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* Assoc.Prof.Ph.D.D.Sc.Arch.TeresaBardzińska-Bonenberg,FacultyofArchitectureandDesign,UniversityofArtsinPoznań.

TereSABArDzińSkA-BonenBerg*

gamEs oF history anD politics – architEcturE oF grEat chinEsE citiEs: shanghai

igraszki historii i polityki – architEktura wiElkich miast chin: szanghaj

S u m m a r ySincethebeginningofthe20thcenturydevelopmentofgreatChinesecitieshasbeeninfluencedbyforeignpatterns.Housesofdifferenttypeshavebeenbuiltamongthetraditionalbuildings.The areasofShanghai “concessions”werebuilt in a specificway.AfterthewarSovietinfluenceswereintroduced.nowadaysinternationalcorpo-rationsoutdooneanotherintheheightandoriginalityoftheirskyscrapers.

Keywords: city centre, concessions, vernacular architecture, communication, scale, form, technique, construction

S t r e s z c z e n i eodpoczątkuXXw.rozwójwielkichchińskichmiastodbywałsiępodcorazwięk-szymwpływemeuropejskichiamerykańskichwzorców.Wśródrodzimejtkankimia-stapojawiałysiękamienice,apartamentowce,rezydencje.WSzanghaju,wszczegól-nysposóbzabudowanoterenyeksterytorialnycheuropejskich„koncesji”.Powojniewpływwywarłyradzieckiekoncepcjeurbanistyczneiarchitektoniczne.obecniemię-dzynarodowekorporacjeprowadząswoistykonkurswysokościioryginalnościformswychnowychsiedzib.

Słowa kluczowe: centrum miasta, koncesje, architektura rodzima, komunikacja, ska-la, forma, technika, konstrukcja

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1. Introduction

overthelast150yearsChinese-Westernrelationshaveseenbothupsanddowns.UntiltheoutbreakofwarwithJapanin1937Shanghai–called“Parisof theeast”–hadbeendevelopedinlinewitheuropeanandAmericantraditions.inthe1920sand1930spoliticaldecisionscontributedtotherenaissanceoftraditionalChinesearchitecture.Afterthewarcul-turallyalienideasandtechnologieswereimportedfromtheSovietUnion.AfteradecadeofeconomiccollapseduringtheCulturalrevolutionofthe1960sandopeningtotheWestsincetheendofthe20thcenturythecityhasagainbecomeaplacewithavant-gardearchitectureandurbandevelopment.

TheaimofthepaperistoshowthechangesthathavetakenplaceinShanghai’sarchitec-tureagainstthebackgroundofpoliticalandsocialeventsattheendofthe19thcentury,the20thcenturyandthebeginningofthe21stcentury.

2. Shanghai during the time the Empire of China

Thebeginningofthe19thcenturywasmarkedbycontemporarytiesbeinginstitutedbe-tweenChinaandeuropeanculture,whencontactsbetweentheMiddlekingdomandeuropeaswellasAmericabegantoflourishthankstoseatrade.

inthebeginning,Shanghaiwasnotpowerful,butasearlyas751ADitwasanimportantcentreanditsdevelopmentwasdrivenbyriverandseatrade.ThefirstplanofShanghaidatesfromthe17thcenturyandshowsacitysurroundedbycircularfortificationsandamoatwithafreeinternalstreetlayoutfollowingstreamsflowsthroughthem1. Thefortificationswerebuiltaround1553andfollowedthecontourofevenearlierdefences.Atthattimethecitywasalsoaweavingandacraftcentreaswellasasignificantadministrativecentre[8,p.23].

The following centuries saw the development of Shanghai in the orbit of subsequentChinesestates.However,itwasnotamajorportthatwasabletomaintaincontactswiththeWest.Thisrolewasplayedbyguangzhou(Canton)[6,p.6–7].ShanghaihadspecificurbandevelopmentwhichwasdifferentfromthesystemofBeijinghutongs [1,p.9–21],whichwasfurtherdevelopedandconsolidatedbysubsequentevents.itwasnotuntil1843,theyearinwhichthenankinTreatywassigned,thattheportbecameaninternationaltradecentreandthe“concessions”,whereeuropeanslived,weredelimitedinthevicinityoftheoldtown2.

