Germany Background
Germany as a single, unified state was created in 1871 Prussia had been its largest
state Power was wielded by the
Kaiser (emperor) There was an elected
Parliament (Reichstag), but the country was authoritarian
Germany underwent rapid industrialization in the late 1800s (even surpassing GB)
Germany had Europe’s largest and best army
Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918) pursued an aggressive foreign policy
Germany Background
WWI Germany was certainly partially
to blame for the militarism, alliance system, imperialism and other causes of WWI
Germany thought WWI would be short by using Schlieffen Plan to defeat France and Russia
But WWI became a war of attrition on all sides
By Sept 1918, German military commanders (including Hindenburg) accepted that Germany could not escape defeat
Germany’s citizens were unable to accept the defeat and turned on the government Strikes, riots and mutinies
broke out
Germany Background
Kaiser Wilhelm II was forced to abdicate on Nov 9, 1918
Germany was declared a republic, and led by Friedrich Ebert
Germany signed a ceasefire to end WWI
Germany held elections in January 1919 The main political parties that
supported democracy (Social Democratic Party, Democratic Party, Centre Party) received over 70% votes
Weimar Government opened in February – not in Berlin because of the chaos and riots there
The assembly voted in July 1919 to accept the new constitution (Weimar Constitution)
Germany Background
• Philipp Scheidemann, from the Social Democratic Party (SPD), was the Chancellor
• Weimar government faced serious problems from the beginning:– Anger and resentment over
the Versailles Treaty• Diktat• Loss of territory• Reparations• Restricted military
– Extremist right and left wing movements opposed democracy and were committed to overthrowing the new Republic
Germany Background
Threats from the LEFT:
Background:
Extreme left-wing socialist movement known as the Sparticists set up the German Communist Party (KPD)
KPD wanted a Bolshevik-style government
KPD contested many elections in the 1920s and consistently received 10-15% of the vote
The KPD and the SPD would not work together (except in the case of the German October, 1923) and made it easier for Hitler to come to power in 1933
Germany Background
The Sparticist Uprising – January 1919 Staged in Berlin by the Sparticists (left wing Socialists) Put down by the freikorps (extreme right-wing ex-soldiers) Sparticist leaders were murdered
Communist Uprising in the Ruhr – March 1920 Set up their own govt at Essen and in April briefly took over Munich German army intervened and killed hundreds of communists
“German October” – 1923 The German Communist Party (KPD) organized strikes and
demonstrations, and joined with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) to win control of local governments
Berlin used the army to arrest KPD ministers and dissolve the disturbances
Germany Background
Threats from the RIGHT:
Background:
Many German nationalists never accepted the Weimar Republic because it had accepted the Treaty of Versailles
Many conservative elites (large landowners, big industrialists, senior army officers, judges and civil servants) only sort of, kind of supported the new govt – often they were actually hostile
Many wanted restoration of the monarchy or some authoritarian alternative
Germany Background
The Kapp Putsch – March 1920 Nationalists Wolfgang Kapp
and General von Luttwitz attempted to overthrow the govt
Thousands of unemployed soldiers joined the Freikorps (volunteer units) units to seize control of Berlin
Regular army (Reichswehr) was ordered to attack the former soldiers, but they refused
Trade unions in Berlin went on strike paralyzing the city
After 4 days, Kapp realized he could not succeed and he fled the country
Germany Background
The “White Terror’ – 1920-22 Many political murders and high level assassinations Freikorps was mainly responsible
The Beerhall Putsch – November 8, 1923 Hitler and his para-military Nazi SA took over a govt meeting in
Bavaria The local leader (Kahr) escaped and warned the police and army Nov 9 the Nazis marched on Munich, but the army was ready
and arrested many Nazis Hitler was tried, convicted and sentenced to 5 years, but only
spent 9 months in jail – used trial as a bully pulpit and won over many new supporters
In jail he wrote Mein Kampf and decided to work from within the system rather than against it
What was wrong with the Weimar Constitution?
