DEV
ELO
PM
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T P
APERS 2
1-0
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ESCAP
SOUTH AND SOUTH-WEST ASIA
OFFICE
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SDGs IN BANGLADESH: DOMESTIC CHALLENGES AND REGIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Fahmida Khatun
Syed Yusuf Saadat
April 2021
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Disclaimer: The views expressed in this Development Paper are those of the author(s) and
should not necessarily be considered as reflecting the views or carrying the endorsement of
the United Nations. Development Papers describe research in progress by the author(s) and
are published to elicit comments and to further debate. This publication has been issued
without formal editing.
For any further details, please contact:
Dr. Nagesh Kumar, Director
South and South-West Asia Office (SSWA)
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
C-2 Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi-110016, India
Email: [email protected]
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
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Contents
Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. 5
Foreword ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 10
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 11
2. SDGs Progress in Bangladesh: An Overview of Trends ......................................................... 12
3. Challenges of SDG Implementation in Bangladesh ................................................................. 30
3.1 Aligning policies ................................................................................................................. 30
3.2 Establishing institutional architecture ................................................................................. 33
3.3 Mobilising funds ................................................................................................................. 36
3.4 Generating data ................................................................................................................... 39
3.5 Developing partnerships ..................................................................................................... 43
4. Regional Priorities, Instruments and Institutions for SDGs delivery ...................................... 46
4.1 Regional priorities for sustainable development ................................................................. 47
4.2 Regional instruments and institutions ................................................................................. 49
4.3 Towards a model of regional cooperation .......................................................................... 56
5. COVID-19 and the SDGs in Bangladesh.................................................................................. 59
5.1 Impact of COVID-19 on the progress of the SDGs in Bangladesh .................................... 60
5.2 Measures taken by the Government to Counter the Impacts of COVID-19 ....................... 67
5.3 Effect of COVID-19 on Regional Cooperation in South Asia: Areas of Cooperation and a
Shared Future Pathway ............................................................................................................. 70
6. Concluding Remarks ................................................................................................................. 72
References ..................................................................................................................................... 75
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
List of Tables
Table 1: Proportion of SDG indicators aligned with 7FYP ....................................................................... 31
Table 2: Policies, acts, strategies, programmes or plans of GoB aligned with the SDGs ........................... 32
Table 3: Institutions responsible for SDG implementation in Bangladesh ................................................. 33
Table 4: SDG implementation projects and programmes of GoB, by indicator ......................................... 35
Table 5: Total additional synchronised SDG financing requirements in Bangladesh ................................ 36
Table 6: SDG financing options available for Bangladesh ........................................................................ 38
Table 7: Proportion of SDG data available in Bangladesh compared to global average ............................ 39
Table 8: Ongoing and planned projects under Statistics and Informatics Division .................................... 41
Table 9: Some examples of Bangladesh’s SDG partnerships and commitments ....................................... 43
Table 10: Primary SDG involvement of partners of the Citizen’s Platform ............................................... 45
Table 11: Approaches and modalities to operationalise the five connectivity model of regional cooperation
for South Asia ............................................................................................................................................. 58
Table 12: Potential number of jobs lost due to slower economic growth under different economic growth
scenarios ...................................................................................................................................................... 64
Table 14: COVID-19 funds announced by the government ....................................................................... 68
List of Figures
Figure 1: SDG 1.1.1 Poverty headcount ratio at national upper poverty line ............................................. 13
Figure 2: SDG 2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment (3-year average) .................................................... 14
Figure 3: SDG 3.1.1 Maternal deaths (per 100,000 births) ......................................................................... 15
Figure 4: SDG 4.1.1 Lower secondary completion rate, both sexes (percentage) ...................................... 15
Figure 5: SDG 5.3.1 Women who were first married by age 18 (percentage of women ages 20-24) ........ 16
Figure 6: SDG 6.2.1 People using at least basic sanitation services (percentage of population)............... 17
Figure 7: SDG 7.1.1 Access to electricity (percentage of population) ....................................................... 18
Figure 8: SDG 8.1.1 GDP per capita growth rate (in percentage) at constant prices ................................. 19
Figure 9: SDG 9.2.1 Share of manufacturing in GDP (percentage) at constant prices ............................... 20
Figure 10: SDG 10.1.1 Income share of bottom 40 per cent (percentage of national income)................... 21
Figure 11: SDG 11.1.1 Population living in slums (percentage of urban population) ................................ 22
Figure 12: SDG 12.2.1 Total natural resources rents (percentage of GDP) ................................................ 23
Figure 13: SDG 13.1.1 Number of households affected by natural disasters, by type of disaster .............. 24
Figure 14: SDG 14.4.1 Total fisheries production (metric tonnes) ............................................................. 25
Figure 15: SDG 15.1.1 Forest area (percentage of land area) ..................................................................... 26
Figure 16: SDG 16.1.1 Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) .......................................................... 27
Figure 17: SDG 17.1.1 Tax revenue (percentage of GDP) ......................................................................... 29
Figure 18: Five-connectivity model of regional cooperation for South Asia ............................................. 57
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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Abbreviations
3R Reduce, Reuse & Recycle
7FYP 7th Five Year Plan
ACU Asian Clearing Union
ADB Asian Development Bank
AH Asian Highway
AIIB Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
APDIM Asian and Pacific Centre for the Development of Disaster Information Management
AP-IS Asia-Pacific Information Superhighway
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BaU Business-as-Usual
BBIN-MVA Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal Motor Vehicle Agreement
BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
BCCSAP Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan
BCIM Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar Forum for Regional Cooperation
BDT Bangladeshi Taka
BEEA Bangladesh Environmental Economic Accounting
BIMSTEC Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
BRI Belt and Road Initiative
CAPSA Centre for Alleviation of Poverty through Sustainable Agriculture
CASM Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Mechanisation
CCAC Climate and Clean Air Coalition
CGE Computable General Equilibrium
CPD Centre for Policy Dialogue
CSOs Civil Society Organisations
DFQF Duty-Free Quota- Free
ECDS Environment, Climate Change and Disaster Statistics
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
FATF Financial Action Task Force
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FRSS Fisheries Resources Survey System
GAVI Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GED General Economics Division
GNI Gross National Income
GoB Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh
GPEDC Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation
HFS Health Financing Strategy
HIES Household Income and Expenditure Surveys
HLPF High Level Political Forum
HNPSP Health Nutrition and Population Sector Program
ISMs International Support Measures
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IXPs Internet Exchange Points
JMP Joint Monitoring Programme
LDC Least Developed Country
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
MWh Megawatt hour
NEET Not in Employment, Education or Training
NDCC National Data Coordination Committee
NGOs Non-governmental Organisations
NPL Non-Performing Loans
NSDS National Sustainable Development Strategy
NSOs National Statistical Organisations
NSSS National Social Security Strategy
NWDP National Women Development Policy
ODA Official Development Assistance
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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PEDP-3 Primary Education Development Programme
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
RIMES Regional Integrated Multi-hazard Early Warning System
RMG Ready-Made Garments
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SACEP South Asia Comprehensive Economic Partnership
SAFTA South Asian Free Trade Area
SARSO South Asian Regional Standards Organisation
SASEC IH South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation Information Highways
SATIS SAARC Agreement on Trade in Services
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SE4ALL Sustainable Energy for All
SMEs Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
SWAPNO Strengthening Women’s Ability for Productive New Opportunities
TAR Trans-Asian Railway
UMN Integrated Database of Undocumented Myanmar Nationals
UN United Nations
UN-CDP United Nations Committee for Development Policy
UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
UNESCO United Nations Scientific Educational and Cultural Organisation
UNDESA United Nations Department of Department of Economic and Social Affairs
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
UNODC UN Office on Drugs and Crime
USD United States Dollar
VNR Voluntary National Review
WHO World Health Organisation
WFP World Food Programme
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Foreword
The Development Papers Series of the ESCAP South and South-West Asia Office (ESCAP-
SSWA) promotes and disseminates policy-relevant research on the development challenges facing
South and South-West Asia. It features policy research conducted at ESCAP-SSWA as well as by
outside experts from within the subregion and beyond. The objective is to foster an informed
debate on development policy challenges facing the subregion and sharing of development
experiences and best practices.
This paper by Fahmida Khatun and Syed Yusuf Saadat is prepared as a part of the research and
policy initiative titled, Interpreting SDGs for South Asia: In Search of a Regional Framework,
undertaken by the UNESCAP-SSWA Office in collaboration with the Centre for Policy Dialogue
(CPD), Dhaka jointly directed by Dr. Debapriya Bhattacharya, Distinguished Fellow at CPD, and
the undersigned. With more than five years into the implementation of the 2030 Agenda, world
leaders have now called for a “Decade of Action” spanning from 2020-2030 to mobilize action at
all levels and accelerate sustainable solutions to deliver the SDGs. This presents a timely
opportunity to assess the current status of South Asian countries in terms of progress and existing
gaps to identify and address the key challenges for accelerating the implementation of the SDGs.
While the unprecedented challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic is threatening progress
towards the SDGs, it also makes their achievement more critical than ever. The principles on which
the SDGs were established are key to building back better for post-COVID-19 recovery and
meeting the goals of the 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement on climate change. Against this
background, the overall objective is to explore mutual areas for regional cooperation in the
subregion from the perspective of various South Asian countries to promote SDG delivery at
national level and support SDG implementation within a regional framework.
This paper provides an overview of Bangladesh’s efforts, challenges and opportunities ahead for
achieving the SDGs and addressing the gaps in SDGs implementation. With steady and high
economic growth along with strong macroeconomic stability, rise in per capita income, reduction
in poverty, improved health and education outcomes, Bangladesh has made good progress in
achieving various socio-economic and human development objectives. Bangladesh fulfilled all
three criteria for graduation to developing country in March 2018 and seeks to ensure a smooth
transition from LDC status and to integrate graduation challenges with national SDG
programming. However, environmental sustainability remains an urgent priority with the longer-
term challenge of sustainable management of water and land resources, along with cascading risks
of natural disasters and climate change. The far-reaching and mutually reinforcing socio-economic
effects of the COVID-19 pandemic has impeded progress towards the SDGs through direct and
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
9
indirect impacts across the Goals. This calls for accelerated action, strong partnerships and
collective commitment from all stakeholders to build on the momentum of the Decade of Action
to achieve the SDGs by 2030.
In this context, the paper undertakes an important and timely exercise to take stock of challenges
in SDG implementation; reflect on the impact of the pandemic on SDGs achievement in the
country and identify national SDG priorities for regional cooperation to accelerate the 2030
Agenda for Bangladesh along with providing a South Asian perspective through an examination
of the existing connectivity gaps.
We hope that insights and policy implications drawn in this paper would provide useful and
pragmatic lessons for policymakers for raising the efficacy of the SDGs implementation process
in the current decade. The critical policy insights provided in the paper would make meaningful
contributions to the ongoing deliberations on how greater integration and cooperation at the
regional level could be an important complement to the national strategies in achieving sustainable
development.
Nagesh Kumar
Head, ESCAP South and South-West Asia Office
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh: Domestic
Challenges and Regional Considerations
Fahmida Khatun and Syed Yusuf Saadat 1
Abstract
Bangladesh made significant progress in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
winning global acclaim. It is expected that the country will be able to continue its success in
implementing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as well. The SDGs represent a wider
spectrum of highly interconnected goals and indicators, so they could pose new challenges for the
country. Furthermore, many SDG targets are transnational in nature, transcending national
boundaries. Achievement of those SDGs, will thus, depend on collaborative efforts at the regional
and global levels. It is essential from Bangladesh’s perspective to understand how peaceful
cooperation and prudent diplomacy among the South Asian countries can be conducive in
achieving sustainable development. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic brought along with it
a new set of challenges and a whole “new normal”. Given the significant setback caused by the
COVID-19 pandemic, it is unlikely that any South Asian country, or any country in the world, will
be able to achieve all the SDGs by 2030. It is proposed that if South Asian countries focus on
strengthening various types of connectivity, as identified in the five-connectivity model, they can
accelerate the achievement of the SDGs, and reduce the adverse impacts of the pandemic in the
region.
JEL Code(s): Q01, O11, O20, F55, Q56
Key words: Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Inclusive growth, Regional Cooperation,
South Asia, Bangladesh
1 Dr. Fahmida Khatun is the Executive Director of the Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD), Bangladesh and Syed Yusuf
Saadat is senior research associate, CPD. The authors are grateful for the overall guidance and peer review of Dr.
Nagesh Kumar, Head at UNESCAP-SSWA. The contribution of Dr. Rajan Sudesh Ratna (Economic Affairs Officer),
Ms. Swayamsiddha Panda (Research Assistant), Ms. Kanika Gupta (Consultant) and interns from UNESCAP-SSWA
office in providing valuable inputs and editing the paper is acknowledged. The views expressed in this paper are those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Secretariat.
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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1. Introduction
Since its independence in 1971, Bangladesh has transformed itself from being the test case for
development (Faaland & Parkinson, 1976) to a development miracle (Sawada, Mahmud, & Kitano,
2018). The government of Bangladesh (GoB) is committed to achieving the SDGs by 2030.
Bangladesh was among the 43 countries which submitted their Voluntary National Review (VNR)
report on the SDGs at the High Level Political Forum (HLPF) in 2017 (GED, 2017a) and it
presented its VNR for the second time in 2020 (Government of Bangladesh, 2020). The
government has also published reports (GED, 2018a; 2020) highlighting the progress made on
SDG implementation so far.
As a signatory of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Bangladesh is engaged in
implementing the SDGs since their adoption and has played an active role in shaping the global
discourse on the relevance of the SDGs. The government has involved various stakeholders within
the country in implementing the SDGs relying on a ‘whole-of-society approach’. Nevertheless,
implementation of the SDGs in developing countries, such as in Bangladesh, face constraints, such
as alignment of the SDGs with national, subnational and local-level development plans;
establishment of institutional architecture that can deliver the SDGs; mobilisation of funds;
generation of data for monitoring and evaluation; and development of effective partnerships for
multi-stakeholder participation (Bhattacharya , Khan, Rezbana, & Mostaque, 2016; Bhattacharya,
Khan, & Sabbih, 2016). With more than five years into the adoption of the SDGs, it is useful to
revisit these challenges to assess the progress of SDGs implementation in Bangladesh. Along
with these domestic challenges, regional contexts and challenges must be considered for successful
implementation of the SDGs at the country level. With South Asian countries comprising 34 per
cent of people living in poverty globally, the subregion plays a pivotal role in the success, or lack
thereof, of the implementation of the SDGs globally (UNESCAP, 2018a). For implementing the
SDGs, South Asian countries should focus on seven key policy priorities such as employment,
infrastructure, universal access to education and health, universal social protection and financial
inclusion, food security, gender equality, and environmental sustainability (UNESCAP, 2018a).
From Bangladesh’s perspective, this paper examines the challenges in SDGs implementation and
explores how regional cooperation can be conducive to addressing these priorities and achieving
the SDGs in South Asia.
The following section provides an overview of SDG implementation in Bangladesh using
select SDG indicators. It is based on secondary analysis of quantitative data based on select
measurable SDG indicators which have readily available and reliable data. The next section
presents an assessment of the abovementioned five SDG implementation challenges from the
perspective of Bangladesh. Then, it identifies regional priorities, instruments and institutions
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
needed to achieve the SDGs in South Asia. Given the unprecedented challenges posed by the
COVID-19 pandemic, this study examines the potential setbacks caused in achieving the SDGs in
Bangladesh. Further, it explores the elements of possible national and regional strategies for
building back better. Finally, the paper provides a few concluding remarks.
2. SDGs progress in Bangladesh: An overview of trends
This section provides an overview of the progress made on various SDGs in Bangladesh
using select SDG indicators.
SDG 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere
The proportion of population living below the national upper poverty line2 in Bangladesh
has fallen from 56.7 per cent in 1991-92 (BBS, 1995) to 24.3 per cent in 2016 (BBS, 2017) (Figure
1). To reach the milestone of having a maximum of 18.6 per cent of the population living below
the national upper poverty line (GED, 2018a), the rate of poverty reduction needs to be increased.
Poverty rate has declined substantially at national, urban, and rural levels (BBS, 1995) (BBS,
2017). Moreover, the total number of poor has been reduced from 83 million in 1992 to 39.6
million in 2016 with more than 43 million people being lifted out of poverty within 24 years (BBS,
1995) (BBS, 2017).
Bangladesh has made tremendous improvements in reducing extreme poverty. Recent
estimates suggest that the percentage of population living below the national poverty line
decreased to 21.8 per cent in 2018 and 20.5 per cent in 2019 (GoB, 2020). Nevertheless, the pace
of poverty reduction has been slowing down. Between the period 2005 and 2010, poverty rates fell
by 1.7 per cent annually, whereas between the period 2010 and 2016, poverty rates fell by 1.2 per
cent annually (GED, 2018a). With the last mile approaching, Bangladesh will find it challenging
to repeat its miraculous poverty reduction record of the past.
2 Upper and lower poverty lines are calculated as follows: i) a basic food basket (eleven food items: coarse rice, wheat,
pulses, milk, oil, meat, fish, potatoes, other vegetables, sugar, and fruits) is selected; ii) the quantities in the basket are
scaled according to the nutritional requirement of 2122 kilo calorie per person per day; iii) cost of acquiring the basket
is calculated. This estimated cost is taken as Food Poverty Line (FPL). Households whose total expenditures are equal
to the food poverty line are on the Lower Poverty Line. Households whose food expenditure is at the level of food
poverty line are on the Upper Poverty Line. (BBS, 2017).
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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Figure 1: SDG 1.1.1 Poverty headcount ratio at national upper poverty line (percentage of population
living below national upper poverty line)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES),
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS).
Bangladesh has also managed to expand the coverage of its social safety net programmes.
The proportion of households receiving social safety net benefits increased from 13 per cent in
2005 to 27.8 per cent in 2016 (BBS, 2017). Social safety net allocation has been hovering at around
14 per cent of the total national budget during the ten period from fiscal year (FY) 2008-09 to FY
2018-19 (MOF, 2019). Two-thirds of the beneficiaries of social safety net programmes are non-
poor, but enjoy 75 per cent of the benefits (GoB, 2020). Additionally, the bulk of funds allocated
for social safety nets is earmarked to provide pension for government officials (MOF, 2019).
Therefore, in order to ensure that the ‘farthest behind are reached first’ it is important to improve
beneficiary targeting and selection, decouple pension of government officials from the social
safety net budget allocation, and gradually shift from the humanitarian approach of safety nets to
the rights-based approach of social protection (Khatun & Saadat, 2018b).
SDG 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture
Hunger, as measured by the share of undernourished population, fell from 20.8 per cent in
2000 to 16.3 per cent in 2007 (FAO, 2018a) (Figure 2). However, there was a rise in hunger in the
subsequent few years which led to the share of undernourished population reaching 17 per cent in
2012 (FAO, 2018a). A possible reason behind the sudden rise in hunger could be the widespread
flooding that occurred in 2007, which caused serious damage to crops (UNICEF, 2007). However,
the share of undernourished population declined to 15.2 per cent in 2016 (FAO, 2018a). This is
still a matter of serious concern for Bangladesh, since it represents more than 25 million people.
56.748.9
4031.5
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South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Figure 2: SDG 2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment (3-year average) (percentage of population)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) estimates
In 2014, the share of underweight children under the age of 5 years was 33 per cent
(NIPORT, Mitra and Associates, ICF International, 2016). On the other hand, the shares of stunted
and wasted children under 5-years were 28 per cent and 9.8 per cent respectively in 2019 (GoB,
2020). Therefore, further improvements in children’s health status are required to achieve the
milestones of having not more than 25 per cent stunting rate and 12 per cent wasting rate among
children aged less than 5 years of age by 2020. Research has shown that undernourishment costs
the economy more than United States Dollar (USD) 1 billion per year in lost productivity
(Howlader, Sethuraman, Begum, Paul, & Sommerfelt, 2012).
