Human engagement with the
Antarctic
– Daniela Liggett –
CAS/WWRP-PPP-SERA Meeting
Ottawa, Canada 12 March 2015
Research focus
time
breadth Human
behaviour “Futuring”
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
(incl. operator behaviour; Antarctic shipping)
Human impacts - Environmental
risk & management
Values associated with
Antarctica
present 2005
Antarctic futures: environmental,
cultural & political
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
1965/6
6
1966/6
7
1967/6
8
1968/6
9
1969/7
0
1970/7
1
1971/7
2
1972/7
3
1973/7
4
1974/7
5
1975/7
6
1976/7
7
1977/7
8
1978/7
9
1979/8
0
1980/8
1
1981/8
2
1982/8
3
1983/8
4
1984/8
5
1985/8
6
1986/8
7
1987/8
8
1988/8
9
1989/9
0
1990/9
1
1991/9
2
1992/9
3
1993/9
4
1994/9
5
1995/9
6
1996/9
7
1997/9
8
1998/9
9
1999/0
0
2000/0
1
2001/0
2
2002/0
3
2003/0
4
2004/0
5
2005/0
6
2006/0
7
2007/0
8
2008/0
9
2009/1
0
2010/1
1
2011/1
2
2012/1
3
2013/1
4
Expedition cruises (landings) Cruise only (no landings) Land based (air supported) Overflights
Antarctic tourism development
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
© SCAR (n.d.) © Mirror News (2007)
© Telegraph News (2007) © Shipping times (2007)
© Daylife (2007)
© Daylife (2007)
Regulation & Management
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Incidents (1967-2014)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Grounding Oil spill Ice damage Sinking Equipment
failure
Stranded pax. Wildlife collision
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Date Vessel Party involved Occurrence
30-Jan-07 Nordkapp Hurtigruten Grounding at Neptune's Bellows, Deception Island, as a result of human error; parts of the hull and tank damaged
23-Nov-07 Explorer G.A.P. Adventures Sank in Bransfield Strait, near the South Shetland Islands after striking submerged ice that damaged the hull
28-Dec-07 Fram Hurtigruten Vessel drifts onto a glacier after an electricity outage and damages one lifeboat at Brown Bluff
4-Dec-08 Ushuaia Antarpply Expeditions Grounding at the entrance of Wilhelmina Bay near Cape Anna; passengers transferred to Chilean naval vessel Aquiles; minor damage to the hull and to two diesel tanks carrying MGO; some leakage of oil
17-Feb-09 Ocean Nova Quark Expeditions Grounding in Marguerite Bay, West of Debenham Island; passengers transferred to Clipper Adventurer for transport to Ushuaia; no leakage of oil reported
4-Jan-10 Clelia II Travel Dynamics International
While landing passengers at Peterman Island, Penola Strait, a southerly current pushed the vessel onto rocks; damage to the starboard engine with some minor leakage of lubricating oil of the drive shaft and a power outage occurred
Feb-11 Berserk Yacht Lost in the Ross Sea region (presumed sunk) and loss of crew of three
9-Dec-11 Sea Spirit Quark Expeditions Grounding of the yacht in Whalers Bay, Deception Island; yacht freed itself when the tide came in
1-Apr-12 Endless Sea Yacht Beset in ice in the vicinity of King George Island, South Shetland Islands and sank (reported to be carrying 8000l of fuel)
7-Apr-12 Mar Sern Firn (yacht)
Independent expedition
Loss of the yacht in Maxwell Bay, South Shetland Islands; all four passengers/crew were rescued unharmed by the Chilean Navy
25-Dec-13 Akademik Shokalskiy
Australiasian Antarctic Expedition "The Spirit of Mawson"
Vessel got trapped in pack ice off East Antarctica but eventually broke free on 8 January 20014; four other vessels provided assistance (L'Astrolabe/France; Xue Long/China; Aurora Australis/Australia; USCGC Polar Star/USA)
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Environmental impacts
Social & political impacts
Impacts
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
To evaluate the effectiveness of the existing regulatory regime for Antarctic tourism drawing on the ethos and practices of Antarctica tour operators.
To discuss the future implications of Antarctic tourism regulation based on the assessment of the regulatory effectiveness of the current regime.