3. Shanghai in the international arena for the first time

in1845, theQuingdynastyandQueen Victoria’sgovernmentsigned thedocument ti-tledLand Regulations,according towhichgreatBritainwasgranteda“concession”areaof55.4hasouthofwhatisnowthewaterfrontareaofBund.Thishadaninfluenceonthefurther development of the city, particularly its diversity of architecture with european

1 ShanghaioldCityWallandDajinggePavilionMuseum–maps.2 nanjingTreaty(1842)betweengreatBritainandemperorofChinaassignedfourportsopenforforeigntrade,Shanghaiamongthem.ActuallytheTreatymarkedthebeginningofthecolonizationofChina.

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origin.itwasthefirstestateforforeignersthatwasaffordedextraterritorialrightsinChina.in1848,anAmericansettlementwasestablishedwhichsooncametobecalledthe“ShanghaiinternationalSettlement” togetherwith theBritishone. in1899, theareawasenlarged to2234.7ha.TheFrenchsettlementwasestablishedin1849inanareawiththesizeofasmanyas743.7hain19143. germanhouseswerebuiltthelatestin1936.

SouthoftheYangtzerivertraditionalurbandevelopmentcouldbefoundintheformoflilongtypestreets.Thenameisderivedfromthesocialconceptofsettlement:“fivehouse-holdsmakeaneighbourhood(lin),andfivelinsmakeacommunity(li)”,whereaslongmeans“asmallstreet”.Until1876,therewereasmanyas105settlementunitscalledli[9,p.75]. initially,thesettlementhousesinthatareawerelowandwooden[5,p.1–27].Aftersocialun-restinthefirstdecadesofthe20thcenturythousandsofChineselandownerssoughtshelterinthecityintheconcessionarea.ThenecessitytointensifythedevelopmentcontributedtotheterracedhousescommoninenglishcitiesbeingadaptedtothetraditionoftheShanghairegion.Housesbuiltinthisperiodarereferredtoasshikumens4. overthedecades,becauseofthediversifiedneedsofdwellersandtherisingpricesofbuildingplots,fivetypesofshi-kumens came tobedevelopedcharacterisedbyahighdegreeof functionaldiversity [14].Therewerealsodifferentdevelopmentstyles:englishandDutchred-brickhouses(ill.1),plastered,withbalustersofterracesinFrenchlilongs(ill.2)andamodernist,Bauhausiangermancomplex[13,p.368].(ill.3)

Until1941,amosaicofarchitecturalsolutionswascreatedthatsynthesisedthestylisticsoftheeuropeanarchitectureofthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,whereasfunctionalsolutionsofhousescorrespondedtoChinesetraditionadaptedtotheneedsofeuropeancommunities.Theurbandevelopmentofconcessionareaswashaphazard,createdinahurryandresultedfromthelayoutofwatercoursesandanetworkofhistoricalroads.

Apartfromhousingdevelopmentabusinessdistrictwascreatedalongthewaterfrontthatwashometomonumentalbuildingsofvariousarchitecturalstylesinwhichbanks,tradecom-panies,clubsandhotelswerefound.erectedbyeuropeanandAmericanarchitects,theycon-tributedtothecityarchitecturebeinginfluencedbyforeignstyles[13,p.310–317].(ill.4.5.)Subsequentlyevenmoremagnificentresidenceswerebuilt5andstate-of-the-artmaterialswereused,oftenbroughtfromeurope,e.g.cementforreinforcedconcretestructuresofbuildings[2,p.85–86].insomecasesarchitectshadnofinanciallimitsimposed,thankstowhichthe19thcenturylavishnessoffaçadesandinteriorsremainsastonishingtothisday[10,p.34].

in1948,theconcessionswereterminatedandtheirinhabitantsleftthePeople’srepublicofChina.

4. Return to the past

After1912,ontheruinsoftheempireofChina,therepublicofChinawasestablishedrun by nationalists. This meant that in the 1930s apart from developing concession and

3 Dataondevelopmentoftheconcessionsfrom:ForeignSettlementinShanghai,mapsandareasdatabetween1855and1929,from:ShanghaiUrbanexhibitionCentre.

4 originally“shikumen”means“stonegate”,ashouses’entranceswerebuiltinsuchaway.5 ShanghaiUrbanexhibitionCentre,detailedphotographyandcadastraldocumentationofthechangeswithinquayside.