SDG 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Maternal deaths per 100,000 births decreased from 648 in 1986 to 315 in 2001, then
increasing to 391 in 2002 and continuing on this upward trajectory till 2009 (BBS, 2019b). Since
2009, maternal deaths have been falling continuously every year, and in 2019 there were 165
maternal deaths per 100,000 births (BBS, 2019b) (Figure 3). To achieve the milestone of having a
maximum of 105 maternal deaths per 100,000 births by 2020, urgent steps must be taken.
Disparities in maternal deaths in rural and urban areas have been reduced over the years.
For example, in 1995 there were 72 more maternal deaths per 100,000 births in rural areas
compared to urban areas, but in 2005 there were only 25 more maternal deaths per 100,000 births
in rural areas compared to urban areas (BBS, 2019b). In addition to the fall in maternal deaths,
infant deaths have also fallen over the years. Mortality rate of children below the age of 5 years
decreased from 102.8 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1997 to 32.4 deaths per 1,000 live births in
2017 (World Bank, 2019a). Neonatal mortality rate, or the number of neonates dying before
reaching 28 days of age, decreased from 47.9 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1997 to 18.4 deaths
per 1,000 live births in 2017 (World Bank, 2019a). Bangladesh has already achieved the national
milestones for 2020 for both under-five and neonatal mortality rates.
0
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1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
Per
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Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
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Figure 3: SDG 3.1.1 Maternal deaths (per 100,000 births)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on Bangladesh Sample Vital Statistics, BBS (various years)
The decline in maternal and infant deaths can be attributed to improvements in health
infrastructure availability. The proportion of births attended by skilled healthcare service providers
increased from 20.1 per cent in 2006 to 49.8 per cent in 2016 (World Bank, 2019b). The number
of nurses per 10,000 people increased from 1.6 in 2007 to 3.1 in 2017 and the number of physicians
per 10,000 people increased from 3.2 in 2007 to 5.3 in 2017 (UN, 2019d).
SDG 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all
The lower secondary completion rate for both sexes increased from 48.8 per cent in 1998
to 58.9 per cent in 2003 and stood at 77.6 per cent in 2017 (UNESCO, 2019). (Figure 4).
Interestingly, during the period 1998 to 2017, the lower secondary completion rate has been higher
for females compared to males. In 2002 the lower secondary completion rate was 16.6 per cent
higher for females compared to males (UNESCO, 2019).
Figure 4: SDG 4.1.1 Lower secondary completion rate, both sexes (percentage)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Accessed at http://uis.unesco.org/
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
7001
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South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Primary completion rate increased from 64.3 per cent in 2005 to 118.6 in 2017 (UNESCO,
2019). Completion rates above 100 per cent indicate that some students may be failing their classes
and repeating the same grade (Right to Education Initiative, 2017). In 2001, literacy rates were
lower among female youth aged 15-24 years, compared to males. However, gender parity index
of youth literacy rate has been very close to, or within, the upper and lower bounds of parity since
2012 (UN, 2019d). Literacy rate of the adult population, aged 15 and above, increased from 35.3
per cent in 1991 to 47.5 per cent in 2001 with youth literacy rates being higher than adult literacy
during 1991-2017 (UNESCO, 2019). Youth literacy rates are higher for females since 2007,
indicating that Bangladesh has managed to improve access to education for females during the
period 2007-2017.
SDG 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
The percentage of women between ages 20 to 24 years old who were first married by the
age of 18 years old decreased from 73.3 per cent in 1994 to 58.6 per cent in 2014 (World Bank,
2019a) (Figure 5). Similar progress was also recorded for the first marriage of women by the age
of 15 years old. The percentage of women between ages 20 to 24 years old who were first married
by the age of 15 years old decreased from 47.2 per cent in 1994 to 22.4 per cent in 2014 (World
Bank, 2019a). Despite improvement, these numbers are nonetheless appalling since when women
get married early, it substantially compromises their ability to study and participate in the labour
market. Female share of employment in senior and middle management increased from 10.9 per
cent in 2006 to only 11.5 in 2017, reflecting that more progress is needed for economic
empowerment of women (ILO, 2019a).
Figure 5: SDG 5.3.1 Women who were first married by age 18 (percentage of women ages 20-24)
Source: Based on data from Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) database, World Bank
0
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1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
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Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
17
Gender based violence has been a barrier to women’s empowerment in Bangladesh. In
2015, as high as 55 per cent of women who were ever-married and 65 per cent of women who
were currently married reported suffering from violence inflicted by their partners (BBS, 2016a).
Many incidents of violence against women remained unreported. In 2015, an estimated 72.7 per
cent of ever-married women in Bangladesh did not disclose their experiences of violence to anyone
(BBS, 2016a). This means that the prevalence of violence against women may be far worse than
illustrated by the findings of the official surveys.3
SDG 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
The proportion of the total population with access to basic sanitation services increased
from 25.3 per cent in 2000 to 46.9 per cent in 2015 (WHO/UNICEF, 2019) (Figure 6).
Additionally, the gap between rural and urban sanitation access has narrowed. In 2000, rural areas
had 20 per cent lower access to basic sanitation compared to urban areas, but in 2015 this difference
was reduced to 10 per cent (WHO/UNICEF, 2019).
Open defecation has almost been eliminated from Bangladesh. In 2005, the percentage of
the population practicing open defecation was 12 per cent at the national level and 15 per cent in
rural areas, coming down to near zero rates by 2015 (WHO/UNICEF, 2019). Percentage of
population using at least basic drinking water services increased from 96 per cent in 2005 to 97
per cent in 2015 (WHO/UNICEF, 2019), but access to safely managed drinking water remains a
challenge.
Figure 6: SDG 6.2.1 People using at least basic sanitation services (percentage of population)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for
Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene
3 In fact, according to Ain o Salish Kendra (ASK), a legal aid and human rights organisation, 409 women were victims of domestic
violence, 116 women were victims of sexual harassment,195 women were victims of physical torture for dowry and 22 women
were victims of acid attack in 2018 (ASK, 2019). Furthermore, 732 women were raped in 2018, of whom 63 were murdered after
rape and 7 committed suicide (ASK, 2019).
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SDG 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
Access to electricity in Bangladesh has increased rapidly in the past two decades along
with decline in rural-urban disparities in energy access. Only 8.5 per cent of the population had
access to electricity in 1990 whereas 75.9 per cent of the population had access to electricity in
2016 (World Bank, International Energy Agency, and Energy Sector Management Assistance
Program, 2019) (Figure 7). Access to electricity was 53.5 per cent lower in rural areas compared
to urban areas in 1991, falling to 25.1 per cent in 2016 (World Bank, International Energy Agency,
and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2019). Various short-term and long-term
measures, such as importing power and increasing installed capacity, has been responsible for
improving electricity access to households.
Figure 7: SDG 7.1.1 Access to electricity (percentage of population)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on World Bank, Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) database
However, increased access to electricity was provided mainly through power generated by
fossil fuels. In 2018, natural gas was used to generate 63.5 per cent of all electricity in Bangladesh,
while hydroelectric and solar power generated only 1.6 per cent and 0.01 per cent electricity
respectively (BPDB, 2018). Electricity generated from renewable sources was less than 2 per cent
of total electricity generation in 2018, and it is unlikely that Bangladesh will be able to meet the
target of generating 10 per cent electricity from renewable energy sources as per the Renewable
Energy Policy of Bangladesh (Power Division, 2008). Although the dependence on natural gas for
power generation has decreased over the years, it has been substituted by power generation through
furnace oil and power imports. Indeed, renewable energy output in Bangladesh has fallen from 3.4
per cent of total electricity output in 1995 to 1.2 per cent in 2015 (World Bank, 2019b). The Power
System Master Plan 2016 outlines the intention to increase power generation from coal from 1.6
per cent in 2017 to 35 per cent in 2030, as a strategy for diversifying the fuel mix for electricity
generation (Power Division, 2016). Even though the cost of manufacturing solar photo-voltaic
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cells is falling. Research has shown that the levelized cost4 of electricity generation from utility-
scale solar photo-voltaic power plants in Bangladesh is USD 91 per Megawatt hour (MWh),
compared to USD 110 per MWh for coal (Shiraishi, Shirley, Kammen, Huq, & Rahman, 2018).
The enormous potential of utility-scale solar photo-voltaic power plants has hitherto remained
largely unexplored and solar power in Bangladesh has been relegated to roof-top solar panels,
which is not adequate for meeting urban energy demand.
SDG 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
Annual growth rate of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at constant 2005
Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) increased from 2.96 per cent in 1997 to 5.55 per cent in 2007 (BBS,
2019a) (Figure 8). However, the increase was more modest in the next decade between 2007 and
2017, as the annual growth rate of GDP per capita at constant 2005 BDT increased from 5.55 per
cent to 6.06 per cent in 2017. Using simple methods of approximation such as the rules5 of 69.3,
70, or 72 (Pacioli, 1494) (Slavin, 1999), it can be shown that the GDP per capita will take around
24 years to double if the growth rate is 2.96 per cent, but only 12 years if the growth rate is 6.06
per cent. Growth of GDP per capita in Bangladesh has been driven by the twin forces of rising
economic growth and falling population growth. For instance, the annual real GDP growth rate
increased from 4.43 per cent in fiscal year 1997 to 7.86 per cent in fiscal year 2018 (BBS, 2019a),
while on the other hand, the annual population growth rate decreased from 1.49 per cent in 1997
to 1.17 per cent in 2018 (BBS, 2019a).
Figure 8: SDG 8.1.1 GDP per capita growth rate (in percentage) at constant price (base year 2005-06)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from GDP of Bangladesh (Report), BBS
4 Levelized cost of electricity describes the average cost of electricity for every unit of electricity generated over the
lifetime of a project at the point of interconnection (Shiraishi, Shirley, Kammen, Huq, & Rahman, 2018). 5 The rule number is divided by the growth rate to obtain the approximate number of years required for doubling
(Pacioli, 1494) (Slavin, 1999).
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Despite rapid economic growth, Bangladesh has not been able to provide productive
employment and decent jobs for its young labour force. In 2017, the youth unemployment rate was
as high as 10.6 per cent, whereas the national unemployment rate was 4.2 per cent (BBS, 2018).
Unemployment rate among youth who have completed tertiary level education was 13.4 per cent,
implying mismatch between education system and market-relevant skills (BBS, 2018).On average,
each additional year of schooling increases the probability of entering not in education,
employment or training (NEET) status by 1.16 per cent for male youth and 1.07 per cent for female
youth, provided all other factors are held constant (Khatun & Saadat, 2018a). In 2018, the share of
youth NEET in Bangladesh was 26.2 per cent compared to the global average of 21.2 per cent
(ILO, 2018a). This is crucial since the country is now at the juncture where it may be able to
harness its demographic dividend if it can gainfully employ its enormous young population.
Informal employment as a share of total non-agricultural employment increased from 82.2
per cent in 2010 to 91.3 per cent in 2017 (ILO, 2019b). This means that the vast majority of workers
in Bangladesh are outside the ambit of social protection schemes which makes them more
vulnerable (Khatun & Saadat, 2018b). Additionally, the employment elasticity of GDP in
Bangladesh has declined from 0.55 during the 2005-2010 period to 0.45 during 2016-2020 period
(ADB, 2016).
SDG 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
Industrialization in Bangladesh, as measured by the growth of share of manufacturing in
GDP, had been stagnant at around 15 per cent during the years 1996 to 2005 (BBS, various years)
(Figure 9). However, since 2006, the share of manufacturing in GDP has been growing steadily
every year, with the pace of growth picking up after 2010. In 2018, the share of manufacturing in
GDP stood at 22.9 per cent (BBS, various years). Thus, the country has already achieved the
national milestone set for 2020 of having manufacturing value added equal to at least 21.5 per cent
of GDP. Growth of the manufacturing sector of Bangladesh has been driven by large and medium
enterprises, ready-made garments sector (GED, 2018a).
Figure 9: SDG 9.2.1 Share of manufacturing in GDP (percentage) at constant prices, base year 2005-06
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from GDP of Bangladesh (Report), BBS
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Bangladesh has undergone significant structural change. ILO modelled estimates suggest
that the share of workers employed in the agriculture sector decreased from 65 per cent in 1999 to
39.7 per cent in 2019 (ILO, 2018b). On the other hand, the share of workers employed in the
industry sector almost doubled from 10.4 per cent in 1999 to 20.5 per cent in 2019 (ILO, 2018b).
Nonetheless, there are concerns about premature deindustrialisation of the Bangladesh economy.
The share of workers employed in the services sector increased from 24.6 per cent in 1999 to 39.8
per cent in 2019 (ILO, 2018b). The economy of Bangladesh, like those of other South Asian
countries, has undergone a shift directly from agriculture to services (UNESCAP, 2018a).
Industry-led structural transformation based on labour-intensive production technology can play a
key role in alleviating poverty and generating employment for the large number of young people
entering Bangladesh’s labour market every year.
SDG 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries
The share of national income held by the bottom 40 per cent of the population in
Bangladesh has declined from 17.4 per cent in 1991 (BBS, 1995) to 13 per cent in 2016 (BBS,
2017) (Figure 10). At the same time, the share of national income held by the richest 10 per cent
and 20 per cent of the population in Bangladesh increased from 23.3 per cent and 37.4 per cent in
1991 (BBS, 1995) to 26.8 per cent and 41.4 per cent in 2016 (BBS, 2017), respectively. Thus,
income inequality between the rich and poor has been widening, as manifested in the rise in the
value of the Gini coefficient from 0.39 in 1991-92 (BBS, 1995) to 0.48 in 2015-16 (BBS, 2017).
Figure 10: SDG 10.1.1 Income share of bottom 40 per cent (percentage of national income)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from Household Income and Expenditure Surveys, BBS
The income share held by the richest 5 per cent of households in Bangladesh increased
from 18.9 per cent in 1991-1992 (BBS, 1995) to 27.9 per cent in 2015-2016 (BBS, 2017), whilst
the income share held by the poorest 5 per cent of households in Bangladesh fell from 1 per cent
in 1991-1992 (BBS, 1995) to 0.2 per cent in 2015-2016 (BBS, 2017). In 2010, the richest 5 per
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cent of households were almost 32 times richer than the poorest 5 per cent households, with the
differential widening to 121 times in 2015.
SDG 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
The proportion of the urban population living in slums has fallen significantly from 87.3
per cent in 1991 to 55.1 per cent in 2014 (UN HABITAT, 2015) (Figure 11). This represents good
progress as 32.2 per cent of urban slum dwellers managed to move out of slums in a matter of 23
years, and the proportion of urban population living in slums decreased by 1.04 per cent annually,
on average, during the period 1991 to 2014. Nevertheless, the total number of people living in
urban slums increased from 19.99 million in 1991 to 29.27 million in 2014 (UN HABITAT, 2015).
This implies that on average, every year the urban slum population increased by 403 thousand
during the period 1991 and 2014.
Figure 11: SDG 11.1.1 Population living in slums (percentage of urban population)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from UN HABITAT
The share of population living in urban areas in Bangladesh increased from 22.4 per cent
of the total population in 1997 to 35.9 per cent in 2017 (World Bank, 2019b). Although the growth
rate of the urban population has decreased slightly from 3.8 per cent in 1997 to 3.2 per cent in
2017 (World Bank, 2019b), it is still quite high. The rural-urban wage differential, as well as the
wage differential across different sectors of the economy, could be a likely factor pulling workers
to urban areas (BBS, 2018). Climate change has pushed many people away from rural areas to
urban areas of Bangladesh (Adri, 2014). However, rapid unsustainable urbanisation can result in
climate change since urban inhabitants have a much larger environmental foot-print compared to
their rural counterparts (Murshed & Saadat, 2018).
SDG 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
From 1999 onwards there was a rapid increase in total natural resource rents, which reached
1.86 per cent of GDP in 2006 (figure 12).Thereafter, total natural resource rents have undergone a
decline, and as of 2016, total natural rents were 0.77 per cent of GDP (Lange, Wodon, & Carey,
2018). There has been a shift from forest rents to natural gas rents during the period 1990 to 2016.
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For example, in 1990 forest rents were 67 per cent and natural gas rents were 33 per cent of total
natural resource rents (Lange, Wodon, & Carey, 2018). However, in 2016, forest rents were only
38 per cent while natural gas rents were 63 per cent of total natural resource rents (Lange, Wodon,
& Carey, 2018). The decline in natural gas rents from 1.20 per cent of GDP in 2012 to 0.41 per
cent of GDP in 2016 indicates that natural gas extraction has progressively become less profitable.
This is anticipated, since cost of extracting an exhaustible natural resource increases as more of it
is extracted (Hotelling, 1931), with supply held constant.
Figure 12: SDG 12.2.1 Total natural resources rents (percentage of GDP)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on World Bank estimate
Efficient and economical use of resources is a prerequisite for sustainable consumption and
production. During the ten years between 2007 and 2017, domestic per capita consumption of
fossil fuels increased by 57.7 per cent, which included 147 per cent increase in per capita
consumption of coal, 52 per cent increase in per capita consumption of natural gas and 48 per cent
increase in per capita consumption of petroleum (UN, 2019d). Domestic per capita consumption
of all raw materials increased by 21 per cent from 2007 to 2017 (UN, 2019d). From these findings,
it appears that sustainable consumption is still in its nascent stages in Bangladesh. On the
production side, domestic consumption of fossil fuels per unit of GDP decreased by 3.8 per cent,
while domestic consumption of all raw materials per unit of GDP decreased by 26 per cent from
2007 to 2017 (UN, 2019d).
SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Bangladesh is one of the countries of the world which are most vulnerable to climate
change. Up to 15 per cent of the land area of the country could be inundated by 2050, due to rise
in sea level caused by climate change (GED, 2015). Projections show that Bangladesh could lose
around 1.1 per cent of its GDP due to climate change during the period 2017-2041 (GED, 2018d).
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The total number of households affected by natural disasters increased from 550,555 in 2009 to
1,934,629 in 2014 (BBS, 2016b) (Figure 13). This implies that as high as 44 per cent of all
households in Bangladesh were affected by natural disasters in 2014 (BBS, 2016b). Nationally,
floods were the most damaging of all types of natural disasters and affected the largest number of
households.6 Hence, the increase in the number of households affected by natural disasters in
Bangladesh over the years can be partly explained by climate change, in the light of substantial
evidence that anthropogenic climate change is responsible for affecting global rainfall (Hoegh-
Guldberg, et al., 2018).
Figure 13: SDG 13.1.1 Number of households affected by natural disasters, by type of disaster
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from Bangladesh Disaster Related Statistics 2015, BBS
The total economic loss due to natural disasters during the period 2009-2014 was BDT
184,247 million (BBS, 2016b). Sector-wise disaggregation shows that crops suffered the greatest
economic loss due to natural disasters during the period 2009 to 2014, which amounted to BDT
66,703 million (BBS, 2016b). The poorest households were disproportionately affected by climate
change. Average annual economic loss per household during 2009-2014 due to natural disasters
was 15.7 per cent of average annual household income for the poorest quintile of households, but
only 3.1 per cent of average annual household income for the richest quintile of households (BBS,
2016b). About 70 per cent of the most climate-vulnerable districts of Bangladesh have higher
poverty rates than the national upper poverty line of 2010 and80 per cent of them had per capita
incomes lower than the national average (GED, 2015). Children were disproportionately affected
by climate change as 69.5 per cent of individuals who fell sick due to natural disasters during 2009
to 2014 were 17 years old or younger. During the period 2009 to 2014, children in Bangladesh
missed a total of 1,078,118 days of school due to natural disasters (BBS, 2016b).
6 However, in Barishal division cyclones affected more households than other types of natural disasters, whereas in Khulna division,
salinity affected more households than other types of disasters.
