• Melting due to global warming
• New sea route from Europe to Russia
• Potential petroleum reserve
• Artic ocean- global commons
• Arctic council
Arctic Ocean
• Sulphur – rarely found on land. Available in sea during marine volcanism.
Ex. Gulf of Mexico – rich source of sulphur
Resource at continental shelf
Placer depositsWave action erode the beach rocks some stable minerals freed from the rocks due to weatheringwaves shift the lighter material more rapidly than heavierconcentration of heavy minerals on shelf
Resources from continental shelf
• monazite sand (source of thorium) at Kerala coast
• Gold (Alaska)• Zircon (Brazil,
Australia)• Diamond (South
Africa)
Resources from continental shelf
• Calcium- least soluble in ocean water – Peruvian coast rich deposits of calcium and phosphate
• Fishes are rich in nitrate and phosphate, high protein, medicinal use
• Pearls
Resource at continental shelf
Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise
Ocean- continent margin landforms
• Very steep slope• Massive landslides of
terrigenous deposits• Rivers like, Ganga,
Indus, Mississippi, Yukon and Congo have created submarine canyons
• Highest waterfall on earth – under Denmark Strait.
Continental slope
Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise
Ocean- continent margin landforms
• Transition zone between continental block and oceanic block
Continental Rise
• They are absent near trenches, as subduction near trenches consumes the deposition of Continental rise
Continental rise
Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise
Ocean- continent margin landforms
3 divisions:1) Ocean –
continent margin
2) MOR3) Deep
Ocean plains
Division of Ocean Bottom
• Occupies 40% of the ocean floor
• Tremendous diversity in terms of landforms
• It has deposits from continents (terrigenous), marine life (biogenous) and salts and mineral (inorganic)
Abyssal Plain
• PMN (Poly Metallic Nodules) or Manganese nodules• Concentration of
metals around a core• Depth 4000-
6000m
Resources from Abyssal plain
• First found in Kara sea, Arctic ocean
• These nodules are found in the all the oceans –economically viable -central Indian Ocean and Eastern Pacific Ocean.
Global distribution of PMN
PMN• PMN are small nodules
of metals like, Manganese, Iron, Silicon, Al, Nickel and Cobalt etc.
• some of the minerals are rare on land.
• Countries are in race to explore and extract PMN
2002- India got approval from ISA – ‘Pioneer Investor’ for 15 years
India - 1,50,000 ml ha ocean stretch in central Indian Ocean out of 10 to15 ml ha of PMN
India RV Samudra Ratnakar + equipment from S Korea
NIOT – developing tech for exploration
2011 - China acquired 10,000 ha area
2013 – UK co. in Pacific ocean
PMN
India
UN convention on Laws of the seas1983 60 countries signedcame into force in 19931) Decides the maritime
boundary2) Deep sea mining (ISA,
Kingston, Jamaica)3) Environment protection4) Dispute settlement
UNCLOS
ISA
• Decides territorial waters, contiguous zone and EEZ for coastal countries
• EEZ – special right of the state to explore minerals or produce energy from the area
UNCLOS
Mains
2014
Q. Critically evaluate the various resources of the oceans which can be harnessed to meet the resource crisis in the world (10)
UPSC
Question
4 types of Islands:1) Volcanic (plate/ hot spot)2) Continental3) Coral islands 4) Sand bar islands
Types of Islands
Island Formationcontinental Once part of
large continentvolcanic O-O plate
collision, Hot spot
coral Formed due to coral reefs
Sand-bar island Accumulation of sand near the coast
Types of Islands
Continental IslandsVolcanic islands
Types of Islands
Sand-bar islandsCoral Islands
Types of Islands
Volcanic Continental
Coral Sandbar
Japan Shri Lanka
Lakshadweep
Long Island (New York)
Philippines
Madagascar
Maldives
Kurile Vancouver
Mauritius
Aleutian Baffin Island
Bahama, Bermuda
Example of Islands
• Indicative of health of Marine ecology
• Primary food-chain
• Source of great biodiversity
Coral Reefs
• Corals = tiny fleshy sea anemones polyps. • They extract Ca from the sea water for their
skeletons to protect their bodies.• One generation die on previous generation. • Corals live symbiotic relationship with
microscopic plant – Zooxanthalae, photosynthesis capabilities.