Pre
sent
Fu
ture
Research project 1
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Strengths and weaknesses
Self-regulation
ATS regulation
Regime effectiveness
Lessons for the future of Antarctic tourism regulation
Research project 1: Key results
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Self-regulation: strengths
Main strengths
Commendable practice of tour operators
Active, quick, flexible decision making
Peer pressure, motivation and cooperation
Operational knowledge and expertise
Great duty of care for environment
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Self-regulation: weaknesses
Main weaknesses
Inappropriate for an industry to regulate itself
Self-interest => self-serving system
Inadequate monitoring and lack of independent inspection
Imperfect coverage
Reliance on the goodwill of operators
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
ATS regulation: strengths
Main strengths
Legal regulatory power
Legitimate, holistic and stable approach
Availability of regulatory options through existing instruments (e.g. Protocol)
Recognised and accepted regime
High levels of environmental protection ensured
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
© Andrew Jackson
ATS regulation: weaknesses
Main weaknesses
Slow and cumbersome decision making
Inconsistencies in domestic application of regulatory mechanisms
Lack of monitoring and enforcement power
Lack of vision and management planning
Lack of operational knowledge
Confusing array of regulatory mechanisms
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Concerns regarding Antarctic tourism activity
Issues ranked by perceived importance
1. Permanent land-based facilities for tourists
2. Incidents and accidents
3. Increasing scale of the Antarctic tourism industry
4. Cumulative impacts (solely tourism-related)
5. Availability of air links for tourist purposes
6. Increasing numbers of tourists visiting Antarctica
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Research project 2
(ongoing; in collaboration with Jason Swanson)
Antarctic tourism regulation & management
Risk profile of Antarctic ship-borne tourism
Regulatory options:
Flag-state jurisdiction vs. Port-state controln (PSC)
Are gateway ports set up for PSC?
ATS Party States Capacity % of Total Operations % of Total
Netherlands 28,981 21.1% 57 9.0%
France 19,532 14.2% 77 12.1%
Russia 10,312 7.5% 104 16.4%
Norway 7,140 5.2% 22 3.5%
Australia 1,101 0.8% 39 6.2%
New Zealand 252 0.2% 4 0.6%
United Kingdom 226 0.2% 19 3.0%
South Africa 146 0.1% 3 0.5%
Germany 99 0.1% 10 1.6%
Belgium 91 0.1% 7 1.1%
Finland 72 0.1% 1 0.2%
Poland 44 0.0% 4 0.6%
Argentina 25 0.0% 3 0.5%
United States 4 0.0% 1 0.2%
Sub-total 68,025 49.4% 351 55.4%
Non-ATS Party States Capacity % of Total Operations % of Total
Bahamas 42,478 30.9% 192 30.3%
Malta 16,866 12.3% 7 1.1%
Marshall Islands 5,766 4.2% 33 5.2%
Union of the Comoros 1,958 1.4% 15 2.4%
Liberia 1,740 1.3% 12 1.9%
Cyprus 467 0.3% 4 0.6%
Antigua and Barbuda 203 0.1% 8 1.3%
BVI 46 0.0% 5 0.8%
Panama 44 0.0% 4 0.6%
Cayman Islands 28 0.0% 2 0.3%
Bermuda 12 0.0% 1 0.2%
Sub-total 69,608 50.6% 283 44.6%
Totals 137,633 100.0% 634 100.0%
ATS Party States Capacity % of Total Operations % of Total
Netherlands 28,981 21.1% 57 9.0%
France 19,532 14.2% 77 12.1%
Russia 10,312 7.5% 104 16.4%
Norway 7,140 5.2% 22 3.5%
Australia 1,101 0.8% 39 6.2%
New Zealand 252 0.2% 4 0.6%
United Kingdom 226 0.2% 19 3.0%
South Africa 146 0.1% 3 0.5%
Germany 99 0.1% 10 1.6%
Belgium 91 0.1% 7 1.1%
Finland 72 0.1% 1 0.2%
Poland 44 0.0% 4 0.6%
Argentina 25 0.0% 3 0.5%
United States 4 0.0% 1 0.2%
Sub-total 68,025 49.4% 351 55.4%
Non-ATS Party States Capacity % of Total Operations % of Total
Bahamas 42,478 30.9% 192 30.3%
Malta 16,866 12.3% 7 1.1%
Marshall Islands 5,766 4.2% 33 5.2%
Union of the Comoros 1,958 1.4% 15 2.4%
Liberia 1,740 1.3% 12 1.9%
Cyprus 467 0.3% 4 0.6%
Antigua and Barbuda 203 0.1% 8 1.3%
BVI 46 0.0% 5 0.8%
Panama 44 0.0% 4 0.6%
Cayman Islands 28 0.0% 2 0.3%
Bermuda 12 0.0% 1 0.2%
Sub-total 69,608 50.6% 283 44.6%
Totals 137,633 100.0% 634 100.0%
Antarctic tourism operations & environmental risk
Literature analysis
Environmental impacts and risk in Antarctica
Antarctic tourism operations
Antarctic tourism data and visitation statistics
Use of ArcGIS
Focus on landed visitors in Antarctic peninsula
Basis: IAATO data and Naveen’s (2003) environmental indices
Pre
para
tion
Mo
de
l
Human impacts - Environmental risk and management
Locations of incidents and accidents reported between 1967 and 2009 (see Liggett et al. 2011)
N © Christoph Rehse (2011)
Human impacts -
Environmental risk &
management
Modelled human-induced environ-mental risk in the Antarctic Peninsula N
Human impacts -
Environmental risk &
management
© Christoph Rehse (2011)
Values associated with Antarctica