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SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
Total fisheries production in Bangladesh increased from 846,144 metric tonnes in 1990
(FRSS, 2017) to 4,134,434 metric tonnes in 2017 (FRSS, 2017) (Figure 14). During the period
2007 to 2017, total fisheries production increased by 5.43 per cent annually on average (FRSS,
2017). The majority of the fisheries production in Bangladesh comes from inland fisheries. For
example, in 2017, inland fisheries accounted for 84.6 per cent and marine fisheries accounted for
15.4 per cent of total fisheries production (FRSS, 2017).
Figure 14: SDG 14.4.1 Total fisheries production (metric tonnes)
Source: Based on data from Fisheries Resources Survey System (FRSS), Department of Fisheries
Bangladesh
Although a survey of the potential marine fish stocks in Bangladesh waters has not been
conducted in recent years, there is widespread speculation among experts that marine fish
resources are declining (Hussain & Hoq, 2010) due to overfishing, indiscriminate killing of
juveniles, inadequate conservation laws, pollution and encroachment by foreign fishing trawlers
(Shamsuzzaman, et al., 2017) (Shamsuzzaman, Xiangmin, Ming, & Tania, 2017) (Islam, et al.,
2017). As of 2018, marine protected areas constituted of only 2 per cent of total marine area (GED,
2018a) far below the SDG target 14.5 of conserving at least 10 per cent of marine areas by 2020
(UN, 2018). Moreover, there is serious apprehension about the level of protection even within
protected marine areas, due to legal loopholes and improper implementation (Islam, et al., 2017)
(Shamsuzzaman, Xiangmin, Ming, & Tania, 2017).
Pollution from plastics and shipbreaking are also major concerns. Per capita plastic waste
generated in Bangladesh was only 0.03 kilograms per day in 2010, compared to the global average
of 0.19 kilograms per day (Jambeck, et al., 2015). However, 87 per cent of the plastic waste
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generated in Bangladesh was inadequately managed7, which led to the country becoming the tenth
largest contributor of mismanaged plastic waste in the world in 2010 (Jambeck, et al., 2015). The
Ganges River, which runs through Bangladesh and into the Bay of Bengal, was estimated to be the
second largest river source of plastic inputs into the ocean worldwide in 2015 (Lebreton, et al.,
2017). In addition to plastic pollution, alarming levels of heavy metals, such as iron, manganese,
chromium, nickel, zinc, lead, copper, cadmium, and mercury, have been discovered in the water
near ship-breaking yards of Bangladesh (Hasan, et al., 2013). This is anticipated to have severely
damaging impacts on marine life (Abdullah, Mahboob, Banu, & Seker, 2013).
SDG 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss
Forest area as a share of total land area of Bangladesh has decreased from 11.5 per cent in
1990 to 10.96 per cent in 2016 (FAO, 2018a) (Figure 15). More alarmingly, primary forest8 area
as a share of total forest area has fallen from 29.2 per cent in 1990 to 28.8 per cent in 2016 (FAO,
2018a). Since deforestation threatens the livelihoods of people, reduces biodiversity, and causes
climate change (FAO, 2018b), these numbers are deeply disconcerting. Although Bangladesh has
designated 38 protected forest areas and 13 ecologically critical areas (GED, 2018a), the
proportion of land in the country that is covered by forests continues to decline every year.
Additionally, the level of protection offered to wildlife in protected areas and world heritage sites
of Bangladesh is rather dubious. For example, International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) has classified the Sundarbans as a World Heritage Site in Danger, due to threats from coal
power plants and industries that are being developed close to the forest (IUCN, 2019).
Figure 15: SDG 15.1.1 Forest area (percentage of land area)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from FAO
7 Inadequately managed waste is defined as waste which is not formally managed and includes disposal in dumps or
open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained (Jambeck, et al., 2015). 8 Primary forest is defined as a naturally regenerated forest of native species, where there are no clearly visible
indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed (FAO, 2012).
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Deforestation has resulted in loss of biodiversity in Bangladesh. The global population of
the Royal Bengal Tiger, Bangladesh’s national animal, has dropped below 2500 and IUCN has
categorised the species as endangered (Chundawat, Khan, & Mallon, 2011). The median value of
the IUCN Red List Index for all mammals, birds, amphibians, corals and cycads has declined from
0.83 in 2000 to 0.75 in 2019 (UN, 2019d). This means that many forms of wildlife are moving
closer to extinction.
SDG 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
During the years 2000 to 2015, the estimated number of intentional homicides per 100,000
people has been fluctuating around the average of 2.7 (UNODC, 2017) (Figure 16). Over the same
period, the highest recorded value was 2.9 in the year 2006, while the lowest recorded value was
2.5 in the year 2003 (UNODC, 2017). Crime statistics published by Bangladesh Police show that
among the recent few years, 2014 was particularly problematic with increase in crimes like murder,
kidnapping, and robbery (Bangladesh Police, 2019a and 2019b). Further research is required to
find out the causes behind high crime rates during certain years. Nonetheless, the currently
available data already make it clear that the number of intentional homicides per 100,000 people
must be reduced significantly in order to achieve the milestone of 1 by 2030.
Figure 16: SDG 16.1.1 Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
In addition to heinous crimes like homicide, even children in Bangladesh have not been
spared from cruelty. The proportion of children aged between 1 to 17 years who experienced
corporal punishment or psychological aggression was 82.3 per cent in Bangladesh in 2012-2013
(BBS, 2015b). According to a report by Ain o Salish Kendra (ASK), 1011 children were victims
of torture, 444 children were victims of sexual harassment and 283 children were killed in 2018
(ASK, 2019).
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Apart from violent crimes, Bangladesh has also witnessed a steady increase in non-violent
crimes such as illicit outflows of money to foreign countries and corruption. Illicit financial
outflows from a country can cause severe damage to the economy by diverting valuable resources
abroad and depriving a nation from tax revenue. It has been estimated that illicit financial outflows
from Bangladesh were as high as USD 9,666 million in 2013 (Kar & Spanjers, Illicit Financial
Flows from Developing Countries: 2004-2013, 2015).
The proportion of households who paid bribes increased from 42.2 per cent in 2007 to 49.8
per cent in 2017 (TIB, 2018). During the period 2007 to 2017, the incidence of bribery increased
in service sectors such as tax and customs, insurance, electricity, education and health, but
decreased in service sectors such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs). In 2017, law
enforcement agencies were the most corrupt of all service sectors as 60.7 per cent of all households
reported to have paid bribes during their interactions with law enforcement service providers (TIB,
2018). Issues such as bribery and widespread corruption go against the principle of “Leave No
One Behind”. This is because those who cannot afford to pay bribes are either deprived of essential
public services or able to avail such services after prolonged delays.
SDG 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development
Domestic revenue mobilization is of crucial importance as a means of implementing the
SDGs by 2030 in Bangladesh. However, tax revenue as a percentage of GDP in Bangladesh has
been historically lower than the regional and global average. Tax revenue as a percentage of GDP
increased from 6.6 per cent in 2001 to 8.8 per cent in 2016, much lower than the global average of
14.4 per cent (World Bank, 2019a) (Figure 17). The government’s inability to collect taxes
adequately is depriving the nation of the resources it needs to finance its development. Estimates
suggest that total additional synchronised cost9 of USD 928.48 billion would be required for
implementing the SDGs in Bangladesh during the period 2017-2030 (GED, 2017b). Hence,
improving domestic revenue mobilization through an increase in the tax-GDP ratio is of paramount
significance for implementing the SDGs.
9 Synchronised cost takes into consideration the overlaps among different SDGs while estimating the costs.
Unsynchronised cost does not take into consideration any overlap among different SDGs and represents stand-alone
costs for individual SDGs (GED, 2017b).
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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Figure 17: SDG 17.1.1 Tax revenue (percentage of GDP)
Source: Authors’ illustration based on data from Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Database,
World Bank
In addition to domestic resources, Bangladesh also needs to make use of external sources
of finance. Unfortunately, net official development assistance (ODA) received as a percentage of
the Gross National Income (GNI) of the donor countries has fallen from 6.5 per cent in 1990 to
1.4 per cent in 2017 (OECD, 2019). This declining trend of ODA shows that many developed
countries have failed to keep their SDG commitment of providing ODA to Least Developed
Countries (LDCs) such as Bangladesh. It implies that with ODA flows declining, Bangladesh’s
economy must make the transition from being aid-dependent to trade-led in the coming years.
Bangladesh has not been very successful in attracting foreign direct investment (FDI).
Bangladesh’s poor ranking in the World Bank’s ease of doing business survey partly explains the
reasons behind the stagnation, and even decline in FDI over the years. FDI inflows as a percentage
of GDP have increased from 0.3 per cent in 1997 to 1.7 per cent in 2013, before dropping to 0.9
per cent in 2017 (World Bank, 2019a). FDI is crucial for Bangladesh as a source of external
finance and also for employment creation and technology transfer. In fiscal year (FY) 2019,
Bangladesh witnessed a record high net FDI inflow of USD 3232.9 million between the months
of July-March largely driven by Chinese investments (Bangladesh Bank, 2019).
Although FDI has picked up recently, remittances have fallen. Personal remittances
received as a percentage of GDP increased from 3.2 per cent in 1997 to 10.6 per cent in 2012,
before falling again to 5.4 per cent in 2017 (World Bank, 2019a). Bangladesh seems unlikely to
achieve the milestone of having remittances equal to 7.6 per cent of GDP by 2020. One explanation
behind the recent fall in remittances could be that due to the higher cost of sending remittances
through official channels, many workers are choosing to send remittances back home via unofficial
channels. In this case, the regulatory authorities need to make efforts to keep the transaction costs
of remittances as low as possible.
0
2
4
6
8
10
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Per
cen
t
Year
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Trade has traditionally been a key driver of the economy of Bangladesh. This makes
Bangladesh unique among the LDCs, since few other LDCs have such export-oriented economies.
Between the period 1997 to 2007, Bangladesh share of global exports only increased from 0.07
per cent to 0.09 per cent (CEPII, 2019). However, in the subsequent decade from 2007 to 2017,
Bangladesh share of global exports doubled from 0.09 per cent to 0.18 per cent (CEPII, 2019). As
a consequence of Bangladesh’s strong trade performance, debt service as a percentage of exports
has fallen continuously from 33.7 per cent in 1990 to 3.5 per cent in 2017 (World Bank, 2019a).
This means that Bangladesh is favourably placed to pay off its foreign debts by making use of
foreign currency earned through exports.
The proportion of individuals using the internet has sky-rocketed in Bangladesh in the last
decade or so. In 2006, only 1 per cent of individuals were using the internet whereas by 2016
around 18 per cent of individuals were using the internet (World Bank, 2019a).But, since most
households in Bangladesh do not own a computer (BBS, 2015a) it suggests that internet in
Bangladesh is being predominantly being used through mobile phones. Fixed-broadband
subscriptions per 100 individuals increased more than 149 times, from 0.03 in 2007 to 4.4 in 2017
(World Bank, 2019a). Given the disparities in digital access, there is still a long road ahead in
realizing the dream of a “Digital Bangladesh” and achieving SDG 17.6.
3. Challenges of SDG implementation in Bangladesh
This section examines the five challenges of implementing the SDGs in the context of
Bangladesh, namely: (i) aligning the SDGs with national, sub-national and local-level
development plans; (ii) establishing institutional architectures that can deliver the SDGs; (iii)
mobilising funds; (iv) generating data for monitoring and evaluation; and (v) developing
partnerships for multi-stakeholder participation (Bhattacharya D. , Khan, Rezbana, & Mostaque,
2016) (Bhattacharya, Khan, & Sabbih, 2016).
3.1 Aligning policies
Aligning policies with the SDGs and mainstreaming them into national, sub-national and
local plans is acknowledged as a fundamental challenge in the SDG implementation process
(UNDG, 2017). Most Asian countries have aligned their policies with the SDGs in either one or
more of the following ways: i) matching their existing development plans with the SDGs; ii)
aligning their upcoming development plans with the SDGs; iii) taking steps to address systemic
issues; and iv) adopting SDG agenda and making corresponding changes in laws, rules and
regulations (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique, 2020). Bangladesh has made efforts to match its existing
development plans with the SDGs and has also planned to align its upcoming development plans
with the SDGs.
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
31
The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) was formulating its 7th Five Year Plan (7FYP)
(GED, 2015) at the same time when the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was being
discussed globally. Therefore, the Bangladesh Planning Commission was able to design the 7FYP
in cognizance of the SDGs (GED, 2018a). This policy coherence between the 7FYP and the SDGs
allowed Bangladesh to begin its SDG journey on a strong footing (GED, 2016).
Analysis of the alignment between SDG targets and 7FYP targets shows that SDG 3 on
Good health and wellbeing has 28.6 per cent of targets fully overlapping with 7FYP targets, which
is the highest degree of overlap among all the SDGs (Khatun, Pervin, & Rahman, 2018). This is
followed by SDG 13 (climate action) and SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy).But 50 per cent of
the targets under SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) do not have any corresponding
targets in the 7FYP (Khatun, Pervin, & Rahman, 2018). The degree of overlap between the 7FYP
targets and targets under SDGs 10 (reduced inequalities) and 14 (life below water) are also quite
low (table 1). The low level of alignment between the 7FYP and the SDGs 10 (reduced
inequalities), 14 (life below water) and 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) in light of
Bangladesh’s poor performance in achieving them so far (Section 2) makes it difficult for the
country to achieve these SDGs by 2030. The GoB has also conducted its own exercise of alignment
between the SDGs and the 7FYP (GED, 2016), wherein most cases it reports greater level of
policy alignment compared to the evaluation of Khatun, Pervin and Rahman (2018) (see table 1).
Table 1: Proportion of SDG indicators aligned with 7FYP (as percentage of total number of indicators
under each SDG)
GED, 2016 Khatun, Pervin, & Rahman, 2018
SDG Fully
Aligned
Partially
Aligned
Not
Aligned
Not
Relevan
t
Fully
over-
lapping
Partially
over-
lapping
Over-
lapping
in
essence
No
target in
7FYP
Global
in nature
1 28.57 71.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 71.43 14.29 14.29 0.00
2 0.00 25.00 75.00 0.00 0.00 12.50 75.00 12.50 0.00
3 7.69 15.38 69.23 7.69 28.57 42.86 14.29 0.00 14.29
4 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 22.22 11.11 66.67 0.00 0.00 66.67 22.22 11.11 0.00
6 75.00 0.00 25.00 0.00 16.67 33.33 50.00 0.00 0.00
7 40.00 40.00 20.00 0.00 20.00 40.00 20.00 0.00 20.00
8 50.00 41.67 0.00 8.33 9.09 27.27 18.18 27.27 18.18
9 62.50 0.00 37.50 0.00 0.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00
10 30.00 40.00 0.00 30.00 0.00 14.29 57.14 14.29 14.29
11 90.00 0.00 0.00 10.00 0.00 16.67 33.33 33.33 16.67
12 9.09 27.27 45.45 18.18 0.00 20.00 40.00 20.00 20.00
13 60.00 20.00 0.00 20.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 0.00 25.00
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
14 0.00 30.00 50.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 42.86 28.57 28.57
15 41.67 16.67 41.67 0.00 0.00 16.67 50.00 16.67 16.67
16 8.33 16.67 75.00 0.00 0.00 20.00 20.00 50.00 10.00
17 52.63 26.32 21.05 0.00 0.00 16.67 11.11 5.56 66.67
Source: Authors’ calculations based on Khatun, Pervin, & Rahman (2018) and compilation from GED
(2016a).
Apart from the 7FYP, most of the SDGs have corresponding policies, acts, strategies,
programmes or plans in Bangladesh that are closely aligned in terms of objectives (table 2).
Table 2: Policies, acts, strategies, programmes or plans of GoB aligned with the SDGs
SDG Policies, acts, strategies, programmes or plans of GoB aligned with the SDGs
1 • • National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS)- 2010-21
• • National Social Security Strategy (NSSS) of Bangladesh 2015
• • National Plan for Disaster Management (2016-29)
2 • National Food Policy Plan of Action (2008-2015)
• National Nutrition Policy-2015
3 • National Health Policy, 2011
• 4TH Health Nutrition and Population Sector Program (HNPSP), 2017-22
4 • National Education Policy, 2010
• National Skill Development Policy 2011
• Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP-3) 2011-16
5 • National Women Development Policy (NWDP)-2011
• National Child Policy-2011
6 • Sector Development Plan (2011- 2025), Water Supply and Sanitation Sector.
• Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100
7 • Energy Efficiency and Conservation Rules, 2013
• Power System Master Plan 2016
8 • Bangladesh Labour Act 2006, amended in 2013
9 • Industrial Policy 2016
• Road Master Plan (2010-30)
• Bangladesh Public Private Partnership Act 2015
• Revised Strategic Transport Plan 2016
10 • National Social Security Strategy (NSSS) of Bangladesh, 2015
• Disabled Persons Rights and Protection Act 2013
• Expatriates’ Welfare and Overseas Employment Policy 2016
11 • The Metro Rail Act, 2015
• Bus Rapid Transit Act 2016
12 • Consumer Rights Protection Act 2009
13 • Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) 2008, updated revised 2009
14 • National Shrimp Policy 2014
• Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute Act 2015
15 • • National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS)- 2010-21
16 • Strategic Plan of Controller and Auditor General of Bangladesh (2013-18)
17 • Public Money and Budget Management Act 2009
• Statistics Rule 2014
Source: Authors’ compilation from GED (2016a).
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
33
There is a need for more effective alignment of national action plans and policies to ensure
effective and efficient implementation of the SDGs where progress has been slow. Since the SDGs
represent an interconnected development agenda, it is important to acknowledge the inter-linkages
within the SDGs in order to understand and optimise the synergies and trade-offs involved in
prospective implementation plans (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique, 2020).
3.2 Establishing institutional architecture
The GoB has conducted a mapping exercise which links SDG targets to ministries
responsible for implementing them (Table 3). The existing institutional architecture has been
utilised for undertaking an institutional level division of labour. After the adoption of the 2030
Agenda, a number of new coordination committees were created and a Principal Coordinator for
SDGs Affairs was appointed at the Prime Minister’s office to head the Inter-Ministerial SDGs
Implementation and Review Committee in Bangladesh, consisting of secretaries from 20
ministries (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique, 2020). An SDG Working Team has also been formed under
the Prime Minister's Office's Governance Innovation Unit (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique, 2020).
Three committees have been formed at the subnational level- divisional, district and sub-district
level- for better implementation and coordination of SDGs localization, with representatives from
the government, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), business sector and vulnerable groups
(Government of Bangladesh, 2020).These new institutional arrangements were designed with the
aim of facilitating the effective localization and efficient implementation of the SDGs in
Bangladesh. To improve transparency and accountability in the public sector, ‘Annual
Performance Agreements’ have been put forth which define the objectives of each ministry with
associated performance indicators. However, it remains to be assessed if such measures have been
successful in improving transparency and accountability.