• Zooxanthalae provide food to corals and corals provide protection to zooxanthalae
Coral Reefs
• Need submarine shallow platform (50 meter deep)– to receive sun light
• Temperature- 25-27 degree• Warm, tropical and low latitude waters• Salinity – 33 ppt• Not at mouth of river, No turbulent water• Need circulating nutrient rich water
Condition for growth of Corals
Spatial distribution of Corals
• When corals are in stress they expel zooxanthalae – that’s why coral seem white => coral bleaching. Ultimately, without food coral die
Coral Bleaching
• Global warming => increase in sea surface temperature
• Ozone depletion => increase in solar irradiation• Ocean acidification • algal bloom• Increase sedimentation from rivers• Marine pollution – oil spill• Diseases
Reason of coral Bleaching
Distribution of Coral Bleaching
• Corals can be developed both at the margins of the continents or around islands
• 3 stages of coral formation
1) Fringing reef2) Barrier reef3) Atoll
Formation of coral reef
• Coral reef developed along margin of an island
• If Gap is created between corals and the surface of island
• Small water bodies = lagoons
Fringing reef
• Reef is not continuous but broken
• Lagoon can connect to open ocean
• Most extensive • If they are parallel to
coast -> barrier reef
Barrier reef
• The hill submerged • Only narrow ring of
coral is visible
Atoll
Fringing Reef Atolls
Great Barrier Reef, Australia
• Dangerous for marine biodiversity• Marine diversity is
the wealth of the earth• Harmful to global
environment
Marine pollution
Marine pollutionIssue effectOil spill Marine life – devoid
of sunlight and oxygen
Run-off from land Eutrophication - Algal bloom
Atmospheric input makes ocean water acidic
Dumping of toxic elements
Toxicity harms marine organism
Ballistic water issue Danger to biodiversity
• Tar balls — lumps of petroleum
• oil spillage from tankers
• The wax-like lumps are caused due to the reaction of the oil with sea water
• Sticky and greasy
Tar balls
Ocean bottom relief:1) Continental shelf2) Continental slope3) Continental rise4) Abyssal plain Types of islandsFormation of coralMarine pollution
Horizontal
•waves•currents
Vertical •tides•Up-welling
Motion of Ocean water
• Creation of waves:• wind pushes the water body • gravity pulls the crests of the waves
downward, the falling water pushes the former troughs upward.
• Actual motion of water beneath the wave is circular
Waves
Waves
• when the depth of water is less than half the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks
Breaking up of the waves
Horizontal
•waves•currents
Vertical •tides•Up-welling
Motion of Ocean water
• Ocean currents are narrow and shallow (up to 500 meter deep), stream of water circulating along the Ocean margins
• Circumnavigate the earth
Ocean Currents
• Heat distribution – from Poles to Eq.• warm water
from equator • Cold water
from Poles
Ocean currents
Wind
Insolation
Gravity
Coriolis Force
Forces responsible for Ocean Current
• Most of the currents follow the direction of the trade winds, Westerlies and polar easterlies
Dominant force : wind
• Water expands under high temperature• Cold water near poles• Water lighter near equator, than at the poles• Cold water - heavier (denser) sinks downward• Cold water from pole flow towards equator at
subsurface level, to balance loss of water at equator
Insolation: temperature gradient
Insolation: temperature gradient
• Salinity increases density of water• Denser water sinks at depth• Less saline water move towards high saline
water on the surface• High saline water move towards less saline
water at sub-surface• Equator – rainfall –less saline water• Poles – iceberg – high saline water
Insolation: Salinity gradient
• Factor deflect the path of the currents: • Coastlines modify the path of the currents• coriolis force deflect the path
Factors modifying the ocean currents
• Due to Earth’s rotation W->E
• Deflective force- deflect the direction of currents
• Clockwise – N• Anti-clockwise -
S
Coriolis effect
Prelims 2012
Q. Consider the following factors:1. Rotation of the earth2. Air pressure and wind3. Density of ocean water4. Revolution of the earthWhich of the above factors influence ocean currents?