Background:
All men and women over 20 could vote
Reichstag had great power
Ministers were accountable to Reichstag rather than the President
Weaknesses:
Voting system was proportional representation
Small parties could get seats in govt – factionalism slows govt – no party could get a majority
1919-23 saw 8 different coalition governments
Very instable
What was wrong with the Weimar Constitution?
Weaknesses Article 48 of Constitution gave President extensive
emergency powers Could suspend civil liberties in emergencies Hindenburg used this frequently to bypass the
stalemates in the Reichstag 1930-32 Hindenburg also used it in 1933 after the
Reichstag Fire: Hitler was then able to arrest many communist
and socialist opponents and close down their newspapers
This was an important step toward his creation of a single party state
Economic Problems 1919-23
High unemployment and low industrial output WWI soldiers couldn’t find work Destruction from WWI
Germany lost valuable resources from TofV Poland and France both
received mineral rich land from Germany for 15 years
Inflation was serious since start of WWI Government continued to print
more money to make it even worse
Reparations added to the situation
1914: 20 marks = 1 £ 1923: 16,000,000,000,000 = 1 £
Hyper-Inflation of 1923
January 1923 Germany failed to pay reparations
France and Belgium sent 60,000 troops into the Ruhr
German workers in the region strike – passive resistance
Clashes killed about 150 Germans
French seal Ruhr off from the rest of Germany Ruhr produced 80% of
Germany’s steel and 70% of its coal
Devastating impact on Germany’s economy
German unemployment went from 2% to 23%
Hyper-Inflation of 1923
Stresemann became chancellor in Aug 1923:
Led a brief coalition in government
Brought in Schacht (banker) to help with currency crisis
Ordered Ruhr workers to cooperate with the French
Resumed reparations payments
Introduced new currency (Rentenmark)
1 rentenmark = 10,000,000,000,000 marks
1924 Rentenmark was replaced with Reichsmark which continued until 1945
Effects of Hyper-Inflation
Many in the middle class who lost their savings in hyper-inflation were permanently alienated from Weimar Republic
Germany had a shortage of domestic business investment – needed for future increases in GDP
Germany was increasingly dependent on loans from USA (Dawes Plan). The Dawes Plan helped the situation in 1924-28, but when the economy in US tumbled in 1929, the US called back many of its loans compounding the bad situation in Germany
The Good Years 1924-29
Some historians believe the prosperity would not have lasted in Germany even without the Great Depression
Some historians believe the issues in the US really caused the collapse of the German economy in 1929
Evidence of Progress 1924-29
Economic Dawes Plan inserted needed $ into
economy By 1928, industry exceeded its 1913
numbers Foreign exports increased 40% from
1925-29
Social Workers’ wages rose 21% in 1927-
28 alone, making them the highest paid in Europe
Government spending on health, education and social services was huge 1913 – 37% of govt spending 1932 – 68% of govt spending
New universities in Hamburg and Cologne
Unemployment insurance issued for 17 million workers in 1927
Evidence of Progress 1924-29
Cultural Germany (esp. Berlin) became
a vibrant cultural center Architecture – Bauhaus
design movement Literature – Thomas Mann,
Nobel Prize 1929
Political There were no further attempts
to seize power by the extreme Left or Right
1928 elections – both KPD (Communists) and DNVP (Nationalists) lost seats (KPD 62 to 54 seats, DNVP 95 to 73). Nazis only have 12 seats
Evidence of Progress 1924-29
Political cont. Moderate parties made
huge gains – Social Democrats (SPD) from 100 to 153 seats
1928 – 1930, Grand Coalition of SPD (Social Democrats) DDP (Democratic Party) DVP (People’s Party) and ZP (Center Party) have over 60% of seats in Reichstag
Hindenburg’s election in 1925 as President was a stabilizing factor as he was seen as a “Kaiser-substitute”
Evidence of Progress 1924-29
Germany’s International Situation
Gustav Stresemann (leader of German People’s Party) wanted what was best for Germany
Even if this meant accepting terms of Treaty of Ver.