Table 3: Institutions responsible for SDG implementation in Bangladesh
SDG Lead Ministries and Divisions
1 Cabinet Division; General Economics Division; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change,
Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief; Finance Division
2 Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of Food; Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; Ministry of
Industries; Economic Relations Division; Ministry of Commerce; Finance Division
3 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; Ministry of Home Affairs; Road Transport and Highways
Division; Ministry of Labour and Employment; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change;
Economic Relations Division
4 Ministry of Primary and Mass Education; Ministry of Education; Economic Relations Division
5 Ministry of Women and Children Affairs; Ministry of Social Welfare
6 Local Government Division; Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of Water Resources; Economic
Relations Division
7 Power Division; Energy and Mineral Resources Division; Economic Relations Division
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
8 Finance Division; Ministry of Commerce; Ministry of Industries; Ministry of Agriculture; General
Economics Division; Ministry of Labour and Employment; Ministry of Youth and Sports; Ministry of
Civil Aviation and Tourism; Ministry of Cultural Affairs; Bank and Financial Institutions Division;
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
9 Road Transport and Highways Division; Local Government Division; Ministry of Industries; Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change; Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of
Agriculture; Economic Relations Division; ICT Division; Posts and Telecommunications Division
10 General Economics Division; Local Government Division; Finance Division; Economic Relations
Division; Ministry of Expatriates' Welfare and Overseas Employment; Ministry of Commerce; Bank
and Financial Institutions Division; Ministry of Foreign Affairs
11 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; Road Transport and Highways Division; Ministry of Railways;
Ministry of Cultural Affairs; Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief; Local Government
Division; Ministry of Women and Children Affairs; Economic Relations Division
12 Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change; Ministry of
Finance; Ministry of Agriculture; Local Government Division; Ministry of Industries; Implementation
Monitoring and Evaluation Division; Ministry of Education; Ministry of Primary and Mass Education;
Economic Relations Division; Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism; Finance Division
13 Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief; General Economics Division; Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change
14 Ministry of Water Resources; Ministry of Shipping; Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of
Fisheries and Livestock; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change; Ministry of Defence
15 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change; Economic Relations Division; Finance Division;
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
16 Ministry of Home Affairs; Ministry of Women and Children Affairs; Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Local
Government Division; Law & Parliamentary Affairs Division; Bangladesh Bank; Cabinet Division;
Ministry of Public Administration; General Economics Division; Economic Relations Division; Local
Government Division; Ministry of Information
17 Internal Resources Division; Finance Division; Economic Relations Division; Board of Investment;
Bangladesh Bank; Ministry of Science and Technology; Posts and Telecommunications Division;
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change; ICT Division; General Economics Division;
Ministry of Commerce; Public Private Partnership Authority Bangladesh; Statistics and Informatics
Division
Source: Authors’ compilation based on data from GED (2016a) & (2018a).
Establishing institutional delivery mechanisms and delegating responsibilities may not be
sufficient for efficient implementation of the SDGs. Good governance of institutions is vital to
ensure the delivery of the SDGs by 2030 (Bhattacharya D. , Khan, Rezbana, & Mostaque, 2016).
In fact, governance can by itself be a challenge for implementing the SDGs (Caiado, Filho,
Gonçalves, Nascimento, & Ávila, 2018), and this challenge is manifested in the forms of collective
action, trade-offs and accountability (Bowen, et al., 2017).Collective action can be induced
through inclusive multi-stakeholder participation. Since the SDGs feature a number of tough trade-
offs, it is critical that choices are made to ensure that no one is left behind. Finally, frameworks
are required to establish transparency and accountability of the institutions involved in
implementing the SDGs (Bowen, et al., 2017). Unless, these three aspects of governance can be
addressed, existing institutional mechanisms will not be successful in achieving the SDGs by 2030.
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
35
Table 4: SDG implementation projects and programmes of GoB, by indicator
SDG
indicator
Ongoing projects and
programmes
New projects and
programmes up to 2020
Projects and programmes
for the period 2021-2030
1.1.1 24 20 15
2.1.1 47 44 49
3.1.1 17 14 4
4.1.1 16 12 31
5.3.1 4 3 0
6.2.1 9 4 6
7.1.1 44G, 21T, 43D 25G, 11T, 22D 20G, 1T, 27D
8.1.1 56 2 6
9.2.1 39 53 23
10.1.1 3 4 2
11.1.1 24 13 0
12.2.2 6 6 0
13.1.1 55 54 27
14.4.1 3 4 2
15.1.1 10 7 6
16.1.1 1 1 1
17.1.1 17 5 3
Source: Authors’ compilation based on data from GED (2018b)
Note: G: electricity generation projects; T: electricity transmission projects; D: electricity distribution
projects
Some key government projects and programmes related to some SDG indicators have been
mapped (table 4). Among the indicators chosen, the largest number of ongoing projects and
programmes were found to be related to SDG 7.1.1, which deals with access to electricity. On the
other hand, SDG 16.1.1 had only one related ongoing project, while SDG 14.4.1 had only 3 related
ongoing projects. Since Bangladesh is not performing well in terms of achieving SDG 14.4.1 and
SDG 16.1.1, the low involvement of the government at the project level is a matter of concern.
More importantly, further research and extensive field surveys are required to determine the actual
impact of these projects and also identify ‘zombie projects’, which drain financial resources
(Sabbih, 2018).
The experience of implementing the SDGs in Bangladesh so far suggests that more success
has been achieved ‘upstream’, marked by a lack of progress in the ‘downstream’ (Khatun, et al.,
2020). Hence, localisation of SDGs has gradually gained importance in the discourse on SDGs
among government officials and policymakers. While, this is a positive sign, steps need to need
taken to reinforce the capacity of local governments to deliver the SDGs. Local solutions must be
devised through identifying local priorities and problems and utilising local knowledge and
resources (Khatun, et al., 2020).
It is difficult for laggard regions to break the vicious systemic loop of underdevelopment.
For regions with special needs, national solutions often do not work. However, with more
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
coordinated efforts and political will, we can achieve more positive results. NGOs, media and other
stakeholders are committed to closely working with the government to monitor progress in
achieving SDGs locally. Better utilization of limited resources, knowledge sharing and
partnerships, and accelerating the pace of implementation pose challenges for localization of the
SDGs in Bangladesh. It is difficult to successfully localize the SDGs in Bangladesh without a good
decentralized local governance structure. It is challenging to transform and materialize a global
commitment such as the SDGs at the local level since social, economic and environmental
problems are specific to the local context and so there is no 'one size suited for all' approach.
3.3 Mobilising funds
Financing is a major challenge for SDG implementation in Bangladesh. The tax-GDP ratio
in Bangladesh in 2016 was 8.8 per cent, compared to the South Asian average of 11 per cent
(World Bank, 2019a). It has been estimated that about one-third of the top 25 per cent earners in
Bangladesh do not pay any income tax (Khan, Kamal, & Talukdar, 2019). Overall, less than 1 per
cent of the people of Bangladesh pay income tax (UNESCAP, 2018a). This is further aggravated
by the high volume of illicit financial outflows originating from Bangladesh. In 2013, illicit
financial outflows from Bangladesh were estimated to be as high as USD 9,666 million (Kar &
Spanjers, 2015).
The total additional synchronised cost of SDG implementation in Bangladesh for the period
FY2017-FY2030 is estimated to be USD 928.5 billion at constant 2015-16 prices (GED, 2017b).
This amount may be as high as 28.1 per cent of the GDP of Bangladesh, if the economic growth
continues business-as-usual. In terms of unsynchronised cost, the most expensive SDG to
implement will be SDG 8, at a total additional cost of USD 440.9 billion at constant 2015-16 prices
during the period FY2017-FY2030 (GED, 2017b). On the other hand, the least expensive SDG to
implement will be SDG 17 (GED, 2017b), since 66.7 per cent of targets under this goal are global
in nature (Khatun, Pervin, & Rahman, 2018). Table 5 summarises the total additional synchronised
SDG financing requirements in Bangladesh for the period FY 2017-2030.
Table 5: Total additional synchronised SDG financing requirements in Bangladesh (in billion USD at
constant 2015-16 prices)
Fiscal Year
SDGs
FY
17
FY
18
FY
19
FY
20
FY
21
FY
22
FY
23
FY
24
FY
25
FY
26
FY
27
FY
28
FY
29
FY
30
TO
TA
L
SDG 1 1.29 1.34 1.39 1.46 1.52 1.6 1.68 1.77 1.87 1.97 2.09 2.21 2.34 2.49 25.02
SDG 2 1.83 1.78 1.63 1.49 1.38 1.27 1.18 1.09 1.02 0.9 0.79 0.7 0.61 0.53 16.21
SDG 3 0.65 1.34 2.09 2.91 3.66 4.48 5.38 6.38 7.47 8.09 8.76 9.5 10.3 11.1
9
82.17
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
37
Fiscal Year
SDGs
FY
17
FY
18
FY
19
FY
20
FY
21
FY
22
FY
23
FY
24
FY
25
FY
26
FY
27
FY
28
FY
29
FY
30
TO
TA
L
SDG 4 0.46 1.16 1.91 2.74 3.49 4.32 5.22 6.22 7.32 7.78 8.28 8.83 9.42 10.0
6
77.21
SDG 5 0.88 0.85 0.83 0.8 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 10.37
SDG 6 1.53 1.46 1.39 0.91 0.87 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.53 0.51 11.8
SDG
7+8+9
11.4
5
12.0
9
15.0
4
21.3
3
25.5
2
29.0
2
32.9
6
37.3
8
42.3
1
47.8
3
53.9
9
60.9 68.5
9
77.2
2
535.64
SDG
10
0.35 0.36 0.38 0.4 0.41 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.51 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.71 6.9
SDG
11
0.21 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.4 4
SDG
12
0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.29
SDG
13
5.95 6.17 6.41 6.99 7.32 7.68 8.07 8.5 8.97 9.86 10.4
3
11.0
4
11.7
1
12.4
3
121.53
SDG
14
0.74 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.74 0.75 0.75 0.76 0.76 0.77 0.76 0.78 10.48
SDG
15
0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.4 0.4 0.39 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.33 5.36
SDG
16
0.47 0.68 0.88 1.08 1.23 1.38 1.52 1.66 1.78 1.91 2.02 2.13 2.23 2.33 21.31
SDG
17
0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.18
TOTA
L
26.2
8
28.6
2
33.3
5
41.5
3
47.6
2
53.1
5
59.4 66.3
8
74.1 81.6
1
89.6
4
98.6
2
108.
52
119.
65
928.48
Cost -
GDP
Ratio
(Project
ed
GDP
Growth
)
10.2 10.7 12 14.3 15.6 16.6 17.7 18.7 19.8 20.7 21.5 22.3 23.2 24.1
Cost -
GDP
Ratio
(BaU
GDP
Growth
)
10.2 10.7 12.1 14.5 16.1 17.3 18.6 20 21.4 22.7 23.9 25.2 26.6 28.1
Source: Authors’ compilation from (GED, 2017b).
Note: BaU: Business-as-Usual
Since Bangladesh is one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world, the cost of
mitigating the causes and adapting to the consequences of climate change will be monumental.
Implementing SDG 13 in Bangladesh will require a total additional cost of USD 121.5 billion at
constant 2015-16 prices (GED, 2017b). This represents an enormous burden for Bangladesh, given
that most climate finance sources provide funds for mitigation (Heinrich Böll Stiftung, 2019)
whereas Bangladesh requires funds for adaptation.
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
GoB has identified five potential sources of financing the SDGs in Bangladesh (GED, 2017b).
These include: (i) public financing; (ii) private financing; (iii) public-private-partnerships;
(iv)external sources; and (v) non-government organisations. A summary of these financing options
is provided in Table 6.
Table 6: SDG financing options available for Bangladesh (in billion USD)
Time period in fiscal years (FY)
Potential sources of SDG financing FY2017 to
FY2020
FY2021 to
FY2025
FY2026 to
FY2030
FY2017 to
FY2030
Total additional amount of domestic sources 107.72 257.49 430.87 796.09
Total additional amount external sources 22.07 43.15 67.17 132.39
Total additional amount from both domestic and
external sources
129.79 300.65 498.04 928.48
Annual average additional amount from
domestic sources
26.93 51.50 86.17 56.86
Annual average additional amount from
external sources
5.52 8.63 13.43 9.46
of which FDI 2.73 6.45 10.70 6.91
Grants and Aid 2.79 2.17 2.74 2.55
Source: Authors’ compilation from (GED, 2017b).
The funding required for implementing the SDGs has been estimated, and potential sources
of finance have been found. Hence, immediate measures need to be taken for improving domestic
resource mobilisation. Moreover, non-financial resources such as transfer of technology, better
market access and favourable international trade regulations, should also be pursued with vigour.
In theory, graduation from the LDC category should have minimal influence on
Bangladesh's development cooperation (CDP, 2020). Development assistance by the World Bank,
the Asian Development Bank (ADB), most United Nations system entities, – The Global Alliance
for Vaccines and Immunizations (GAVI) - the Vaccine Alliance, the Global Fund, most official
development assistance (ODA) from Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
- Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC) Members (including Canada, the United
Kingdom, the United States and the European Union) or South-South cooperation is not LDC-
specific. After LDC graduation, many partners may undertake fairly small adjustments in
development cooperation with Bangladesh, including marginally less favourable conditions on
Japanese ODA loans and a gradual transition from grants to loans by some partners like Germany
(CDP, 2020). After smooth transition cycles, Bangladesh may end up losing access to a limited
number of funding arrangements allocated for LDCs, such as the LDC Fund for climate change
(CDP, 2020).
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
39
Nevertheless, interviews with experts from the government, private sector, academia and
civil society have revealed that there is widespread speculation that funds will dry up after
Bangladesh’s LDC graduation. The government of Bangladesh has made the commitment towards
fulfilling the commitment for achieving the SDGs while it prepares for LDC graduation. The
government of Bangladesh did not factor in the drop in availability of finance, possible after LDC
graduation, while estimating investment needs for achieving the SDGs. Therefore, financing the
SDGs may prove to be challenging for Bangladesh after its LDC graduation. Bangladesh must
explore all possible avenues for financing sustainable development, including emerging forms of
public-private financing, such as blended finance.
3.4 Generating data
Accurate, reliable and timely data are crucial for monitoring and evaluation of the SDGs,
as well as for ensuring transparency and accountability. National statistical organisations (NSOs)
around the world face challenges related to capacity and funding, along with political interference
(Kindornay, Bhattacharya, & Higgins, 2016).
Bangladesh lag the world average in terms of availability of data on the SDG indicators
(table 7). In the absence of readily accessible, high-quality reliable data, monitoring and evaluating
progress on SDG implementation will be difficult. In this regard, it is critical to strengthen the
statistical capacity of the country in order to be able to successfully monitor progress on SDGs.
Unfortunately, the dollar value of foreign funds made available for strengthening statistical
capacity in Bangladesh has fallen from USD 1.25 million to USD 1.06 million during the period
2006 to 2016 (World Bank, 2019a).
Several important survey reports and datasets have been delayed in recent times, making it
difficult to track progress on the SDGs. Some of these include: Household Income and Expenditure
Survey, Sample Vital Registration Statistics, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, Bangladesh
Education Statistics, Violence Against Women Survey, Quarterly Labour Force Survey, Survey of
Manufacturing Industries, Economic Census, Slum Census and ICT Use and Access Survey.
Table 7: Proportion of SDG data available in Bangladesh compared to global average (as percentage of
total number of indicators per goal, as of May 2019)
SDG Data availability in Bangladesh Global tier classification (as of 4 April 2019)
Readily
available
Partially
available
Not
available
Tier I Tier II Tier III Multiple
tiers
1 21.43 28.57 50.00 21.43 57.14 21.43 0.00
2 23.08 38.46 38.46 61.54 38.46 0.00 0.00
3 48.15 37.04 14.81 92.59 3.70 3.70 0.00
4 9.09 63.64 27.27 18.18 54.55 9.09 18.18
5 71.43 0.00 28.57 7.14 85.71 0.00 7.14
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6 18.18 18.18 63.64 54.55 45.45 0.00 0.00
7 50.00 16.67 33.33 66.67 16.67 16.67 0.00
8 23.53 47.06 29.41 47.06 47.06 5.88 0.00
9 25.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 25.00 0.00 0.00
10 36.36 9.09 54.55 27.27 63.64 36.36 9.09
11 6.67 20.00 73.33 20.00 53.33 46.67 0.00
12 0.00 0.00 100.00 15.38 23.08 38.46 7.69
13 12.50 12.50 75.00 12.50 25.00 25.00 0.00
14 0.00 10.00 90.00 20.00 50.00 30.00 0.00
15 14.29 35.71 50.00 50.00 28.57 7.14 14.29
16 17.39 21.74 60.87 26.09 69.57 4.35 0.00
17 48.00 20.00 32.00 60.00 16.00 24.00 0.00
Source: Authors’ calculations based on GED and UN data (GED, 2018c), (UN, 2018) & (UN, 2019b)
Note: (i) Tier I: Indicator is conceptually clear, has an internationally established methodology and
standards are available, and data are regularly produced by countries for at least 50 per cent of countries
and of the population in every region where the indicator is relevant; (ii) Tier II: Indicator is conceptually
clear, has an internationally established methodology and standards are available, but data are not regularly
produced by countries; (iii) Tier III: No internationally established methodology or standards are yet
available for the indicator, but methodology or standards are being (or will be) developed or tested (UN,
2019b).
A comparison of the data availability situation in Bangladesh vis-à-vis rest of the world
shows that the percentage of data on SDG indicators per goal which are not available is higher
than the percentage of Tier III indicators for all the SDGs (Table 7) (GED, 2018c) (UN, 2018)
(UN, 2019a) (UN, 2019b). On the other hand the percentage of data on SDG indicators per goal
which are readily available is lower than the percentage of Tier I indicators for 13 out of the 17
SDGs (GED, 2018c) (UN, 2018) (UN, 2019b). Hence, the overall data availability on SDG
indicators in Bangladesh is lower than the global average. More than half of the data on SDGs 10,
12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 are not available in Bangladesh. This is a pressing issue, since these are the
SDGs which are at risk of remaining unattained in 2030, as identified in Section 2. Another aspect
relates to the quality of available data and definitional issues. For example, the ‘Quarterly Labour
Force Survey’ counts individuals as employed if they are found to be working for even one hour
per week.
Level of disaggregation in the existing data is not sufficient to provide a comprehensive
picture of the 12 kinds of vulnerable groups in Bangladesh that have been identified through
previous research (Bhattacharya, et al., 2017). In order to improve data availability, GoB currently
has 14 ongoing projects and 25 projects planned upto FY2020 under the Statistics and Informatics
Division. A list of these projects and their associated costs are outlined in Table 8.
