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CONTENTS
• Introduction• Biology of memory• Theories of memory• Forgetting• Disorders of memory• Improving memory• Conclusions
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Learning • Any relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of practice or experience. • Important elements 1.Change in behavior 2.Through practice or experience 3.Relatively permanent
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Types of Learning
• Nonassociative Learning 1.Habituation 2.Sensitisation• Associative Learning 1.Classical Conditioning 2.Instrumental Conditioning 3.Complex Learning
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Nonassociative Learning
• Habituation- decreased behavioral response to innocuous stimulus
• Sensitization- Increased behavioral response to an intense stimuli
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• Unconditioned Response- Unlearned Response
• Unconditioned Stimulus- Stimulus automatically elicits response without prior conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
• Previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing
• Pavlovian Experiment• Sight of food causes salivation in dog
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Instrumental/Operant Conditioning
• Learners' behavior is important• Change is Reward• Response is repeated
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Theories of Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus substitution:-• CS substitutes US• Bond formation between CS and US• Reflex response• CR should be same as UR• Freezing
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Properties of Learning
• Acquisition:-Strength of association between CS & US increases after repeated pairing
• Extinction:-CS presented alone• Strength of CR decreases• Inhibition –CS ceases to be signal for US• CS becomes neutral stimuli
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Spontaneous Recovery
• Increased response after rest• Learning is rememberd• Reconditioning is fast
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• Stimulus Generalization:- Similar response to different stimuli
• Greater response with similar stimuli• Unpaired stimuli• Discrimination:-Different response to
different stimuli
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Theories of Classical Conditioning Cont…
• Information And Expectation:-• CS Signals US• Recent memory for CS• Link forms between CS and US• Expectation of future event
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Reinforcer
• An envirnomental event that is the consequence of an instrumental response and that makes the response more likely again
• Positive Reinforcer- Increased likelihood of response
• Omission of reinforcer –Positive renforcer is withdrawan
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• Negative Reinforcer- Cessation of event increased likelihood of response
• Punishers:-Event decreases likelihood of response
Responses tend not to be repeated
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Positive Reinforcement(Increased likelihood of response)
Punishment(Decreased Likelihood Of Response)
Omission of Reinforcement(Decreased Likelihood Of Response)
Negative Reinforcement(Increased likelihood of response)
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Shaping Behavior
• To speed up operant conditioning• To condition complex response• Method of Successive Approximations• Auto shaping
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Conditioned Positive Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers
1. No previous special training required
Previous special training required
2. Work Naturally Does not work naturally
3. No extinction Extinction
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Escape Learning
• Noxious stimuli are avoided• Instrumental learning based on negative
reinforcement
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Avoidance learning
• Noxious stimulus is avoided before its occurrence
• Latency of response early• Safety signals• Extinction is slow• Species typical defense mechanism
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Punishment
• Intensity• Consistency• Closure to time & place of response• Adaptation• Simultaneous use of Positive
Reinforcement• Should be used sparingly• May lead to US for fear
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Programmed Learning
• Used in Psychological therapy• Small easy steps• Reinforcement on completion of each step• Response at own pace • Useful in learning facts, rules and formulas
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Insight Learning
• Sudden solution to a problem• Perceptual reorganization• Generalization of a solution
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Imitation
• Imitation of behavior • Species typical• Learner pays attention to models behavior• Remember• Able to reproduce behavior• Motivated to do so
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Cognitive Learning
• Past experiences changes memory of events
• New pairing between stimuli and response• Stored in memory
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Prepared Behavior
• Certain species predisposed to learn some things easily
• Language learning in earlier stages• Species typical defense mechanism• Phobias – Certain phobias more common
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• Unprepared Behavior:- Learned with moderate difficulty• Contra prepared Behavior:- Learned with great difficulty
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Personalized system of instructions
• Broken into steps• Each step is to be mastered before
moving into next step• Performance at own pace• Increase in prductivity
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Behavior Therapy
• To treat psychological disorders• Reinforce socially adaptive behavior• Extinguishing maladaptive behavior• Pairing of stimuli
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Learning & Brain
• Hebbian Learning rule- repetition of same responses lead to permanent changes at the synopses
• Increased neurotransmitters• New neuron formation• Site - Cortex
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References• Clifford T. Morgan, Richard A. King, John R Weisz, John
Schopler,1993,Emotion and stress, Introduction To Psychology, 7th edition,181-223
• Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, Barbara L. Fredrickson,Geoff Loftus, Introduction To Psychology,15th ed,228-269
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