He was briefly Chancellor in 1923
Then became Foreign Minister until his death in 1929
Policies were unpopular with the Nationalists but he made Germany accepted again diplomatically and even won the Nobel Peace Prize in for trying to improve Franco-German relations)
Stresemann’s Achievements
Negotiated the withdrawal of French and Belgians from Ruhr in 1924
Helped negotiate Dawes Plan in 1924
Stresemann’s suggestion of recognizing and guaranteeing Western Europe’s frontiers was finalized into Locarno Pact of 1925
Germany was allowed in League of Nations 1926
Negotiated a partial withdrawal of the Rhineland by the Allies in 1928
Negotiated the Young Plan in 1929 which reduced the total reparations bill by almost two-thirds
When he died he was negotiating the final withdrawal of the Allied troops from Rhineland which happened in 1930
Problems Under Stresemann
Economic Germany was heavily
reliant on US loans Unemployment never went
below 1.3 million and was up to 1.9 million by 1929 Crash
Agriculture was way behind industrial recovery in 1920s (tough competition from American and Canadian efficiency)
Social Farm workers’ wages were
only just over half the national average in 1929
Problems Under Stresemann
Political German Nationalist Party
(DNVP) opposed the Young Plan because it implied Germany still accepted war guilt. DNVP moved further to the right as a result
Center Party also moved to the right
“Grand Coalition” was unstable as it tried to negotiate with a range of parties from right of center to left. In 1930 it collapsed after the SPD argued with its Center Party coalition partners over how to respond to the Great Depression
The Nazi Party and Hitler
Hitler born 1889 in Austria
Wanted to be an architect but applications to school were rejected in Vienna
Sold scenic paintings to earn a living
Became interested in writings of racist authors (like Lanz von Liebenfels)
Began to believe that Germans were superior to other nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (mainly Slavs) and the rest of the world
Hitler resented the wealth of the rich Jewish businessmen of Vienna
The Nazi Party and Hitler
Hitler also noted that many leading Socialists and Communists were Jews
Hitler believed that Darwinism (evolution of species and survival of the fittest) could be applied to human societies
Hitler was a German Nationalist and welcomed WWI
He enlisted in the German army rather than Austro-Hungarian since he was living in Munich
The Nazi Party and Hitler
• Many Germans, including Hitler, were surprised by WWI loss in 1918
• Felt that Germany had been betrayed by the communists and the Social Democrats and that the “November criminals” were to blame for Germany’s loss
• January 1919 Anton Drexler set up German Workers’ Party (DAP) to join working class and nationalists
• Hitler was put in charge of recruitment and propaganda in September 1919
• 1920 he took over as party leader and produced the 25 Point Program (combined nationalist and socialist demands, a “guide book” for Nazis)
• 1921 Hitler set up the Sturmabteilung (storm-troopers, or SA)
The Nazi Party and Hitler
SA was originally used to protect party meetings, and made up of former Freikorps
Propaganda and symbolism was valuable and swastika was adopted, along with raised-arm salute
Party was renamed National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) in 1921
Hitler and Nazis aimed to seize power by force, modeled on Mussolini’s March on Rome in Oct 1922
Led to the Munich Putsch (Beer Hall Putsch) which failed and Hitler sentenced to jail
What did Hitler learn from the failed Beer Hall
Putsch? He changed his tactics – used legal
method rather than revolution
Party needed to broaden appeal
beyond working-class. He moved
away from socialist ideas in the 25
Points toward more nationalist
elements of the middle-class
SA were reorganized and given
greater responsibility over
propaganda
Founded SS (Shutzstaffel –
bodyguards) and the Hitler youth in
1926
The Wall Street Crash of 1929
Effect on German Economy: US investors withdrew money
from Germany German businesses went
bankrupt and banks collapsed Unemployment soared
Late 1920s – just under 2 million
1930 – 3.5 million 1931 – 4.4 million 1932 – 6 million
Prices fell – lower profit margins forced more businesses to go bankrupt
Value of German exports fell more than 50%
The Wall Street Crash of 1929
Impact on German Politics: Revived violent and unstable