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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41
Table 8: Ongoing and planned projects under Statistics and Informatics Division
Ongoing projects Planned projects up to 2020 Planned projects
beyond 2020
# Project Cost
(in
million
BDT)
Project Cost
(in
million
BDT)
Project
1 National Household
Database Project (July 2013
to June 2019)
7274 Population and Housing
Census 2021 Project (July
2018 to June 2025)
11750 Economic Census
2023 Project
2 Improving of Labor
Statistics and Labor Market
Information Project
(January 2015 to June 2018)
110 Household Income and
Expenditure Survey 2019
Project (July 2018 to June
2021)
300 Agriculture Census &
Sample Census 2028
Project
3 Economic Census 2013
Project (July 2011 to June
2018)
1790 Literacy Assessment Survey
Project for Monitoring SDGs
(January 2018 to July 2019)
73 Household Income and
Expenditure Survey
Project (2022, 2025,
2028, 2030)
4 Optical Data Archive and
Networking (2nd Phase)
Project (September 2014 to
June 2018)
184 Monitoring the Situation of
Vital Statistics (3rd Phase)
Project (July 2019 to June
2021)
640 Literacy Assessment
Survey Project (2nd,
3rd, 4th Phase)
5 Monitoring the Situation of
Vital Statistics of
Bangladesh (2nd Phase)
Project (July 2017 to June
2019)
342 Multiple Indicator Cluster
Survey (MICS) Project
(January 2018 to June 2020)
150 Monitoring the
Situation of Vital
Statistics (3rd Phase)
Project
6 Household Income and
Expenditure Survey Project
(July 2014 to June 2018)
220 Child and Mother Nutrition
Survey Project (January 2019
to December 2020)
120 Multiple Indicator
Cluster Survey Project
(2nd and 3rd phase)
7 Digitization of BBS
Publications and Online
Secondary Data Collection
Project (April 2015 to June
2018)
734 Integrated Database of
Undocumented Myanmar
Nationals (UMN) Project
(January 2018 to December
2020)
350 Child and Mother
Nutrition Survey
Project (2022, 2025,
2028, 2030)
8 Strengthening the Statistical
Capacity of BBS for
Collecting Data on
Population and
Development (January
2017 to December 2020)
44 Strengthening Capacity
Building for Producing
Environment, Climate Change
and Disaster Statistics (ECDS)
Project (January 2019 to
December 2020)
240 Welfare monitoring
Survey
9 Agriculture (Crop, Fisheries
and Livestock) Census 2018
Project (May 2017 to
December 2020)
3450 Health and Morbidity Status
Survey Project (July 2018 to
June 2019)
367 Justice, Audit and
Citizen Perception
Survey (2020, 2025,
2030)
10 Census of the Former
Enclave Population in
Bangladesh (January 2017
to January 2018)
15 Improving of Labor Statistics
and Labor Market Information
(2nd phase) Project (July 2018
to June 2021)
150 Generation of SDG
data through
innovative sources
(big data, artificial
intelligence, Internet
of things, etc.) Project
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11 Modernization of National
Accounts Project (April
2017 to June 2020)
110 Survey on Persons with
Disability 2017 Project (July
2018 to December 2019)
120 Bangladesh
Environmental
Economic Accounting
(BEEA) Project (2nd
Phase)
12 Handloom Census 2017
Project (June 2017 to
December 2018)
78 Data Conversion, Metadata
and Time Series Data
Compilation Project (January
2018 to December 2020)
100 Strengthening
Capacity Building for
Producing ECDS)
Project (2nd Phase)
13 Agriculture and Rural
Statistics Project (July 2017
to December 2018)
40 Development of Statistical
Classifications Project (July
2018 to December 2019)
50
14 Modernization and
Strengthening of Statistics
and Informatics Division
Project (April 2017 to June
2018)
33 Quarterly GDP and Link series
and improvement of indices
(July 2018 to June 2021)
226
15
Horticulture and Farm Based
Forestry Survey (January 2019
to June 2020)
60
16
Surveys and Studies relating to
GDP rebase 2015-16 Project
(July 2018 to December 2020)
37
17
Develop a comprehensive
database for Chittagong Hill
Tracts
133
18
Establishment of Integrated
Education Information
Management System and ICT
Infrastructure for Education
(July 2017 to June 2020)
12285
19
Agriculture Census & Sample
Census 2018
240
20
Strengthening the capacity of
SID Project
35
21
National Strategy for the
Development of Statistics
Implementation Project
8000
22
Capacity building of BBS for
SDGs Monitoring Project
35
23
Population and Housing
Census (2021)
11750
24
National Population Register
Project
15000
25
Civil Registration an Vital
Statistics Project
41
Total cost 14424 Total cost 62251
Source: Authors’ compilation from (GED, 2018b).
The government of Bangladesh has recently undertaken a number of data innovations and
collaborations to narrow down the existing data gaps. The government has developed a 'SDG
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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43
Tracker' to map and evaluate progress of SDGs (GED, 2018a). The SDG Tracker is an interactive
web-based data archive that will help monitor the delivery of the SDGs and facilitate predictive
assessments to reach the goals within the specified time frame. Bangladesh has formed a National
Data Coordination Committee (NDCC) to identify data deficiencies and track implementation of
the SDGs (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique, 2020). Bangladesh has also established a monitoring and
implementation cell for the SDGs, which is being hosted by the Planning Commission (Rahman,
Khan, & Sadique, 2020). The Implementation and Review Committee is expected to report to the
Cabinet every six months on the state of adoption of the SDGs in Bangladesh (Rahman, Khan, &
Sadique, 2020). The results and priorities of the Development Results Framework, consistent with
the SDGs, would concentrate on tracking and assessment of SDGs coupled with other government
mandated macroeconomic goals and targets (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique, 2020). Bangladesh
started hosting a regular SDG Implementation Review Conference beginning in 2018, which
involved various government departments alongside CSOs and foreign development collaborators.
3.5 Developing partnerships
Developing multi-stakeholder partnerships at the global, regional, national and local levels
will be of paramount significance for the successful implementation of the SDGs. Partnerships that
encourage inclusive and active participation of all stakeholders will ensure that the overarching
principle of ‘Leave No One Behind’ is realised.
In order for partnerships to be successful in achieving the SDGs by 2030, it is necessary
for them to strive for the 3ODs: i) open data; ii) open dialogue; and iii) open democracy
(Bunglawala, 2018). Open data refers to data that is freely and easily accessible. Open dialogue
constitutes of public discussions between representatives of the government, civil society, private
sector, workers’ unions, academia, youth and other stakeholder groups. Open data and open
dialogue mutually facilitate and reinforce each other. Such multi-stakeholder partnership model
based on 3ODs provides an optimistic but ideal template for Bangladesh to ensure that the core
commitment of leaving no one behind is met. Table 9 lists some examples of Bangladesh’s SDG
partnerships and commitments, both at the domestic and global levels (UN, 2019c).
Table 9: Some examples of Bangladesh’s SDG partnerships and commitments
Applicable SDGs
# Name of the partnership
or commitment
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1. Double the percentage of
births attended by a
skilled health worker
✓ ✓
2. Borderless sustainable
initiatives forum
✓ ✓ ✓
3. Capacity development of
SAS member countries for
✓
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April 2021
the preparation of specific
policies to implement goal
14
4. Climate and Clean Air
Coalition (CCAC)
✓ ✓
5. Conservation and
sustainability of fish and
other marine species
✓
6. Development of the
strategic road corridors
will be planned in
coordination with the
development of the
railway and inland
waterway networks to
ensure that the most
appropriate mode is used
for the movement of
people and goods
✓ ✓
7. Global Partnership for
Effective Development
Co-operation (GPEDC)
✓ ✓ ✓
8. IHO Hydrography
Capacity Building
Programme for Coastal
States
✓
9. Management of Aquatic
Ecosystems through
Community Husbandry
Program
✓
10. Nansen Initiative ✓ ✓
11. Reduction of use of plastic
bags
✓ ✓
12. Renewable Energy Policy
of Bangladesh
✓
13. Strengthening Women’s
Ability for Productive
New Opportunities
(SWAPNO) in
Bangladesh
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
14. Sustainability of
mangrove forest and
coastal afforestation
✓ ✓
15. Sustainable Development
at Grass-roots
✓
16. Waste Concern:
Public/Private partnership
and community based
composting in Dhaka,
Bangladesh
✓ ✓
Source: Authors’ compilation from UN (UN, 2019c).
An example of such partnerships with a dedicated focus on SDGs is the Citizen’s Platform
for SDGs in Bangladesh. The Citizen’s Platform is a network of more than 100 NGOs, CSOs and
charitable organisations in Bangladesh that are actively working for implementing the SDGs. The
platform was established with four main objectives in mind: i) to track the implementation of the
SDGs; ii) to sensitise policymakers about SDG implementation challenges; iii) to ensure
transparency and accountability in the SDG implementation process; and iv) to facilitate
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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communication and coordination between all stakeholders involved with the SDGs (Citizen's
Platform, 2016).
Table 10: Primary SDG involvement of partners of the Citizen’s Platform
SDG Minimum proportion of platform partners directly involved in activities relevant to
corresponding goal (in percentage)
SDG10 42.86
SDG1 38.10
SDG16 33.33
SDG3 25.71
SDG4 23.81
SDG5 23.81
SDG8 19.05
SDG13 10.48
SDG17 10.48
SDG15 9.52
SDG11 7.62
SDG14 7.62
SDG6 6.67
SDG2 5.71
SDG12 3.81
SDG7 2.86
SDG9 2.86
Source: Authors’ compilation from (Citizen's Platform for SDGs, Bangladesh, 2019).
Table 10 shows that at least 42 per cent of the partner organisations of the Citizen’s
Platform are directly involved in activities relevant to SDG 10 (Citizen's Platform for SDGs,
Bangladesh, 2019). A high level of involvement of the platform partner organisation is also
observed for SDGs 1, 16, 3, 4, 5 and 8. However, very few platform partners were directly involved
with activities relevant to SDGs 2, 7, 9, 11 and 12.
Traditionally, non-state actors in Bangladesh have functioned as influential advocates of
inclusive development. The prime concern of many CSOs and NGOs has been to address the needs
of those who are farthest behind in terms of receiving the benefits of economic development. Thus,
a large part of the activities carried out by CSOs and NGOs has been focused on the “Leave No
One Behind” principle. While some CSOs and NGOs have set up internal SDG teams within their
organisations, others have formed alliances and networks between organisations (Khatun, et al.,
2020).
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
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The private sector has also played its part in the SDG implementation process in
Bangladesh, particularly through capacity building of workers and promotion of international
trade. Furthermore, knowledge institutions, such as the vibrant and dynamic research institutions
and think tanks existing in Bangladesh, have carried out awareness raising campaigns and
interfaced SDG-related activities with the government. The SDG Implementation and Review
Committee in Bangladesh also includes two non-state representatives (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique,
2020).
4. Regional priorities, instruments and institutions for SDGs delivery
Many of the SDG targets are not only interconnected, but also transnational (Zhou &
Moinuddin, 2017). There is a growing realization that international collaboration for shared goals
would be needed to deliver the 2030 Agenda (Rahman, Khan, & Sadique, 2020). For example,
goals and targets on climate change, including greenhouse emissions, are not possible to be
achieved without regional and global efforts. While SDG 13 is the specific goal on climate change,
there are many targets and indicators in other goals which are connected to climate change.
(Khatun, 2019).10 Thus, it is not possible to achieve some SDG targets without considering some
other targets. It is not possible for countries to achieve some SDG targets without cooperation and
concerted efforts from other countries in the region and the world.
Bangladesh’s VNR 2020 has identified key areas of international cooperation where
development partners can contribute towards meeting the SDGs (GoB, 2020). These include: i)
providing technical assistance in evaluating the impact of changes in taxation; ii) building the
ability of implementing agencies to enable proper use of funds and relieve bottlenecks in
acquisition and disbursement and speed up the execution of projects; iii) increasing flow of FDI;
iv) leveraging the private sector to develop concrete strategies and recommendations that enable
businesses to drive the achievement of the SDGs; v) tracking debt services in collaboration with
development partners to serve as an early warning mechanism and support the Bangladesh
economy avert any future structural shock; vi) reinforcing South-South cooperation and implement
performance-assessment standards; vii) establishing coalitions with other graduating LDCs or non-
LDC developing countries in various areas of common interests (GoB, 2020). In the context of
finance and technology, global collaboration is needed to adopt the National Social Security
Strategy (NSSS), the Health Financing Strategy (HFS) and the implementation of the national
voluntary pension scheme, comprehensive water resources management, productive domestic
resource mobilization and the adoption of new and commercial agriculture based on smallholder
farmers (GoB, 2020).
10 These are: No Poverty, SDG 2: Zero Hunger, SDG 3: Good Health and Wellbeing, SDG 6: Clean Water and
Sanitation, SDG 7: Affordable and clean energy, SDG 8: Decent work and Economic Growth, SDG 9: Industry,
Innovation and Infrastructure, SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production, SDG 14: Life below water, and
SDG 15: Life on Land.
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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4.1 Regional priorities for sustainable development
Given the varied levels of past progress and different contexts, different regions of the
world have distinct priorities. The seven policy priorities identified for South Asia include: (i)
generating decent employment through broad based industry-oriented growth; (ii) closing
infrastructure gaps; (iii) ensuring universal access to education and health; (iv) providing universal
social protection and financial inclusion; (v) guaranteeing food security; (vi) establishing gender
equality; and (vii) enhancing environmental sustainability (UNESCAP, 2018a).
Employment creation for South Asia’s young workforce: South Asian countries have
large pools of young workers entering their labour markets each year (UNESCAP, 2018a). As a
result of this youth bulge, these countries are well-poised to reap the dividends from a demographic
dividend (Navaneetham & Dharmalingam, 2012). Conventional economic theory suggests that
transfer of surplus labour from the rural agriculture sector to the urban industry sector results in
structural change of an economy which may be conducive to economic development (Lewis,
1954). Unfortunately, the structural transformation of the South Asian economies has occurred in
such a way that the share of employment in the services sectors has increased at the cost of falling
employment in the agriculture sector. However, in this process, the industry sector has been
circumvented and its vast potential for generating employment has remained largely untapped.
Estimates suggest that industry-driven structural change in South Asia has the potential for
generating 56 million additional jobs and lifting 71 million additional people out of poverty
(UNESCAP, 2018a).
In South Asia, the share of youth Not in Employment, Education or Training (NEET) was
estimated to be 27.6 per cent overall in 2019, compared to 21.4 per cent globally (ILO, 2018a).
The situation was more disquieting for females, as the share of female youth NEET was estimated
to be 46.5 per cent for South Asia in 2019, compared to 30.5 per cent globally (ILO, 2018a). In
Bangladesh, the share of youth NEET in 2016-17 was 29.8 per cent, of which 87.0 per cent were
female (BBS, 2018). Therefore, it is essential for the economies of South Asia to leverage the
employment creating potential of the industry sector in order to benefit from a demographic
dividend.
Bridging infrastructure deficits: South Asian countries suffer from huge infrastructure
deficits. In 2015, only 45 per cent of the population had access to improved sanitation in South
Asia, compared to 67 per cent globally (UNESCAP, 2018a). In Bangladesh, 60.4 per cent of rural
population had access to improved sanitation in 2015 (WHO/UNICEF, 2019). In 2014, there were
only 17 internet users per 100 people in South Asia, compared to 40 globally (UNESCAP, 2018a);
while for Bangladesh it was 14 (UN, 2019d). Infrastructure is the common denominator
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
constraining sustainable industrial development in the South Asian countries, making
infrastructure development a prerequisite for achieving the SDGs by 2030.
Ending deprivations and universal access to essential services: South Asia lags the
developed world in ensuring universal access to education, health, food and social protection. In
2017, net secondary school enrolment in South Asia was 59.76 per cent and in Bangladesh was
68.6 per cent (BANBEIS, n.d.), compared to 65.8 per cent globally (World Bank, 2019b). Gross
enrolment in tertiary educational institutions was 23.3 per cent in South Asia and 15.8 per cent for
Bangladesh (BANBEIS, n.d.) in 2017, compared to 37.9 per cent for the world (World Bank,
2019b). In 2011, there were 0.67 hospital beds per 1,000 people in South Asia, and 0.60 hospital
beds per 1000 people in Bangladesh compared to 2.70 in the world (World Bank, 2019b). The
prevalence of under-nourishment in South Asia was 14.8 per cent, while in Bangladesh it was
14.70 per cent in 2017, compared to 10.9 per cent in the world (FAO, 2018c). To ensure that no
one is left behind in South Asia in terms of access to education, health, food and social protection,
countries need to ensure universal provision of these basic services. South Asia needs to address
outdated traditions and cultural practices that fetter the empowerment of women along with pro-
active gender responsive measures to promote economic and political participation of women.
Ensuring environmental sustainability: Although South Asia has low per-capita
emissions relative to the developed world, it is expected to be one of the worst affected regions
with respect to climate change (UNESCAP, 2018a). South Asia accounts for 24.35 per cent of all
deaths caused by natural disasters in the world, of which the share of Bangladesh is 6.97 per cent
(Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network, 2017). Research has shown that solid waste
management is linked to 12 out of the 17 SDGs, and practising the philosophy of ‘Reduce, Reuse
& Recycle’ (3R) may improve the health outcome and living conditions of approximately 3 billion
people worldwide, while also facilitating climate change mitigation (Rodic & Wilson, 2017).
Sustainable production and consumption patterns must be encouraged for environmental
sustainability, with focus on renewable energy and more environmentally responsible and
sustainable practices.
In addition to these shared regional priorities, various other issues of regional nature are
critically important for implementing the SDGs in South Asia, from Bangladesh’s perspective.
These include: (i) the influx of more than one million Rohingyas from Myanmar into Bangladesh
(SDG 10.7); (ii) the cross-border drug trafficking from Myanmar into Bangladesh (SDG 3.5) ; (iii)
the equitable sharing of rivers that flow from India into Bangladesh (SDG 6.6); (iv) the protection
of endangered species of birds and animals in the Sundarbans to prevent their extinction (SDG
15.5); and (v) the evolving regional security risks and terrorism threats (SDG 16.a).
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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4.2 Regional instruments and institutions
The regional priorities for SDG implementation in South Asia can be addressed by making
use of various connectivity related aspects as regional instruments. These instruments can provide
the means of implementation for achieving the SDGs in South Asia. In this context, there are five
key kinds of connectivity that need to be considered: (i) trade connectivity; (ii) investment
connectivity; (iii) transport connectivity; (iv)institutional connectivity; and (v) knowledge
connectivity (Rahman, 2018).
Trade connectivity refers to liberalisation of international trade in goods and services,
coupled with promotion of trade facilitation and reduction of non-tariff barriers. The existing
regional institutional mechanisms, such as South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Agreement on Trade in Services (SATIS), Bay
of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) and
Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar Forum for Regional Cooperation (BCIM) are suitable for the
purpose of increasing trade connectivity in South Asia. Countries could make greater use of
existing United Nations standards and conventions on trade facilitation to streamline, facilitate and
digitalize their trade procedures and operations, including ESCAP’s Framework Agreement on
Facilitation of Cross-Border Paperless Trade in Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, 2020b).
Bangladesh has ratified the agreement in 2020.
Historically, the major markets for Bangladesh’s exports have been Europe and North
America. During the 40-year period between 1979 to 2019, 46.4 per cent of all of Bangladesh’s
exports went to the European Union (EU) whereas only 2.6 per cent went to South Asian countries
(IMF, 2020b). The ready-made garments (RMG) industry of Bangladesh has benefitted
considerably from trade-related international support measures (ISMs) such as duty-free quota-
free (DFQF) market access and LDC specific preferential rules of origin offered by the EU
(European Commission, 2018a) (European Commission, 2018b). As a result, Bangladesh’s
exports to the EU increased by more than 9 times during the period 1999 to 2019, compared to a
roughly 3-fold increase in exports to USA during the same period (IMF, 2020b). Over the past
fifteen years from 2005 to 2019, there was robust growth in Bangladesh’s exports to India,
although growth of Bangladesh’s exports to its other South Asian neighbours was modest.
Bangladesh’s exports to India accounted for only 2.7 per cent of its total exports in 2019, while
exports to all South Asian countries accounted for a meagre 3.06 per cent of total exports (IMF,
2020b).
Over the years, China and India have been Bangladesh’s top import partners. During the
40-year period between 1979 to 2019, 17.4 per cent of all of Bangladesh’s imports came from
China, while 13.3 per cent came from India (IMF, 2020b). In 2019, 13.8 per cent of all of
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Bangladesh’s imports came from South Asia, of which 12.5 per cent came from India and the
remaining 1.3 per cent came from Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan combined (IMF, 2020b).
Estimates using gravity modelling has shown that South Asia’s export potential was three
times its level of actual exports in 2019 (World Bank, 2019c). In 2007, Bangladesh’s trade
potential was 3.4 times its actual trade with India (Rahman & Ara, 2010). In 2016, while India’s
export potential to Bangladesh was 6.4 times its actual exports, Bangladesh’s export potential to
India was a staggering 54.8 times its actual exports (De, 2020). Using a computable general
equilibrium (CGE) framework, it is seen that unilateral trade liberalisation in five South Asian
countries may increase Bangladesh’s real GDP by 1.4 per cent and aggregate employment by 6.2
per cent (Raihan, 2020). It is found that 93.1 per cent of Bangladesh’s trade potential and 67.1 per
cent of South Asia’s trade potential remained unexploited in 2014 (UNESCAP, 2018b). Thus,
Bangladesh can reap substantial gains from increased trade connectivity in South Asia. In fact, it
has been estimated that elimination of tariffs in South Asia would lead to welfare gains for
Bangladesh equivalent to 0.25 per cent of its GDP and a 40 per cent reduction of trade costs in
South Asia would lead to welfare gains for Bangladesh equivalent to 7.99 per cent of its GDP
(Kumar & George, 2020). Such gains can have significant implications for implementing the SDGs
in the country, including through generating investible resources for SDG aligned sectors.