UPSC
oceano
Prelims 2012
a) 1 and 2b) 1,2,3c) 1 and 4d) 2,3,4
Ans. B)Rotation of the earth -> coriolis forceAir pressure and wind -> planetary windsDensity of water -> salinity
UPSC
oceano
Prelims 2002
Q. Consider the following statements:1. Ocean currents are slow-
surface movement of water in ocean
2. Ocean current assist in maintaining the earth’s heat balance
3. Ocean currents are set in motion primarily by prevailing winds
UPSC
oceano
Prelims 2002
4. Tropical currents are affected by the configuration of the oceanWhich of the statements are correct?a) 1 and 2b) 2,3 and 4c) 1,3 and 4d) 1,2,3 and 4Ans. B)
UPSC
oceano
Ocean currents of the world
North Atlantic Ocean Currents
• Meeting of gulf stream and Labrador current at new found land• fishing ground =
grand banks• Foggy area –
dangerous for shipping
New found land
• warming effects to Western Europe• ports of
Norway Narvik, Hammerfest operating in winter- at same latitude ports in Russia freeze during winter
North Atlantic drift
cold currentPasses near canary islandsdesiccating effect to Sahara desert
Canary current
• Gyre of north equatorial current, gulf stream and canary current
• Water confined –calm and motionless
• HP zone – high salinity
• ‘Sargassum’- sea weed –obstruct navigation
• Devoid of nutrients – poor marine life
Sargasso sea
South Atlantic Ocean Currents
• Meeting of warm Brazilian and cold Falkland current• Important
fishing ground
Bahia Blanca
• Cold current• Desiccating effect
to Namib desert
Benguela current
North Pacific Ocean Currents
• cold Californian current• Chilling effect on
western coast of N. America
• Drying effect to Mojave desert, Sonoran desert in California
Desiccating effect of cold current
Meeting of cold-warm current near Japan
• Meeting of warm Kuroshio and cold Oyashio current near southern Japan
• Rich fishing ground• Foggy area
South Pacific Ocean Currents
• Cold Peru/Humboldt current – desiccating effect to Atacama dessert
• Peruvian coast – upwelling – rich fishing ground
Upwelling on Peruvian coast
North Indian Ocean Currents
• In summer: wind and current flow towards India – Arabia to India
• In winter: wind + current flow towards Arabia - sea vessel from India to Arabia
• Important for sea-trade, cultural interaction
Navigation in Indian Ocean
South Indian Ocean Currents
Prelims 1997
Q. Which one the following factor is responsible for the change in regular direction of the ocean currents in the Indian ocean?a) Indian ocean is half an oceanb) Indian ocean has monsoon
driftc) Indian ocean is a land-locked
oceand) Indian ocean has greater
variation in salinityAns. B)
UPSC
oceano
Prelims 2013
Q. The most important fishing ground of the world are found in the regions where:a) Warm and cold
atmospheric currents meetb) Rivers drain out large
amount of fresh water into sea
c) Warm and cold oceanic currents meet
UPSC
oceano
Prelims 2013
d) Continental shelf is inundating
Ans. C) 1) New found land2) Bahia Blanca3) Japanese coast
UPSC
oceano
Horizontal
•waves•currents
Vertical •Up-welling•tides
Motion of Ocean water
• The wind exerts stress on the ocean surface proportional to the square of the wind speed and in the direction of the wind.
• This motion extends to a depth of ~ 100 m
Ekman layer
• Wind force balanced by coriolis force and friction
• Water defect 45 deg under coriolis force
• Depth – wind force reduce- deflect away from wind direction
Ekman spiral
Ekman spiral 90 deg = Ekman transport• Deflect Right in N.
hemi• Deflect Left in S.
hemi• Due to coriolis
force
Ekman Transport
• When Ekman transport induce divergence at the coast
• divergence draws water from below to the surface
Up-welling
Ekman transportPeruvian coast
Ekman transport in southern hemisphere
Up-welling • cool and nutrient
rich water come at the surface• Phytoplankton
reproduce rapidly in this condition – zooplankton -> nekton
• Cold current • Humboldt current
= Peruvian coast• Gulf of Guinea,
Iberian coast• Up-welling – rich
nutrients => fishing
Up-welling regions
• When Ekman transport induce convergence at the coast
• convergence forces surface water downward
Down-welling
• Descending water -warm water - saline • push down at
the bottom
Down-welling
Horizontal
•waves•currents
Vertical •Up-welling•tides
Motion of Ocean water
• Rise and fall of sea water due to gravitation forces of sun and moon is called tides• Gravitational +
centrifugal forces
Ocean tide
• If moon stationary – every place on earth experience 2 HT and 2 LT in 24 hours
Ocean tides
• But moon also revolves around earth in 27.5 days
• So, same location comes under moon not exactly after 24 hours but 24.52 min
• So, diurnal frequency of HT and LT is 12.26 min
Ocean tides
• Difference between High tide and Low Tide
• Depends upon:1) Depth of ocean
water2) Configuration
of coastline3) Openness and
closeness of the sea
Tidal range
World: Bay FundyIndia: Gulf of Khambhat
Highest tidal range
• The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.