SCAR Social Sciences Action
Group
SCAR Humanities and Social
Sciences Expert Group
Values & decision-making
© andescross.com
Conflict between human ambitions and environmental conservation
Dominionistic values most critical => attempts at mastering nature
Liggett, D. & Engelbertz, S. (2013). Values and political decision-making: The case of Antarctic
Tourism. In Lemelin, H., Maher, P. & Liggett, D. (Eds.). From talk to action: How tourism is
changing the Polar Regions. Proceedings of the 3rd International Polar Tourism Research Network
conference.
Values & Antarctic tourism
Values associated with Antarctica
Nationalism, Geopolitics & Cultural Futures
Interdisciplinary study of processes of ‘nationing’ and ‘futuring’ of Antarctica across multiple scales
Collaborators: Juan Salazar, Elle Leane & Alan Hemmings (Australia), Sanjay Chaturvedi (India)
Effectiveness of Antarctic Environmental Regulation
How effective is the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty in governing a changing Antarctic environment?
Collaborator: Neil Gilbert (NZ)
Antarctic geopolitics and environmental
management
Antarctic futures: environmental, cultural & political
This article was downloaded by: [Peter Convey]On: 13 October 2012, At: 09:39Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
BiodiversityPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbid20
Continental governance and environmental
management mechanisms under the Antarctic Treaty
System: sufficient for the biodiversity challenges of
this century?Peter Convey
a , Kevin A. Hughes
a & Tina Tin
b
a British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK
b Antarctic Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC), Olivet, France
Version of record first published: 10 Oct 2012.
To cite this article: Peter Convey, Kevin A. Hughes & Tina Tin (2012): Continental governance and environmental
management mechanisms under the Antarctic Treaty System: sufficient for the biodiversity challenges of this century?,
Biodiversity, DOI:10.1080/14888386.2012.703551
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2012.703551
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
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This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form toanyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contentswill be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses shouldbe independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly inconnection with or arising out of the use of this material.
This article was downloaded by: [Peter Convey]On: 13 October 2012, At: 09:39Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
BiodiversityPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbid20
Continental governance and environmental
management mechanisms under the Antarctic Treaty
System: sufficient for the biodiversity challenges of
this century?Peter Convey
a , Kevin A. Hughes
a & Tina Tin
b
a British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK
b Antarctic Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC), Olivet, France
Version of record first published: 10 Oct 2012.
To cite this article: Peter Convey, Kevin A. Hughes & Tina Tin (2012): Continental governance and environmental
management mechanisms under the Antarctic Treaty System: sufficient for the biodiversity challenges of this century?,
Biodiversity, DOI:10.1080/14888386.2012.703551
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2012.703551
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form toanyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contentswill be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses shouldbe independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly inconnection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Methods
Qualitative and quantitative approaches
Interviews
Surveys
“Futuring” & Anticipatory logics
Calculating (trend analysis) and imagining futures (Delphi study; forecasting; scenario development)
Horizon scanning
Research approach
Horizon scanning
Research approach
Horizon scanning
Research approach
Goal:
To identify the highest priority scientific questions that researchers should aspire to answer in the next two decades and beyond
Approach
Inclusive & bottom-up
Multi-disciplinary & integrative
Online consultation & retreat
Research approach
Human presence
Questions and Discussion?
Capacity building, education & training of future
polar researchers
Education and outreach
Lithosphere
Cryosphere
Biosphere
Atmosphere
Anthropo-
sphere Hydrosphere
Human activity Human engagement
Management, Regulation
Reflection
Critical thinking
Participation
Analysis
Enthusiasm
Student
activity &
experience
Learning
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