Investment connectivity refers to the transnational alignment of business regulations,
accompanied by increased adoption of agreements and policies that promote cross-border
investment. Regional institutions that are well placed to promote investment connectivity in South
Asia include the Asian Clearing Union (ACU), South Asian Regional Standards Organisation
(SARSO), South Asia Comprehensive Economic Partnership (SACEP), ADB and Asian
Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB).
Since independence, most FDI in Bangladesh has come from outside the South Asian sub
region. For example, of the total net FDI inflows in the past twenty years from 1999 to 2019, 13.03
per cent came from UK, 9.8 per cent came from USA and 8.8 per cent came from Singapore, while
only 6.4 per cent came from India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka combined (Bangladesh Bank,
2019). In April 2018, Alipay, a concern of China's e-commerce and tech giant Alibaba Group,
bought 20 percent stakes in bKash, Bangladesh's largest mobile financial service provider (The
Daily Star, 2018). China’s investment in Belt and Road Initiative projects has usually been in the
range of USD 100 million to USD 1 billion. (American Enterprise Institute, 2019). In 2019,
Bangladesh received ten times more FDI from China than from India (Bangladesh Bank, 2019).
Nevertheless, net FDI inflow from India into Bangladesh has increased 20-fold from only
USD 5.67 million in 2009 to USD 113.70 million in 2019 (Bangladesh Bank, 2019). In 2018-19,
17 fully Indian or India-Bangladesh joint venture projects were registered in Bangladesh, whose
proposed investment amounted to USD 40.94 million and which were expected to create
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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employment opportunities for 1,745 individuals (BIDA, 2019). Bringing Indian investment in
sectors where with good export prospects can boost Bangladesh’s export supply capacity and raise
its exports to India and the rest of the world (De, Raihan, & Kathuria) (Pitigala, Malouche, &
Kathuria, 2016). Unfortunately, only 11.68 per cent of net FDI inflow from India was in the textiles
and RMG sector of Bangladesh in 2019 (Bangladesh Bank, 2019). Bangladesh has allocated 105
acre land at Mongla (BEZA, 2020a) and 447 acres land at Kushtia (BEZA, 2020b) to India for the
development for economic zones. There are also plans for allocating land to India for the
development of an economic zone in Mirsarai (BEZA, 2020c).
Bangladesh continues to face obstacles to investing in India. Bangladeshi investment in
India was banned up to December 2007 (The Daily Star, 2007) and even after the ban was lifted,
India continued to impose stringent regulations on Bangladeshi investors which required them to
obtain prior approval from the Indian government (The Financial Express, 2020). Bangladeshi
products are popular in the Seven Sister States of North-East India (The Daily Star, 2008), whose
only means of connectivity with the rest of the country is via an arduous 1,645 kilometre journey
through the “chicken’s neck”. The potential for Bangladeshi investment in North-Eastern states of
India became evident when Pran, a Bangladeshi company, invested around USD 14 million to set
up a factory in Tripura (Kathuria & Rizwan, 2020).
The difference between the infrastructure investment need and the current trends of
infrastructure investment in Bangladesh is predicted to be more than 1 per cent of GDP (Global
Infrastructure Hub, 2019). Sectoral decomposition of infrastructure investment needs shows that
the greatest need for investment in Bangladesh are in the energy and transport sectors. Predictions
show that in 2040, infrastructure investment needs of the energy and transport sectors will be
around 1.5 percent and 1 percent of GDP (Global Infrastructure Hub, 2019). Thus, Bangladesh
stands to gain from greater investment connectivity in South Asia, which will be able to partly fill
in the investment gaps in the country.
Transport connectivity refers to the establishment of multi-modal, seamless, efficient,
hassle-free and cost-effective transportation networks (Rahman M. , 2017). A number of regional
institutional structures and agreements can facilitate transport connectivity in South Asia, such as
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal Motor Vehicle Agreement
(BBIN-MVA), Asian Highway (AH) and Trans-Asian Railway (TAR).
As of 2003, Bangladesh had the highest road density among all South Asian countries,
although its proportion of paved roads as a percentage of all roads was the lowest (ADB, 2014).
Survey findings have shown that the quality of Bangladesh’s roads was perceived to be the second
worst in South Asia, behind only Nepal, with a value of 3 on scale where 1 indicated worst quality
and 7 indicated best quality (Sustainable Mobility for All, 2017). As of 2016, Bangladesh had only
18 registered vehicles per 1,000 people, which was the lowest among all South Asian countries
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(ADB, 2019). Progress in the construction of the Padma Bridge in Bangladesh has been slow. The
Padma Bridge project had already witnessed a cost overrun of 183.3 per cent and a time overrun
of 42.9 per cent, as of 2018 (CPD, 2018a). In contrast, the Crimean Bridge in Russia, which is
almost 3 times longer than the Padma Bridge, was completed in roughly one-third the time that
has been proposed for completing the construction of Padma Bridge (SGM-Most LLC, 2020).
Apart from the poor state of its internal road transportation infrastructure, Bangladesh has hitherto
made little progress in connecting its roads with its neighbouring countries. During the 11th BCIM
Forum in 2013, a car rally was held which started in Kolkata, passed through Dhaka, Silchar,
Imphal, Mandalay and Ruili, before finishing in Kunming (MEA, 2013). This car rally
demonstrated the potential for road transport connectivity between South Asia and South East
Asia. Unfortunately, the stalemate in BCIM has deprived Bangladesh and India from substantial
economic gains. It has been estimated that increased investment in transport and communications
infrastructure connectivity in Asia during 2010-2020 could lead to 15.6 per cent increase in real
income in Bangladesh and a 12.2 per cent increase in real income in India in 2020 (Zhai, 2012).
Reducing transport costs in South Asia could lead to an increase in household welfare in
Bangladesh equivalent to 2.9 to 4.1 per cent of Bangladesh’s 2004 GDP, depending on the number
of countries of South Asia that are involved (Gilbert & Banik, 2012).
Like most of the South Asian countries, Bangladesh has a relatively high density railway
network. Although the total length of railway lines in the country has increased over the years,
missing links in critical areas mean that the potential economic gains from using the network as a
continuous system remain unutilised. For example, progress in the construction of the Dohazari-
Gundum railway line, which is part of the TAR, has been significantly behind time. It has been
estimated that even in the best case scenario, only 26.3 per cent of the railway line could be
completed by June 2019 even though the time period of the project is from 2010 to 2022 (CPD,
2018a). Other missing links beyond the national boundaries in the TAR are also affecting
Bangladesh. For example, missing railway links between Kalay-Jiribam in Myanmar and India,
and between Lashio-Dali in Myanmar and China are depriving Bangladesh of greater railway
connectivity with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries and China
(UNESCAP, 2019). Bangladesh also stands to gain from increased railway connectivity with India.
For instance, at least 3 weeks of transportation time could be reduced if containers could be carried
from Dhaka to Delhi directly through railways instead of taking the maritime route (Rahmatullah,
2009).
Lack of adequate seaport facilities have stifled the economic growth of Bangladesh,
reduced the competitiveness of its exports, and hampered its connectivity with its South Asian
neighbours and the rest of the world. The average turnaround time at Chittagong seaport was 3.23
days in 2012, compared to the South Asian average of 2.08 days (Dappe & Suarez-Aleman, 2016).
In 2018 Bangladesh ranked at 150 out of 156 countries in the world, in terms of median time spent
at seaports by container ships (UNCTAD, 2019). If the seaport facilities in Bangladesh were as
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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efficient as those in Sri Lanka, then Bangladesh’s exports to the United States could increase by
0.5 per cent (Dappe & Suarez-Aleman, 2016). Bangladesh has not built any new seaport after its
independence and since it does not have any deep-sea port of its own, it must use smaller vessels
to get cargo in and out which can cost an additional USD 15,000 per day (Pearson, 2015). 11
In 2016, electricity shortage in Bangladesh caused losses equivalent to 5 per cent of GDP
(Zhang, 2019). It has been shown that a 10 per cent electricity shortage decreases the productivity
of firms by 4.8 per cent in the manufacturing sector and by 5.3 per cent in the services sector
(Zhang, 2019). Bangladesh is endowed with around 10 per cent of South Asia’s natural gas
(SAARC Energy Centre, 2017) (World Energy Council, 2016), which explains why almost 99 per
cent of its electricity production was from combustible fuels and only 1 per cent was from
renewable sources in 2016 (ADB, 2019). Hence, there is a need to make Bangladesh’s energy mix
more environment-friendly in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate
change. In this regard, Bangladesh has much to learn from its South Asian neighbours. For
instance, Bhutan and Nepal, which collectively have around 22 per cent of South Asia’s
hydropower potential (SAARC Energy Centre, 2017) (World Energy Council, 2016), produce
almost all of their electricity from renewable sources (ADB, 2019). Although Bhutan exports
nearly 20 per cent of its electricity (ADB, 2019), Bangladesh has yet to start its import from the
country. With the potential of being able to shift its import basket to cleaner fuel sources such as
through greater hydropower imports from Bhutan, Bangladesh can positively affect the
environmental sustainability in South Asia through reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
Institutional connectivity refers to the harmonisation and coordination of institutions
across countries. The SAARC Development Fund, SAARC Agriculture Centre SAARC Food
Bank and SAARC Forestry Centre are some of the initiatives for improving institutional
connectivity in South Asia.
The SAARC Food Bank, which was set up in 2007, was intended to act as a regional food
security reserve, provide regional support to national food security efforts, foster country
partnerships and regional integration, and solve regional food shortages through collective action
(Rahman, Bari, & Farin, 2017). The SAARC Food Bank initially started with a reserve of 243,000
metric tonnes, where Bangladesh’s contribution was 40,000 metric tonnes, which was 16.5 per
cent of the total (Rahman, Bari, & Farin, 2017).. In 2011, each of the SAARC countries doubled
their SAARC Food Bank reserve commitments (Rahman, Bari, & Farin, 2017). Food security is a
development priority for a land scarce, over-populated country like Bangladesh, which is highly
11 Bangladesh’s efforts to build a deep-sea port at Sonadia with the support of China was blockaded by political
pressure from India, Japan and USA (Shepard, 2016) (Mooney, 2016) (Islam M. , 2019) (Rahman A. , 2019). If
Bangladesh went ahead with the project as initially planned, then by 2020 the first phase would be complete and
Sonadia deep-sea port would be capable of handling 74.1 million tonnes of cargo per year (Saha, 2010), which is more
than the amount of cargo handled by Chittagong port in 2016-17 (Chittagong Port Authority, 2019).
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
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vulnerable to climate change and often affected by natural disasters. Therefore, Bangladesh’s
membership in a regional food security support mechanism such as the SAARC Food Bank may
be beneficial for the country since it provides a means of emergency food supply. Apart from its
involvement in the SAARC Food Bank, Bangladesh also imports food grains from South Asian
countries such as India and Pakistan. In 2014, Bangladesh imported 873,884 tonnes of rice and
1,338,106 tonnes of wheat from India (Rahman, Bari, & Farin, 2017).
Bangladesh is a riverine country, and 54 out its 57 trans-boundary rivers are shared with
India (Joint Rivers Commission, 2019). Since India has not ratified the Convention on the Law of
the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (United Nations, 1997), it is critical for
Bangladesh as a lower riparian country to continue negotiations on river sharing with India, and
also with other upper riparian countries in the region, to protect its national interests, address
adverse socio-economic and environmental damages related to this and achieve the SDGs.
For instance, studies have shown that the gains from multilateral cooperation on the
development and utilisation of water in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin could be mutually
beneficial for all the co-riparian countries and the total gains from such cooperation would exceed
the gains possible through separate bilateral cooperation between the countries (Ahmad, Verghese,
Iyer, Pradhan, & Malla, 1994) (Adhikary, et al., 2000) (Ahmad, Ahmed, Khan, & Rasheed, 2001).
Therefore, regional cooperation that includes all the riparian countries, namely Bangladesh,
Bhutan, China, India and Nepal, is required to adopt a ‘whole of river basin’ approach to address
the longstanding issues related to trans-boundary rivers in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna
basin. Such regional cooperation is urgently required since the cost of non-cooperation is high for
each country and the region as a whole (Ahmad & Ahmed, 2005) and nearly all South Asian
countries will have areas under serious and life-threatening water stress by 2025 (Office of the
Director of National Intelligence, 2012) (Huda, 2017). Regional cooperation on water related
issues in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin would be conducive towards the achievement of
almost every target under SDG 6 (ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all), as well as several other targets under a number of other SDGs, for all the
countries in South Asia.
Knowledge connectivity refers to the transfer of technology and sharing of best practices.
South Asian institutional arrangements such as Asia-Pacific Information Superhighway (AP-IS),
South Asia Sub-regional Economic Cooperation Information Highway (SASEC IH), Centre for
Alleviation of Poverty through Sustainable Agriculture (CAPSA), Centre for Sustainable
Agricultural Mechanisation (CASM), Regional Integrated Multi-hazard Early Warning System
(RIMES) and Asian and Pacific Centre for the Development of Disaster Information Management
(APDIM) can enhance knowledge connectivity within South Asia. There is immense scope for
regional cooperation in South Asia based on knowledge connectivity in several key areas, such as
digital connectivity, disaster risk reduction and counter-terrorism.
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South Asia had the lowest internet penetration among the regions of the world in 2017
(Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2017). Within the South Asian countries, Bangladesh’s internet
penetration was among the lowest in 2017 and its growth of internet penetration during 2010-2016
was also the slowest (ITU, 2017). Bangladesh is connected to only two submarine cables, which
is the lowest number in the Bay of Bengal region (Chatterjee, 2020). As a result, the country cannot
meet its internet bandwidth demand and imports bandwidth from India (Husain , 2017). Research
has shown that for the years 2011-2017, in a sample of 18 Asia-Pacific countries including
Bangladesh, a 10 per cent increase in fixed broadband penetration leads to 1.63 per cent increase
in GDP per capita, on average (ITU, 2019). On the other hand, for the years 2011-2017, in a sample
of 24 Asia-Pacific countries including Bangladesh, a 10 per cent increase in mobile broadband
penetration leads to 0.51 per cent increase in GDP per capita, on average (ITU, 2019).
Unfortunately, there is a widening digital divide among the countries of the Asia-Pacific region
when it comes to broadband internet penetration (UNESCAP, 2017). Weak fibre-optic
connectivity has contributed to bandwidth inequality, low capacity, high cost and unreliability of
broadband internet in South Asia and has limited the region’s economic growth, social
development and inclusiveness (UNESCAP, 2016a).
In view of this digital divide, the AP-IS launched by UNESCAP member countries in 2015
presents an opportunity for the countries of South Asia to collaborate among themselves to realise
the economic gains from increased internet coverage, speed and stability.12 The AP-IS Regional
Cooperation Framework Document outlines several areas of cooperation among countries, which
include : i) identifying, coordinating, deploying, expanding and integrating the regional backbone
network; ii) establishing a sufficient number of internet exchange points (IXPs); iii) conducting
regional social and economic studies; iv) enhancing ICT infrastructure resilience; v) designing and
streamlining ICT-related regulations and policy frameworks; vi) building capacity; and vii)
developing funding mechanisms based on public-private partnerships (UNESCAP, 2016b). Such
cooperation will be conducive towards the achievement of various SDG targets across several
Goals.13
12 The AP-IS project aims to increase the access, availability and affordability of broadband Internet in Asia and the
Pacific, through improving the region's existing internet infrastructure across four pillars: i) physical infrastructure
development; ii) internet traffic and network management; iii) promoting e-resilience and iv) broadband for all
(UNESCAP, 2016a). 13 Specific SDG targets include SDG target 4.4 (by 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who
have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship),
SDG target 5.b (enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology,
to promote the empowerment of women), SDG Target 9.c (significantly increase access to information and
communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed
countries by 2020), SDG target 17.6 (enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international
cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed
terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level,
and through a global technology facilitation mechanism), and SDG target 17.8 (fully operationalize the technology
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In the face of increased vulnerability to natural disasters faced by South Asian countries
due to anthropogenic climate change, the countries in South Asia and larger Asia and the Pacific
region realised that regional cooperation through improved knowledge connectivity would be
crucial for disaster risk reduction. In this context, the APDIM was established by the UNESCAP
member countries in 2015, to reinforce disaster resilience through knowledge sharing (APDIM,
2020). In the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, several countries in South and South
East Asia and Africa came together to form the RIMES for Africa and Asia. The RIMES generates
early warning information on multiple hazards and communicates this information to its member
countries (RIMES, 2020). Regional cooperation through such knowledge connectivity may be
conducive towards the accomplishment of several SDG targets. 14
Countries of South Asia can share knowledge and coordinate among themselves to fight
terrorism in the region. During 1970 to 2017, 24.75 per cent of all terrorist incidents and 24.60 per
cent of all fatalities from terrorism occurred in South Asia, making it the most dangerous and
deadly region in the world, after the Middle East and North Africa (START, 2018). In South Asia,
the perception of terrorism as a common security threat is yet to evolve (Wolf & Casaca, 2014).
Research has shown that there exists a strategic rationale for international cooperation for counter-
terrorism, and by sharing intelligence and security resources amongst themselves, countries may
be better prepared to face security threats such as terrorism and extremism (Saadat, 2020).
4.3 Towards a model of regional cooperation
In order to address the seven policy priorities as identified for South Asia and to
successfully implement the SDGs, a Five-connectivity Model of Regional Cooperation can be
proposed s (Rahman M. , 2018) (UNESCAP, 2018a) (UNESCAP, 2018b). Figure 18 shows that
the outermost pentagon on the model contains the seven regional priorities for South Asia.
bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and
enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology). 14 These targets include SDG target 1.5 (by 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations
and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and
environmental shocks and disasters), SDG target 2.4 (by 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and
implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems,
that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and
that progressively improve land and soil quality), SDG target 3.d (strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular
developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks), SDG
target 11.5 (by 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially
decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-
related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations), SDG target 11.b (by 2020,
substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and
plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and
develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster
risk management at all levels), SDG target 13.1 (strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards
and natural disasters in all countries), and SDG target 13.3 (improve education, awareness-raising and human and
institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning).
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Following this, the next pentagon contains the regional institutions that need to be utilised for
addressing the seven priorities. The next pentagon, which forms the heart of the model, shows the
five kinds of connectivity that will act as regional instruments deployed by the corresponding
regional institutions. The inner-most pentagon shows the relevant SDGs that can be achieved
through the respective regional institutions and regional instruments. Finally, at the very centre of
the model sits SDG 17 which will be the core SDG for such a regional framework. Using the Five-
connectivity Model of Regional Cooperation, it is possible to address all the seven regional
priorities facing South Asia, as well as expedite the implementation of all 17 SDGs. Given the
interconnected and indivisible nature of the SDGs, the Five-connectivity model inherently has
some spillovers between the SDGs, along with inter-linkages between the different kinds of
connectivity. For instance, improving transport connectivity could lead to an improvement in trade
connectivity.
Figure 18: Five-connectivity model of regional cooperation for South Asia
Source: Authors’ illustration based on (Rahman, 2018), (UNESCAP, 2018a; 2018b).
SDG 1, 3, 4,
8, 10, 16
SDG 17
Employment, infrastructure, education, health,
social protection & inclusion
ACU, SARSO, SACEP,
ADB, AIIB
Investment
connectivity
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Addressing existing problems and realizing SDGs in South Asia requires effective
international coordination, and setting up a framework for regional monitoring and review
(Bhattacharya & Rezbana, 2016a). An efficient regional monitoring and evaluation system will
promote the progress of SDGs at both the national and regional levels by guiding the process of
development policy making, raising accountability and increasing participation. SAARC has the
option to scale-up the regional approach to SDGs by considering an integrated implementation
strategy, and a framework for regional evaluation and follow-up (Bhattacharya & Rezbana,
2016a). In this context, a Group of Eminent Persons, as well as other expert groups and
committees, may be established by SAARC to monitor and review SDG progress and recommend
policies for more effective and efficient implementation (Bhattacharya & Rezbana, 2016a).