politics of 1918-23 Large-scale street violence Each political party had its own
paramilitary Nazi SA Communist Red Front
Extremists grew in number and power
Chancellor Brüning (1930-32) was traditional and cautious Kept government spending
and taxes down Waited for economy to
improve The unemployed were furious
and turned to extremist political parties
1930 - Nazis won 107 seats, Communists won 89
Nazis Membership Grows
• Hitler was looked to as a ‘messiah’ to ‘save’ Germany
• As unemployment skyrockets, so does Nazi party membership (Nazis promised job creation)
• Weak leadership in government made Hitler look even better (Hitler even got 13 million votes to Hindenburg’s 18 million in April 1932 showing how strong a following he had)
• Many were worried about a communist revolution and the 700,000 strong SA seemed to be able to provide security
• Appealed to small farmers and peasants struggling under debt and falling food prices (they were promised subsidies)
Nazi Membership Grows
Nazis got support from lower middle-class (teachers, civil servants, etc) fearing they would become unemployed
SA was predominantly working-class, but Nazis had little support from this group overall
Nazis received financial backing from some leading industrialists who were worried about the socialists
Presented an image of dynamism and youth Campaign tactics were more
modern Mass rallies created sense of
belonging
Nazi Membership Grows
Nazi Propaganda (Goebbels) used different messages for different groups
Subsidies to peasants
Law and order and return to traditional values to middle class
Jobs for unemployed
Defense against communist revolution and revival of Germany as great power to conservative nationalists
At the same time promised to unite all Germans
Jews, democratic system, Communists, and WWI victors were provided as scapegoats for Germany’s problems
Nazi Membership Grows
None of this was new, so why were these messages more effective in the 1930s than in the 1920s? Widespread disillusionment
with the Weimar Republic and democratic parties was far greater, as was the scale of Germany’s economic problems
Hitler had created a more respectable image for the Nazis after his release from prison and was therefore able to win more middle class support
Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)
No political party could command a majority in Reichstag
Article 48 of Weimar constitution gave president authority to declare state of emergency and govern by decree without consulting parliament
Hindenburg (President) Didn’t like the Weimar
Republic Was a Nationalist Thought the Nazis were
thugs, but hated Social Democrats and Communists even more
Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)
1930 Hindenburg dismissed Chancellor Müller’s government and appointed Brüning (Center Party) to Chancellor
Brüning had little support in Reichstag but was able to rule because of Hindenburg’s use of emergency powers to pass laws
Hindenburg grew tired of having to support Brüning so he replaced him with conservative von Papen (but he had even less support)
Hindenburg agreed to call a general election in July 1932 Nazis triumphantly won 230
seats in Parliament (largest single party in Parliament, but not yet a majority – still needed to form a coalition)
Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)
Hindenburg asked Hitler to join a coalition, but Hitler refused unless he could be Chancellor
Hindenburg refused (hated Hitler and feared SA) and called a second general election in November 1932 Nazis lost seats (down to
196) but was still largest single party
Hindenburg fired von Papen for not being able to form a coalition and replaced him with General Kurt von Schleicher
Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)
Nazi morale was low Lost seats in second election Low on money from two
campaigns Some in party were becoming
impatient and were calling for an armed rising
Von Schleicher tried to take advantage and split the Nazi party by getting support of the ‘left-wing’ Nazis, but this did not work
Hitler quickly reasserted his control over the Nazis
Why was Hitler appointed Chancellor on Jan 30,
1933? Hindenburg decided it
was the only way to achieve a majority coalition
Hindenburg actually didn’t mind offering it to him (he wasn’t worried) since the Nazi’s position was a bit weaker than it had been in November
Only 3 of the 11 Cabinet ministers were Nazi
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