way
Teacher response to affiliative childTeacher response to affiliative child
Sophisticated kin knowledge • Knowledge not ‘seen’ by teacher - invisibility
Monitoring peers for information Being aware of others’ whereabouts Being aware of others’ needs
• If seen, interpreted as being a ‘busy body’
Physical demonstrations of affection, touching, sitting close to
• … distracting
Teacher response to affiliative childTeacher response to affiliative child contcont
Stating achievements collectively “We made …” • …not acknowledged/ noticed
Speaking on behalf of other children• …being ‘busy body’
Drawing attention to others’ achievement• …being ‘busy body’
Lack of practical academic supportLack of practical academic support
Less time on task– Reading aloud at school individually– Instruction time given for individual & small group– Time left to work independently– Time spent in ‘time out’– Encouragement to read at home
Poor quality time– At end of lesson during classroom disturbance– Placement in group below child’s attainment level
Social exclusion by teacherSocial exclusion by teacher
Teacher displayed irritation or dislike of child and did not trust their ability to shoulder responsibility
Nunga students reprimanded and punished more often
Punishments were more severe
Jokes not acknowledged
Teacher did not share her personal stories
Assertions were doubled checked
Seen as behaviour problems
Excessively controlled in daily work
Social exclusion by teacherSocial exclusion by teachercontcont
Correct academic responses were not recognised
Good work received with surprise, scepticism
Their satisfaction at positive feedback interpreted as bragging
Punishments resulted in negative academic outcomes
Social exclusion by peersSocial exclusion by peers
After Nunga children were censured: Other students ostracised them
– Refused to play with them– Moved away from them – Made faces at them
Nunga children responded by:– Pleading for acceptance– Offering food or money– Expressing anger– Social withdrawal– Angry outbursts at teacher and peers– Seeking repeated affirmation of work from teacher
General outcomeGeneral outcome
Invisibility syndrome– Achievements not seen
Failures highly visible in – low expectations – not trusted– punishments
Evidence of distress– Seeking repeated affirmation of work from teacher– Angry outbursts with friends– Angry outbursts with teacher
Family, environment, stress & health Family, environment, stress & health during childhoodduring childhood – MV Flinn 1999
10 year ethnographic study of 264 children, aged
2 months - 18 years
Marker of stress was cortisol, obtained from saliva swabs taken randomly several times per day
Diary kept of events immediately before swab
Chronically stressed children had Chronically stressed children had higher levels of cortisol and higher levels of cortisol and
experienced more illnessexperienced more illness
“Chronically Stressed” - involved 2 or more events of – parental conflict, – mild abuse or neglect, – an anxious or inhibited temperament, – parent alcoholism, – few friends, – involvement in theft, fighting, running away,
punishment, quarrelling, embarrassment
Racism, Poverty, etc.
Daily Stress
DailyFlight-Fright response
Flight-Fright response
Sympathetico-adrenaline pathway:
• Increased heart rate• Increased metabolic rate • Increase blood pressure• Constriction of blood vessels• Increased perspiration.
In the longer term
Sympathetico-adrenaline pathway:
Affects immune system, blood clotting, inflammation & anincreased susceptibility to all major diseases
Adaptive for short lived stress (for flight) but
Hypothesised biological pathwayHypothesised biological pathway
Moderators of stressModerators of stress
Social support (Stansfield 1999, Syme 1998, Cobb 1976)
– Emotional support - Information to help resolve problems; Access to support networks; Boosting self-esteem by others
– Instrumental or practical support – resources, money Cultural factors (Jackson & Sellers 1998; Niles 1999: Syme 1998)
– Strong sense of cultural identity– Shared sense of spirituality– Family support– Associating with members of one’s cultural community
Individual temperament & personality
Education & social and emotional well Education & social and emotional well beingbeing
Hypothesis: Education will enhance the SEWB of children if offering:
Social support– Emotional support-Information to help resolve problems; Boosting
of self-esteem by others– Instrumental or practical support including sound teaching
methodologies
Cultural support / inclusion:– Strong sense of cultural identity– Family support– Associating with members of one’s cultural community
Sandi Hudspith’s research
Learning to Belong: An Ethnography of Urban Aboriginal Schooling. PhD thesis, Charles Darwin University 1996
School – Health connection hypothesisSchool – Health connection hypothesis
Health effects of schooling may be cancelled out in Australian contexts by marginalising processes of colonisation.