Bhattacharya and Rezbana (2016b) outline the various approaches and modalities that could
facilitate regional cooperation and support the delivery of the SDGs in South Asia. Table 11 shows
these approaches and modalities, in light of the proposed Five Connectivity Model of Regional
Cooperation for South Asia.
Table 11: Approaches and modalities to operationalise the five connectivity model of regional
cooperation for South Asia
SDG Approaches and modalities Type of
connectivity
1 Improving the efficiency of existing SAARC poverty alleviation projects and the
SAARC Development Fund
Institutional
Strengthening economic integration by extending regional arrangements such as
South Asian Free Trade Area and South Asia Trade in Services Agreement
Trade
2 Ensuring efficient use of SAARC Food Bank and SAARC Seed Bank Institutional
Utilising regional expertise on agricultural technologies Knowledge
Removing roadblocks to free trade, and liberalising trade in food grains Trade
3 Using regional research and technology support for the fighting against infectious
diseases
Knowledge
Initiating regional awareness-raising programmes Knowledge
4 Making institutions such as the South Asian University stronger Knowledge
Providing more scholarships and exchanges for students Knowledge
5 Facilitating cross-border collaborations between civil society organizations, via
SAARC
Institutional
Raising awareness on gender-related issues across the region Knowledge
6 Beginning multilateral, multi-track and multi-stakeholder “whole of basin”
cooperation for water resources management and river sharing and establishing a
Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Basin Joint Commission consisting of all riparian
countries, namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India and Nepal
Institutional
7 Communicating latest information and best practices in renewable energy, energy
conservation and efficient use of energy
Knowledge
Creating a regional energy grid, encouraging energy trade and building cross-border
pipelines
Trade,
investment
8 Discussing national macroeconomic policies for the greater good of the region Knowledge
Reforming business rules to promote cross-border investment within a system of
mutual cooperation to improve intra-regional trade
Investment,
trade
9 Coordinating regional infrastructural investment to enhance transport connectivity Transport,
investment
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SDG Approaches and modalities Type of
connectivity
Harmonising rules and regulations across the region to improve transport, trade and
investment connectivity
Transport,
trade,
investment
10 Increasing regional coordination on trade and investment to provide opportunities for
left-behind groups and address rising inequalities
Trade,
investment
Transitioning towards South Asian economic union to in order to bring backward
areas at par with the region as a whole
Trade,
investment,
institutional
11 Addressing intra-regional migration across South Asia through coordination at
SAARC
Transport,
institutional
12 Exchanging information and ideas on sustainable production and consumption, as
well as frugal innovations
Knowledge
13 Pooling resources for disaster risk reduction and disaster relief Institutional
Enhancing knowledge sharing through regional early warning systems reduce loss of
lives from natural disasters
Knowledge
14 Cooperate and coordinate across the region to ensure sustainable use of marine
resources in the Bay of Bengal
Institutional
15 Implementing regional strategies to preserve biodiversity, protect critically
endangered species and prevent exploitation of rivers
Institutional
16 Sharing intelligence and security resources across countries to fight the common
threat of terrorism
Knowledge
17 Designing a regional monitoring and review mechanism to track the progress of SDG
implementation in countries across the region
All
Raising the level and frequency of involvement and cooperation in regional
organisations
All
Source: Authors’ compilation based on information from Bhattacharya and Rezbana (2016b)
As can be seen, the regional institutions and instruments required to address the regional
priorities and achieve the SDGs already exist for South Asia. Unfortunately, not a single proper
SAARC summit has been held since the beginning of the SDG era, reflective of the difficult
political situation in South Asia which can stall the implementation of SDGs nationally and at the
regional level. Lack of regional cooperation in implementing, monitoring and reviewing the MDGs
was one of the prime reasons behind its slow progress and incomplete fulfilment (Bhattacharya &
Rezbana, 2016b). Thus, unless the countries of South Asia can set aside their differences and work
together to address common priorities, the SDGs may not be achieved in South Asia by 2030. As
the founding member of SAARC, Bangladesh can play an important role in reviving regional
dialogue in South Asia through prudent diplomacy and a multilateral, inclusive approach to the
discussions by engaging countries in South Asia and beyond.
5. COVID-19 and the SDGs in Bangladesh
The COVID-19 pandemic, which started off as a public health emergency, has rapidly
escalated all over the world and evolved into the most devastating human crisis of recent times.
COVID-19 has substantially disrupted the implementation of most SDG targets, deviating the
progress of some and completely reversing many development accomplishments that took decades
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to achieve. While all sectors of the economy and sections of the society have been affected by the
pandemic, the poorest and most vulnerable have been the hardest hit. As a result, those who were
already left behind have been pushed farther behind by COVID-19. Government efforts to tackle
the spread of the virus have involved a wide range of prohibitive measures such as increased
surveillance, physical distancing, contact tracing, business shutdowns, public transport
suspensions, border closures, travel bans, general holidays, lockdowns, curfews and fines and
imprisonment for violators of restrictions. Thus, the increase in economic inequalities and
concentration of economic power along with stringent, restrictive measures due to the COVID-19
pandemic will make it more difficult to realise the pledge of the SDGs to “leave no one behind”.
COVID-19 has bluntly exposed the weaknesses of healthcare systems around the world, even in
the most developed nations. It has brought to the forefront the systemic weaknesses of lack of
adequate public investments in health, human wellbeing and welfare, which severely constrained
the capacities of healthcare systems to deal with a crisis of such magnitude.15
5.1 Impact of COVID-19 on the progress of the SDGs in Bangladesh
The COVID-19 pandemic is anticipated to push millions of people in Bangladesh into
poverty and aggravate inequalities, thus reversing the incremental progress made over several
decades in a matter of only few months. The economic slowdown and supply-chain disruptions
caused by the pandemic will worsen the extent of malnutrition and hunger for many people in
Bangladesh. Women and girls are being disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic
due to a surge in domestic violence, additional care work owing to the closure of schools and day-
care centres and exposure on the front lines in fighting the virus. For Bangladesh, the socio-
economic fallout from COVID-19 will be multidimensional in nature and massive in magnitude.
Given the global context, this section assesses the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on progress
of the SDGs in Bangladesh, based on available evidence.
5.1.1 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 1 (No poverty)
Simulations under a CGE modelling framework has shown that 11.73 million additional
people may be pushed below USD 1.90 per day in Bangladesh in 2020 due to the COVID-19
pandemic (UNESCAP, 2020a). This implies that the number of people living below USD 1.90 per
day will increase by 50.17 per cent in 2020 compared to 2016 and as many as 35.11 million people
or 20.95 per cent of the population may be living below USD 1.90 per day in 2020, compared to
only 14.80 per cent in 201616. Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD)’s research has shown that
15 In contrast to public spending on human wellbeing and social welfare, global military spending in 2019 was
estimated to be USD 1,917 billion, which was equivalent to 2.2 per cent of global GDP or USD 249 per person (SIPRI,
2020). South Asia spent USD 88.1 billion on the military in 2019, which was 6.4 per cent higher than its military
spending in 2018 (SIPRI, 2020). 16 Authors’ calculations using data from World Development Indicators (World Bank, 2019b)
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negative shocks on household consumption due to COVID-19 in the range of 9 to 25 per cent may
lead to increase of national upper poverty rate from 24.3 per cent in 2016 to 35.0 per cent in 2020
(CPD, 2020b).
5.1.2 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 2 (Zero hunger)
The World Food Programme (WFP) has identified Bangladesh as one of the four South
Asian countries that are at high risk of food insecurity due to COVID-19, with 24.2 million people
facing chronic food insecurity and 1.3 million people facing acute food insecurity (Husain,
Sandstrom, Greb, Groder, & Pallanch, 2020). As much as 32 per cent of the rural households in
Bangladesh had to reduce their food consumption due to a deadly combination of high food prices
and low incomes (UNESCAP, 2020a). Since the start of the pandemic in Bangladesh, 41 per cent
of households below the national lower poverty line reduced their food consumption and the
number of households below the national lower poverty line that were having three meals per day
decreased by 25 per cent (Rahman & Matin, 2020). Moreover, even the vulnerable non-poor
households in Bangladesh had to reduce their per capita food expenditure by 23 per cent due to
COVID-19 (Rahman & Matin, 2020).
5.1.3 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 3 (Good health and wellbeing)
The existing healthcare infrastructure in Bangladesh was unprepared to deal with a crisis
of the magnitude of that of the COVID-19 pandemic. As of 2017, there was one hospital bed for
every 1,196 individuals in the country (BBS, 2019c). Apart from the lack of infrastructure and
equipment, healthcare facilities in Bangladesh were also not staffed with adequate numbers of
healthcare service providers. As of 2018, there was 1 registered physician for every 1,581
individuals in the country (BBS, 2019c). Among the healthcare facilities in Bangladesh, 28 per
cent had specialists17, 59.1 per cent had general practitioners18 and 79.7 per cent had nurses, as of
2017 (NIPORT, ACPR, and ICF, 2018).
COVID-19 may have adverse impacts on a number of indicators under SDG 3. It has been
estimated that COVID-19 may cause under five mortality to rise by 9.8 per cent to 44.8 per cent
per month and maternal mortality to increase by 8.3 per cent to 38.6 per cent per month over a
period of six months in 118 low and middle income countries (UN, 2020). The COVID-19
17 Specialist (consultant) medicine [including cardiology], specialist (consultant) general surgery, specialist
(consultant) obstetrics/gynaecology, specialist (consultant) paediatrics, specialist (consultant) psychiatry, specialist
(consultant) anaesthesia or any other specialist not listed above.
18 Medical officer (MBBS) (any non-specialist doctor, including assistant surgeon, emergency medical officer (EMO),
indoor medical officer (IMO), maternal and child health/family planning medical officer (MCH/FP), residential
medical officer (RMO), regardless of designation or title) or medical officer—anaesthetist or dental surgeon.
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
pandemic has disrupted immunization campaigns worldwide and at least 24 million people remain
at risk of missing out on vaccinations for polio, measles, typhoid, yellow fever, cholera, rotavirus,
human papillomavirus, meningitis A and rubella in 21 lower-income countries (UN, 2020).
5.1.4 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 4 (Quality education)
In Bangladesh, school closures to prevent the spread of COVID-19 have left 40 million
students out of school for more than 6 months, as of September 2020 (Kamal, 2020). Since only
5.6 per cent of households in Bangladesh had a computer in 2019 (BBS & UNICEF, 2019), an
estimated 37.76 million students would not have access to online learning opportunities during the
pandemic19. Since school closures in March, only 25 per cent of children in rural areas of
Bangladesh have watched TV classes, while only 2 per cent of children in rural areas of
Bangladesh have watched online educational programmes (Asadullah, Bhattacharjee, Tasnim, &
Mumtahena, 2020). School closures due to COVID-19 have deprived 2.96 million children in
Bangladesh (WFP, 2020) and 379 million children worldwide (UN, 2020) from school meals,
which has adversely affected their health and made them more susceptible to disease.
5.1.5 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 5 (Gender equality)
In South Asia, 37 per cent of women reported suffering from domestic violence and in
Bangladesh 49 per cent of women and girls reported feeling safety and security risks since the
imposition of lockdowns and general holidays (UNESCAP, 2020a). In Bangladesh, 55 per cent of
women and 44 per cent men reported an increase in the time spent to do unpaid domestic work
while 58 per cent of women and 56 per cent of men reported an increase in the time spent to do
unpaid care work since the start of the pandemic (UN Women, 2020).
5.1.6 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation)
Frequently washing hands with running water and soap is widely acknowledged to the one
of the most cost-effective, simple and effective ways of curbing the transmission of the
coronavirus. Unfortunately, according to Bangladesh’s National Hygiene Survey 2018, only 15
per cent people were aware of need for washing hand using soap and water before feeding baby,
while around 36 per cent people were aware of need for washing hand using soap and water before
preparing or serving food- reflecting the poor general awareness about basic hygiene (BBS, 2020).
In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, Bangladesh also faced the most prolonged
flooding in more than a decade. As of 14 August 2020, floods had inundated 33 districts of the
country, killing 44 individuals and affecting more than 5 million people (CPD, 2020a). The flood
19 Authors’ calculations using data from Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2019 (BBS & UNICEF, 2019)
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
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also damaged more than 1,900 schools (CPD, 2020a) leaving 807,467 children without access to
education (FloodList, 2020). One of the major reasons behind this, is Bangladesh’s inability to
operationalize SDG target 6.5, which calls upon countries to “implement integrated water
resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation”.
5.1.7 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 7 (Affordable and clean energy)
In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, increasing the accessibility, affordability and
availability of sustainable energy is immensely important in order to ensure that healthcare services
can be provided efficiently and communication links can be maintained constantly. In Bangladesh,
the overall power sector reported an overcapacity rate of 62.5 per cent in March 2020 (Moazzem
& Shibly, 2020) due to a sharp fall in electricity demand as economic activities dwindled during
the pandemic. Such overcapacity not only represented a misallocation of resources, but also
created a huge fiscal and financial burden for the country.
5.1.8 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 8 (Decent work and economic growth)
Although the government has declared that the real GDP growth in fiscal year 2020 was
5.2 per cent (Kamal, 2020), several national and international organisations have projected much
lower figures. For example, as of June 2020, real GDP growth for Bangladesh in 2020 has been
estimated to be 1.6 per cent by the World Bank (World Bank, 2020a), 2.5 per cent by CPD (CPD,
2020b), and 3.8 per cent by IMF (IMF, 2020a). Earlier in April 2020, the World Bank had
forecasted that on a disaggregated level, real growth for the Bangladesh economy in 2020 will be
3.5 per cent for the agriculture sector, 2 per cent for the industry sector and 3.5 per cent for the
services sector (World Bank, 2020b). At this rate, the agriculture sector would create 0.10 million
more jobs, whereas the industry and services sectors would create 0.21 million and 0.9 million less
jobs respectively, compared to 2018-19, assuming that employment to GDP elasticity would
remain equal to that between 2015-16 and 2016-17 and the level of employment would be equal
to that in 2016-17 (Table 12). This suggests that the economic slowdown caused due to COVID-
19 may reduce employment in services and industry sectors, but create jobs in the agriculture
sector, which would reverse decades of gradual structural transformation and stall the development
of the economy. As of April 2020, 71 per cent of urban slum dwellers and 55 per cent of the rural
poor in Bangladesh had no jobs due to COVID-19 (Rahman & Matin, 2020).
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Table 12: Potential number of jobs lost (in million) due to slower economic growth under different
economic growth scenarios
Scenario Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
Assumed
growth
World Bank forecasted
economic growth for 2020
World Bank forecasted
economic growth for 2021
World Bank forecasted
economic growth for 2022
Agriculture -0.10 -0.19 -0.19
Industry 0.21 0.18 0.13
Services 0.90 1.20 1.14
Source: CPD compilation and calculations using data from Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) and World Bank
(BBS, 2019a) (BBS, 2018) (World Bank, 2020b)
Note: i) 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑏𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑗𝑜𝑏𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 2018 −
19) − (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑏𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ); ii) Negative potential number of jobs lost
indicates potential jobs created; iii) Assuming that employment to GDP elasticity is equal to that between
2015-16 and 2016-17; iv) Assuming that level of employment equal to that in 2016-17
5.1.9 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure)
Manufacturing in Bangladesh has also taken a blow since the start of the pandemic, which
has led to serious repercussions throughout the economy. United Nations Department of Economic
and Social Affairs (UNDESA) estimates indicate that Bangladesh’s RMG exports in April 2020
fell by 80 per cent compared to April 2019, and 1 million RMG workers, who were largely women,
were either fired or furloughed (UNDESA, 2020). Bangladesh’s RMG export orders valued at
more than USD 3 billion were cancelled due to the pandemic (UNESCAP, 2020a). On 22 March
2020, US clothing retailing giant Kohl cancelled orders worth USD 50 million from Bangladeshi
garment factories, but then paid out USD 109 million in dividends to its shareholders on 1 April
2020 (McNamara, 2020). Consequently, Vietnam overtook Bangladesh and became the second
largest exporter of RMG in the world in 2020 (Uddin, 2020). Estimates suggest that COVID-19
may cause losses equivalent to USD 302 billion to 400 billion for airlines around the world in 2020
(UN, 2020). Airlines in Bangladesh suffered from losses equivalent to BDT 13.61 billion in March
and April 2020, due to suspension of flights amidst the pandemic (Hoque, 2020).
5.1.10 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 10 (Reduced inequalities)
CPD’s research has shown that negative shocks on household consumption due to COVID-
19 in the range of 9 to 25 per cent may lead to increase in Gini coefficient of income inequality in
Bangladesh from 0.48 in 2016 to 0.52 in 2020 (CPD, 2020b). Rapid response telephonic surveys
have shown that between February and April 2020, households below the national lower poverty
line experienced a 73 per cent fall in income, households below the national upper poverty line
experienced a 75 per cent fall in income and vulnerable non-poor households experienced a 66 per
cent fall in income (Rahman & Matin, 2020).
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COVID-19 has exacerbated the existing inequities in access to healthcare in Bangladesh.
As of 30 June 2020, six out of the top ten poorest districts of Bangladesh did not have any COVID-
19 testing centres (Rahaman, Mahmud, & Mallick, 2020). COVID-19 may worsen the
repercussions of the digital divide, especially in terms of access to learning opportunities. In 2019,
only 0.4 per cent of households from the poorest wealth index quintile in Bangladesh had a
computer, compared to 21 per cent of households from the richest wealth index quintile who had
a computer (BBS & UNICEF, 2019).
5.1.11 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 11 (Sustainable cities and communities)
Since Bangladesh has one of the highest proportion of urban population living in slums in
South Asia (UNESCAP, 2020a), it must remain especially vigilant to ensure that the coronavirus
does not strike in the slum areas and then spread like wildfire. As many people were forced to
remain indoors for prolonged periods of time due to lockdowns, the importance of having inclusive
and accessible green open spaces in cities has resurfaced (SDG target 11.7). Unfortunately Dhaka
has only 8.5 per cent tree-covered land and only 0.0002 metres squared of green park per capita,
whereas ideally a city should have 20 per cent tree-covered land and 9 metres squared of green
park per capita (Rahman & Zhang, 2018).
5.1.12 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and production)
COVID-19 has led to a surge in unsustainable production of single use plastics and
synthetic materials which have been utilised for making personal protective equipment (PPE) such
as body suits, masks and face shields. Between 26 March 2020 and 25 April 2020, around 14,165
tonnes of single use plastic waste was generated in Bangladesh, which included 455 million
surgical masks, 1,216 million polyethene hand gloves, 189 million surgical hand gloves and 49
million bottles of hand sanitizer (ESDO, 2020).
5.1.13 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 13 (Climate action)
The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has caused a precipitous fall in economic activity which
has subsequently led to a decline in greenhouse gas emissions. Satellite data for Bangladesh has
shown that between 1 February 2020 and 30 May 2020, the average concentration of nitrogen
dioxide fell by 40 per cent and the average concentration of sulphur dioxide fell by 43 per cent,
compared to the same time period in 2019 (Islam, Tusher, Roy, & Rahman, 2020). But the decrease
in pollution due to lockdowns in 2020 would have only a limited effect without more reductions
in emissions year-on-year (Betts, et al., 2020).
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
In the midst of the pandemic, climate vulnerable populations became more vulnerable due
to COVID-19 and their ability to absorb shocks was compromised. On 20 May 2020, Super
Cyclonic Storm Amphan hit 19 southern districts of Bangladesh, killing 26 people and affecting
2.6 million others (NAWG, 2020). Primary estimates suggest that the economic loss due to
Amphan would be equivalent to at least BDT 11 billion (or approximately 130 million USD) (Roy,
Hasan, & Alamgir, 2020).