• The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood
Ebb – Flood/Flow
• Moon’s orbit around the earth –elliptical
• Perigee tides – higher than apogee tides
Apogee and Perigee tides
Syzygy positions• the sun, the
moon and the earth are in a straight line (Syzygy)
• occur twice a month
• Conjuction – New moon
• opposition – full moon
Quadrature positionsun and moon are at right angles to each other (Quadrature)The forces of the sun and moon – counteract7/8 D of every fortnight
- Spring , neap = High tideSpring – highest HTNeap – Lowest HT- there is a 7 Days interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
Spring – Neap Tide
Spring tide
• HT higher than usual• LT lower than usual• Syzygy position• Gravitational force
from both sun and moon together
• HT lower than usual• LT higher than usual• Quadrature position• Gravitational force
of sun and moon counter-act
Neap tide
comparison
Prelims
2001
A) During the neap tides, high tide is lower and low tide is higher than usual
R) The neap tide, unlike spring tide, occurs on new moon instead of full moon.
Ans. A true, R is incorrect
UPSC
Question
• When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries
• Coastward = flood current
• Seaward = ebb current• Reversing tidal currents
great velocity
Tidal currents
• when seawater enters into mouths of low lying rivers during HT
• Narrow opening – gentle gradient of river basin
• Obstructed by river water – so steep wall of tidal bore
Tidal bores
Prelims
2004
Q. Which of the following statement is NOT correct?a) Gulf with narrow fronts and
wider rears experience high tide
b) Tidal currents take place when a gulf is connected with open sea by narrow channel
c) Tidal bore occurs when a tide enters the narrow shallow estuary of river
UPSC
Question
If a mouth of a river is low-lying and submerged under sea-waterRiver deposit create long-narrow delta = estuary deltas Ex. Deltas of Tapi, Narmada
Estuary
Prelims
2004
d) The tidal nature of the mouth of river Hooghly is of the crucial importance to Kolkata port Ans. D)Tidal bores at Hooghly are constraints for shipping at port- Rushing current imbalance the docking ships
UPSC
Question
Hooghly -Distributary of Ganga• Kolkata on left bank
of Hooghly• Tidal bores in
Kolkata port
Hooghly river
• Tidal height important for Harbours with shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from entering into the harbour.• Tides are also helpful in desilting the sediments and in
removing polluted water from river estuaries. • Tidal energy to generate electrical power
Importance of Tide
Prelims 2000
Q. Consider the following statements:1) Tides are great help
in navigation and fishing
2) High tide enable big ships to enter or leave the harbour safely
3) Tide prevents siltation of harbor
4) Kandla and diamond harbor are tidal ports
UPSC
Question
Prelims2000
a) 1 and 4b) 2,3 and 4c) 1,2 and 3d) 1,2,3 and 4
Statement 1 is wrong. Tide not helpful in navigation
Ans. B)
UPSC
Question
Kandla portDiamond harbour
Tidal ports
Tidal ports• Feed by sea water during
high tide• Located on coast• Ex. Kandla
• Feed by rivers• Relatively in-land • Ex. Kolkata port
Non-tidal ports
Ports
port facts
Kandla First port developed after independence
JNPT To decongest Mumbai port
Murmagao, KN Known for iron ore export
New Manglore port Export iron ore from Kudremukh mine in KN
Kochi At the entrance of a lagoon
Tuticorin port Also Handles cargo of Shri Lanka and Maldives
Chennai Oldest artificial port
vishakhapatnam Deepest landlocked port, export iron ore
Kolkata port Riverine port
Haldia To decongest Kolkata port
Paradip port, Odisha Initially to export iron ore
12 major ports of India
Motion of ocean waterHorizontal – wave, current
Vertical – tide
• Power is harnessed taking advantage of difference of level between HT and LT
• A dam is constructed to clock receding water during LT
• Water is released from dam – turbine - electricity
Tidal energy
• La Rance, France• Scotland, UK• potential of 8000MW in
India• Gulf of Cambay, gulf of
Kutch, Sundarban (WB)• 50 MW plant in gulf of
Kutch 2012
Tidal energy in world
• Turbines are placed on ocean floor
• Turbine are run by fast moving ocean currents
• Fastest ocean currents: gulf stream off East USA
Tidal stream energy
Horizontal
•waves•currents
Vertical •tides•Up-welling
Motion of Ocean water
Motion of ocean waterHorizontal – wave, current
Vertical – tide, upwelling –down welling
Tidal energy
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