School failure is partly the result of marginalising practices.
Commonplace practices can marginalise unintentionally and create stress
Socially supportive and ‘inclusive’ practices which facilitate child learning most probably promote child health
Concluding statementConcluding statement
Health does impact on the child’s accessibility to education
Western education is likely to be health promoting for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children if it offers ‘social support’ and is ‘culturally and socially inclusive’
References
Boughton, B. 2000. What is the connection between Aboriginal Education and Aboriginal Health? Occasional Paper series, Issue 2, CRCATH, Darwin
Brunner, E.J. and Marmot, M.G. 1999. Social organization, stress and health. In M.G. Marmot & R.G. Wilkinson (eds), Social Determinants of Health. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Caldwell, J & Caldwell, P. 1991. What have we learnt about the cultural, social and behavioural determinants of health? Health Transitions Review, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3-17.
Dunbar, T & Scrimgeour, M. 2007. Education. In Carson, B., Dunbar, T. Chenhall, R.D. & Bailie, R (eds.), Social Determinants of Indigenous Health. Allen & Unwin. Crows Nest
Flinn, M.V. 1999. Family environment, stress, and health during childhood. In C. Panter-Brick & C.M. Worthman (eds.), Hormones, Health and Behaviour: A Socio-ecological and lifespan perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 105-318.
References cont.
Gallaher, G, Ziersch, A, Baum, F, Bentley, M, Palmer, C, Edmondson, W & Winslow, L. 2009. In Our Own Backyard: Urban Health Inequities and Aboriginal Experiences of Neighbourhood Life, Social Capital and Racism. Adelaide: Flinders University.
Goodenough, W. 1981. Culture Language and Society. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Modular Publications, No. 7.
Malin, M. 2003. Is Schooling Good for Aboriginal Children’s Health? Occasional paper series, no. 3, pp. 312-29.
Malin, M 1997. Mrs. Eyers is no ogre: A micro-study in the exercise of power. In G. Cowlishaw and B. Morris (Eds.), Race Matters: Indigenous Australians and 'Our' Society. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, pp.139-158.
Tsey, K. 1997. Aboriginal self-determination, education and health: Towards a radical change in attitudes to education. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, vol. 21, pp. 77-83.
Contact Details
Merridy Malin
Aboriginal Health Council of South Australia
Phone: 8132 6700
THANK YOU
Racism & Mental Health
Rollock and Gordon (2006) and Miliora (2000) found racism Generates internal stresses in individuals resulting in mental health
problems. Can lead to limitations in lifestyles ; can lead to depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and chronic physical health problems.
Gallaher, G, Ziersch, A, et al, (2009) survey of 153 Aboriginal people in Adelaide found:
– Substantially lower levels of trust in institutions among the Aboriginal people when compared with non-Indigenous people
– 93% of Aboriginal people reported experiencing racism at least sometimes
– 66% experienced it often
Responses to racism (Gallaher et al)
People believed that the experiences with racism impacted on both their physical and mental health.
94% reported they felt frustrated/angry or annoyed
69% avoided situations in response
Over 66% reported physical responses including headaches, stomach aches, pounding heart, shaking
More than 50% reported feeling ashamed, humiliated, anxious, fearful, powerless, hopeless, depressed
People who regularly experienced racism were more likely than not to have poor mental health
Upstream - Midstream- Downstream
Social determinants
EmploymentHousing
EducationRacismIncome
GovernmentPolicies
Economic, Welfare, Health
Housing, transport, taxation
Psychosocial Factors
NetworksSocial Support
Control
Stress
Culture
Beliefs
Values
Norms
Biological reactions
Hypertension
Adrenalin
Glucose intolerance
Physiological systems
Endocrine
Immune
Health Behaviours
Smoking
Alcohol
Addictive behavioursSuppressed immune
function
Global Forces
Self esteem
Isolation, anger
The control factor
Mapping the pathway from employment to ill health - Whitehall study
– The lower in the hierarchy the poorer the health of white, middle-class bureaucrats
– High demands at work and little discretion for how the demands are dealt with
In the industrialised world for almost every disease there is a stepwise gradient
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