5.1.14 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 14 (Life below water)
Lockdown restrictions, fall in incomes, fear of wet fish markets and limited opening market
opening hours have halved the demand for fish in urban areas of Bangladesh, which has affected
more than 5 million households which depend on aquaculture production as the source of their
livelihood (FAO & WorldFish, 2020). Nevertheless, the slowdown in economic activity due to the
pandemic has provided a rare opportunity for aquatic life to recover from anthropogenic damage
and disturbance. In Bangladesh, endangered species of fish, such as the Bengal loach, have been
caught in large numbers in 2020 after more than a decade (Deshwara, 2020).
5.1.15 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 15 (Life on land)
In Bangladesh, 31,172 wild animals, birds and reptiles were seized between July 2012 and
October 2019, and the illegal wildlife trafficking market is worth around BDT 100 million
(approximately USD 1,178,812) per year (Chowdhury, 2020). With increased demand for
pangolins from Bangladesh, between 2010 and 2014 pangolins were virtually eradicated from the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (Trageser, et al., 2017). As of January 2016, one kilogram of pangolin
scales were sold for as much as USD 500 in Bangladesh (Trageser, et al., 2017)..
5.1.16 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 16 (Peace, justice and strong institutions
Emergency circumstances such as during the ongoing pandemic, may provide a conducive
environment for vested interests to exploit public funding for private benefit, making it important
to consider and minimize vulnerabilities to abuse and misuse (Wendling, Alonso, Saxena, Tang,
& Verdugo, 2020). The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) has warned that fraudulent claims on
government stimulus funds may be made by individuals presenting themselves as legitimate
companies seeking assistance (FATF, 2020). Hence, the pandemic will make it harder for countries
like Bangladesh to achieve SDG target 16.5, which calls upon countries to “substantially reduce
corruption and bribery in all their forms”.
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5.1.17 Impact of COVID-19 on SDG 17 (Partnership for the goals)
As international trade tumbles in the aftermath of the coronavirus contagion, countries like
Bangladesh will experience the after-effects. For example, according to UNCTAD, a 2 per cent
reduction in China’s exports of intermediary goods to Bangladesh would decrease Bangladesh’s
exports by USD 16 million (UNCTAD, 2020). Remittances contribute to 12 per cent of the GDP
of Bangladesh and migrant workers constitute of 9 per cent of the total active workforce of
Bangladesh (Ali M. A., 2014) (BMET, 2020) (Karim., 2020) (Mannaan & Farhana, 2014). Around
13 million Bangladeshi migrant workers (MoEWOE, 2019) send back USD 15 billion per year on
average (BMET, 2020) (Mannaan & Farhana, 2014). As of 12 May 2020, 666,000 Bangladeshi
migrant workers were sent back home, and two million more were under the risk of deportation
(Noman, 2020). Around 87 per cent of the returnees had no source of income (Bangladesh Post,
2020) and were offered a meagre USD 60 one-time payment from the government (Karim, Islam,
& Talukder, 2020).
For LDCs such as Bangladesh, international support will play a vital role in responding to the
coronavirus pandemic. As of 20 September 2020, Bangladesh received 3,367.18 million USD in
bilateral funding, 37,857.29 million USD in government-to-government funding, 43,093.23
million USD in multilateral funding, 4.51 million USD in NGO and CSO funding, 611.90 million
USD in philanthropic funding and 3.90 million USD in private sector funding for COVID-19
(DEVEX, 2020). It has been estimated that “Bangladesh Inter-sectoral COVID-19 Response Plan
2020” will require 205.93 million USD in funding of which only 45.26 million USD or 22 per cent
was received till 29 September 2020 (FTS, 2020).
5.2 Measures taken by the government to counter the impacts of COVID-19
The government of Bangladesh has announced many forms of liquidity support and fiscal
stimulus for producers, exporters as well as small, medium and large factories and business
enterprises to boost the domestic economy and cope with the evolving COVID-19 scenario. Such
support and stimulus provides timely and much needed assistance in mitigating the repercussions
of the COVID-19 pandemic. Unfortunately, such liquidity support will be channeled through the
banking sector which faces challenges such as high volume of non-performing loans (NPL), poor
governance, major scams, growing number of private commercial banks and restricted autonomy
of the Central Bank (CPD, 2018b).
5.2.1 Liquidity support offered by the government
As the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economy in Bangladesh is becoming
apparent in several ways, the government has proposed a variety of relief packages for the affected
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
both local and export-oriented businesses and vulnerable groups. These packages are meant to
boost public spending, expand social security net coverage and improve cash availability for the
immediate, medium, and long term. A summary of the COVID-19 relief packages announced by
the government are outlined in Table 14.
Bangladesh’s fiscal stimulus package is a meagre 19.28 per cent of its total COVID-19
relief funds or only 0.83 per cent of its GDP (Table 14), and falls far short of the 11 per cent of
GDP that is estimated to be required to mitigate the socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19
(UNESCAP, 2020a). Although the liquidity support and fiscal stimulus packages for COVID-19
began to be announced from 25 March 2020 onwards, even after more than six months, the pace
of fund disbursement appears to be slow. (Table 14).
Table 13: COVID-19 funds announced by the Government
Allocation Disbursement
Name of the Package Type In million
USDi
As share of
total
COVID
funding
As share of
GDPii
Share of
funds
disbursed
(in %)
Number of
recipients
Special fund for salary support
to export oriented
manufacturing industry workers
Liquidity
support 595 4.120 0.178 100 3,500,000
persons
Providing working capital
facilities for the affected large
industries and service sector
organizations
Liquidity
support 4,762 32.962 1.426 71iii
2,549iii
entities and
1,500,000ii
persons
Providing working capital
facilities to small (including
cottage industries) and medium
enterprises
Liquidity
support 2,381 16.481 0.713 32iii
41,069iii
persons
(94% male;
6% female)
To increase the facilities of
Export Development Fund
introduced by Bangladesh Bank
Liquidity
support 1,518 10.507 0.454 81iii 2,379iii
entities
Pre-shipment Credit Refinance
Scheme
Liquidity
support 595 4.120 0.178 1 9 persons
Agricultural Refinancing
Scheme
Liquidity
support 595 4.120 0.178 45iii
89,934iii
persons
Refinancing scheme for low-
income farmers and small
traders
Liquidity
support
357 2.472 0.107 22iii
1,00,227iii
persons
(6% male;
94%
female)
Creation of jobs through loans
(through Village Savings Bank,
Employment Bank, Expatriates’
Welfare Bank and Palli Karma
Sahayak Foundation)
Liquidity
support
381 2.637 0.114 31iv N/A
Government subsidy for interest
waiver of deferred bank loans
for the month of April-
May/2020
Liquidity
support 238 1.648 0.071 N/A N/A
Credit gurantee scheme for
small and medium enterprises
sector
Liquidity
support 238 1.648 0.071 N/A N/A
Total liquidity support
11,660 80.715 3.491
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Allocation Disbursement
Name of the Package Type In million
USDi
As share of
total
COVID
funding
As share of
GDPii
Share of
funds
disbursed
(in %)
Number of
recipients
Special honorarium to doctors,
nurses and health workers
Fiscal
stimulus 12 0.082 0.004 N/A N/A
Health insurance and life
insurance
Fiscal
stimulus 89 0.618 0.027 2v
42v persons
(41 male; 1
female)
Distribution of free food items Fiscal
stimulus
298 2.060 0.089 43vi
2,34.00,000v
i households
(70% male-
headed;
30%
female-
headed)
Distribution of rice at the rate of
BDT 10 per kilogram
Fiscal
stimulus 92 0.635 0.027 100 N/A
Distribution of cash among the
targeted population
Fiscal
stimulus
150 1.037 0.045 70vii
34,97,353vii
households
(75% male-
headed;
25%
female-
headed)
Increase the coverage of the
allowance programmes
Fiscal
stimulus 97 0.672 0.029 3viii
156,218viii
persons
Construction of houses for
homeless people
Fiscal
stimulus
254 1.755 0.076 N/A
9,039
households
(62% male-
headed;
38%
female-
headed)
Procurement of Boro paddy/rice
(additional 0.2 million metric
tonnes)
Fiscal
stimulus 102 0.709 0.031 N/A N/A
Support for farm mechanization Fiscal
stimulus 383 2.653 0.115 5 N/A
Agricultural subsidies Fiscal
stimulus 1,131 7.828 0.339 76vii N/A
Social safety net programme for
unemployed and poor workers
of export-oriented ready-made
garments, leather and footwear
sectors
Fiscal
stimulus
179 1.236 0.053 N/A N/A
Total fiscal stimulus
2,786 19.285 0.834
Total COVID-19 funding
14,446 100 4.325
Source: Authors’ compilation based on data from the Ministry of Finance, Government of Bangladesh
(MoF, 2020) .
Note: i) Assuming an exchange rate of USD 1 equal to BDT 84, as per national budget documents of
FY2021; ii) Assuming that GDP is equal to USD 334,000 million, as per the GDP for FY2020 in the
national budget documents of FY2021; iii) Till 31 October 2020; iv) Till 7 August 2020; v) Till 4
November 2020; vi) Till 30 September 2020; vii) Till October 2020; viii) Till June 2020; xi) N/A implies
no data was available at the time of writing.
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
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5.2.2 Challenges in implementing COVID-19 support packages
More than 82 per cent of Bangladesh's COVID-19 related funds constitute of repayable
loan (Table 14). Therefore, banks are expected to play a central in the operationalization of the
COVID-19 related liquidity support packages announced by the government. However, what
remains to be seen is whether the commercial banks, who are supposed to be the providers of more
than BDT 500 billion of liquidity support (Haque, 2020), have adequate liquidity themselves. The
liquidity crisis may worsen if the COVID-19 pandemic continues to impact the economy and if
business activities diminish.
The varying speed of implementation of the various liquidity support packages has created
an unequal turnaround as bigger firms have rebounded more strongly, owing to quick access to
liquidity packages, while smaller firms have been left behind. In a “k” shaped economic recovery
curve, the COVID-19 recovery path splits in two directions: large firms and public-sector
institutions with direct access to government and central bank stimulus packages will make some
areas of the economy recover fast but leave behind small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs),
blue-collar workers, and the dwindling middle class.
The transparency and accountability of Bangladesh’s COVID-19 stimulus plan will be the
key to its successful operationalization and implementation. Hence it is critical to make sure that
the beneficiaries are selected based on clear, objective and quantitative criteria and vested interests
are not allowed to intervene. Therefore, it is urgently required for the government and central bank
to design and implement appropriate transparency and accountability mechanisms for all the
COVID-19 related liquidity support packages and carry out continuous monitoring and evaluation
ensure that the funds are utilized properly.
5.3 Effect of COVID-19 on regional cooperation in South Asia: Areas of cooperation and a
shared future pathway
A number of longstanding issues in South Asia need to be revisited and resolved if the
region is serious about building back better after COVID-19. These include: i) low intra-regional
trade; ii) barriers to intra-regional investment; iii) poor transportation network connectivity; iv)
food insecurity, hunger and malnutrition; v) inequitable sharing of trans-boundary rivers; vi) low
internet penetration and unpreparedness for 4IR; vii) threat of natural disasters due to climate
change; viii) regional tensions from nuclear arms race; xi) security risks posed by terrorism. While
global trade and investment have fallen during the pandemic, the low levels of intra-regional trade,
the high barriers to intra-regional investment and poor transportation network connectivity have
made it difficult for the South Asian nations to make use of markets in their neighbouring
countries.
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In this regard, the previously mentioned Five Connectivity Model for Regional
Cooperation in South Asia could provide the broad framework for the countries of the region to
collaboratively chart out a shared future pathway. In the face of falling global trade, increased
trade connectivity within South Asia could keep exports afloat and protect the livelihoods of
workers. As the worldwide foreign investment landscape undergoes a reshuffling due to the
pandemic, the countries of South Asia could attract greater investment opportunities from both
within the region, as well as beyond the region, by improving their investment connectivity and
reducing barriers to doing business. Greater transport connectivity in South Asia would be
necessary in order maintain a steady supply of food, medicines and medical equipment during the
pandemic, and to lay the foundation for higher volume of trade and tourism after the pandemic.
South Asia already has the necessary institutions in place to take the region at a higher level of
cooperation and integration. The newly established SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund could
be utilised to partly provide basic support to those who have been pushed into poverty due to
COVID-19, in addition to using national resources. The SAARC Food Bank could be used to
ensure adequate food supply and reallocate food supply to impoverished regions.
In this regard, revisiting cooperation in the BCIM corridor could play a vital role in building
a stronger post-COVID South Asia, since improved infrastructure networks and increased
international trade would be mutually beneficial for all countries in the region. Coordinating
regional infrastructural investment in the BCIM corridor would enhance transport connectivity and
pave the way for harmonising rules and regulations across the region to improve transport, trade
and investment connectivity. Increased trade and investment, along with improved transport
connectivity would make it easier to create a regional energy grid, encourage energy trade and
build cross-border pipelines.
As COVID-19 is a completely new virus, it has brought along with it a new set of
challenges and a whole “new normal”. Therefore, the countries of South Asia need to maintain
high levels of knowledge connectivity so that data regarding new outbreaks, best practices in
clinical treatment protocols, knowledge regarding disaster risk reduction strategies, as well as
research related to the development of COVID-19 vaccines is shared rapidly among the countries
(SAARC Disaster Management Centre, 2020). Therefore, it is absolutely essential to collaborate
across the region to develop and distribute vaccines for COVID-19. Several Indian biotech
companies are working with various international vaccine developers and it is India’s moral duty
to share this vaccine at an affordable price to all the countries in South Asia on a “neighbourhood
first” priority basis.
Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has also presented the South Asian countries with
an opportunity to revisit their education systems and redesign their educational curricula so that it
is more suitable for online teaching and more compatible with the demands of the modern labour
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
markets. Knowledge connectivity could also be harnessed to build computer literacy and digital
skills in order to prepare the people of South Asia for the fourth industrial revolution. With greater
knowledge connectivity, the South Asian nations could also join forces to create a regional
campaign to raise awareness on gender based violence against women which has surged amidst
the lockdowns.
Thus, if South Asian countries focus on strengthening these five connectivity, then not only
can they accelerate the achievement of the SDGs, but they can also reduce the adverse impacts of
the pandemic in the region. If the countries of South Asia integrate with each more closely and
harmonise their national macroeconomic policies for the greater good of the region, then it may
be possible to transition towards a South Asian economic union to in order to bring backward areas
at par with the region as a whole.
Nevertheless, it must be kept in mind that COVID-19 has delivered a deadly blow to South
Asia, and it is unlikely that any South Asian country, or even any country in the world, will be able
to achieve all of the SDGs by 2030. All LDCs across the world, including the South-Asian LDCs,
have experienced a rapid reversal of hard-earned development milestones due to the COVID-19
pandemic. In this context, the South Asian LDCs, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, should join
together along with other LDCs in the rest of the world in order to persuade the United Nations
Committee for Development Policy (UN-CDP) to defer the graduation process of all LDCs in the
upcoming triennial review in February 2021, in view of the damage done due to COVID-19. It is
evident that the significant setback caused by the COVID-19 pandemic means that achieving the
SDGs by 2030 will be virtually impossible for any country. Therefore, the countries of South Asia
should call upon the UN to rethink the 2030 deadline for the SDGs and consider an extension till
2045 to coincide with the centenary of the founding of the UN.
6. Conclusion
Bangladesh has made commendable progress in implementing SDGs 1 (zero poverty), 3
(good health), 4 (quality education), 7 (clean energy) and 8 (decent work and economic growth)
and is well placed to achieve some of these SDG targets by 2030. Progress has been steady in
implementing SDGs 2 (zero hunger), 5 (gender equality), 6 (clean water and sanitation), 9
(industry, innovation and infrastructure), 11 (sustainable cities) and 17 (partnership for the goals),
and targets under these SDGs will require some policy intervention to steer them towards
achievement by 2030. However, Bangladesh is not performing well in case of SDGs 10 (reduced
inequalities), 12 (responsible production and consumption), 13 (climate action), 14 (life below
water), 15 (life on land) and 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions). Achievement of these SDGs
by 2030 in Bangladesh will require radical policy changes and significant efforts from all involved
stakeholders. In terms of the three pillars of sustainable development, Bangladesh has made the
greatest progress in economic goals, whereas goals which are environmental and social have
showed little signs of improvement.
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
73
Successful implementation of the SDGs is dependent on adequate alignment of policies
with the SDG targets. While the government of Bangladesh has attempted to align many targets
of the SDGs with the objectives of the 7th FYP, some important goals were excluded such as SDG
4 on quality education. Hence goals and targets which are not aligned yet, should be aligned with
national medium term policy such as the forthcoming 8th FYP and also with other sectoral plans.
The government should have a time-bound commitment in aligning the rest of the SDG targets
along with proper coordination of relevant ministries and divisions to expedite the process of SDG
implementation.
Strong institutional framework is a precondition for successful implementation of the
SDGs. Despite several measures taken by the government stronger inter- ministerial coordination
and monitoring is needed. Achievements on SDGs by various ministries and divisions should be
reported regularly in the Annual Performance Agreement (APA) format, which should be made
available to the public for feedback.
Domestic resource mobilisation must be improved to strengthen the means of
implementing the SDGs. More specifically, revenue-GDP ratio must be increased through
administrative reforms, efficiency measures and through digitization. At the same time, external
sources of finance such as ODA, FDI, South-South cooperation and other innovative sources such
as blended finance must also be leveraged to complement domestic resources. Along with financial
resources, effective technology transfer and increasing market access for Bangladeshi goods and
services into the markets of developed countries should be explored.
Progress on generating new and adequate data through surveys or from administrative
sources has been very limited. Capacities and resources allocated to national statistical
organisation such as the BBS and related organisations, must be strengthened to address the data
gaps on the SDGs. Availability of regular disaggregated data on the status of marginalised people
are crucial for undertaking measures towards improving their situation in the spirit of the theme of
the SDGs to “Leave No One Behind”.
Institutionalisation of partnership among various players for SDG implementation has not
happened. Engaging the private sector in SDG implementation is essential, in terms of financing
the SDGs and undertaking critical investments in SDG aligned sectors. The role played by the non-
state actors, including CSOs in SDG implementation must be acknowledged and encouraged.
Discussions on various dimensions of SDGs implementation should also be held among the law
makers and policy makers in the national parliament for greater transparency and accountability
on actions.
South and South-West Asia Development Papers 21-02
April 2021
Even though the SDGs are implemented nationally, for effective and complete
implementation of these global goals and targets, there is a strong rationale for cooperation among
South Asian countries. Given their common challenges and shared priorities, SDGs provide a
robust and neutral framework for greater South Asian cooperation for achieving inclusive, resilient
and sustainable development. Unfortunately, some of the existing South Asian institutional
mechanisms and subregional organizations for cooperation could not be successful due to lack of
political will and the current geo-political context. But issues such as climate change, clean energy,
infrastructure, and security have regional and global dimensions. Moreover, SDG 17 provides the
means of implementation which urges on partnerships including, through finance, trade and
technology. Regional cooperation underpinned by the proposed Five-Connectivity Model can
contribute towards SDG implementation in South Asia.
As COVID-19 poses a common threat to humanity and jeopardizes the achievement of the
SDGs, it is time for the countries in South Asia to set aside their differences and join forces in
solidarity for restoring global prosperity. In this context, there is no better framework for guiding
the international partnership for the post-pandemic recovery than the SDGs. The ambitious SDG
targets for transforming our world are more relevant now than ever before. Most countries which
are looking to build back better after the pandemic and plan for a green recovery are already aiming
for objectives which are well-aligned with the SDGs. Unfortunately, the significant setback caused
by the COVID-19 pandemic means that achieving the SDGs by 2030 will be virtually impossible
for any country. Therefore, the United Nations should rethink the 2030 deadline for the SDGs and
consider an extension till 2045 to coincide with the centenary of its founding.
Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Bangladesh
April 2021
75
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