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ill.1.BrittishConcession,streetfrom1924ill.2.FrenchConcession,housingfrom1903ill.3.germansettlementfrom1936ill.4.Bund,glenLineSteamshipCompanyBuilding,Palmer&Turner,1921ill.5.Bund,BankofCommunication,C.H.gonda,1908ill.6.ShanghaiMuseum,DongDayou,1935ill.7.ShanghaiLibrary,DongDayou,1935ill.8.ShanghaiexhibitionCentre,Anderlev,Jislova,1955ill.9.SkylineofPudongDistrict

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waterfrontareasarchitecturewascreated in thenational form inspiredby thekuomitangPartyinpower.in1927,aplanofgreaterShanghaiwaspreparedcovering6538km2.

ontheedgesofthecitytherearefragmentsoftheinterestingurbanplanningschemeandtheadministrativeandculturalcentrethatwerestarted.ThearchitectDongDajou,educatedintheUSA,createdamonumentalcomplexdesignedintheshapeofacross.Thiswassup-posedtoserveasacounterbalancetotheroleplayedbytheconcessionsinthecity[10,p.267].Publicbuildings,includingadministrationbuildings,weresupposedtobeconstructedclosetothemainsquarethatconstitutedtheheartofthedistrict.Uptonowthefollowingbuildingshavebeenpreserved:amuseum,theseatofgovernment,andalibrary–allmain-tainedinthenew“national”Chinesestyle.(ill.6.,7.)Themainhousingestatestreetsledradiallyfromthecentre,whichmadeitpossiblefor theresidentialdistrict todevelopandlinktotheexistingroadnetwork[10,p.266].Theconceptwassoonabandonedduetothehistoricaleventsthatfollowed.

AfterWorldWar2inthenewpoliticalsystemtieswiththeWestweresevered.Anothercityplanwasdevelopedafter1946underCommunist rule.Shanghaiwas toserveasoneofChina’slargestindustrialcentresandwithin50yearsitwastohaveapopulationof15million(in2013ithad23.9millioninhabitants[15]).The1927planwasabandonedbutthedevelopmentconceptwhichconsistedincreatingsatellitetownswascontinuedandaplanfordevelopingthemetropolitanareaofShanghaiwasprepared[7,p.39].inShanghaionlyonemonumentbuildingwascreatedthatrepresentedsocialistrealistarchitecture:(ill.8)theShanghaiexhibitionCentre–Sino-SovietFriendshipMansionbuiltin1955anddecoratedinaneclecticChino-russianway[12,p.26–49].

AnotherpoliticalchangeintheformoftheCulturalrevolutionofthe1960sstoppedthecityfromdevelopingfor10yearsandcausedaconsiderableinfluxofpeople.

5. Shanghai in the international arena for the second time

Theopeninguppolicyconducted since the1970sby theChinesegovernment and itsattempttoadopta“thirdroad”policyconsistingincombiningcentralplanningandprivateentrepreneurship[3]contributedtoanothereconomicandconstructionboomvisiblesincethe1990s.ThiswasfacilitatedbytheeconomicslowdownineuropeandAmericaandthesearchfornewmarketandproductionoutlets.

ThechangesthathavetakenplacetoShanghai’sstreetsandskylinehavebecomepartof theglobal trendsofarchitecturalandurbansolutions.The“UrbanMasterPlan for theYears1986–1999”providedforintegralsatellitetownsbeingcreatedthatcombinedallthefunctionsandspecialisedproduction thatdeterminedurbandevelopment [4].At that timethe following were constructed in the city: the main train station, the first undergroundlines,twonewbridges(crossingtheHuangpu),aringroadandexitroadsfromflyoversandover130residentialdistricts.TheHongqiaoairportwasalsomodernised.Thearchitecturebureaux thathavebeendesigningforShanghaisince the90s includeall thegreatnames:Foster+Partners,gmpvongerkan,goettschPartners,HeatherwickStudios,knippersHelbigAdvancedengineering,kohnPedersonFoxAssociates(kPF),Michaelgraves,MargandPartners, Marshall Strabala Architect, Miralles Tagliabue Architects (eMBT), MVrDV,nikkenSekkei,PaulAndreuArchitects,renzoPianoBuildingWorkshop,richardrogers,Skidmore,owings&Merrill(SoM),SladeArchitecture,andzahaHadidArchitects[16].in

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thePudongdistrictintheformerindustrialeastriverbankafinancialcentrehasbeencreatedsince1990swiththetallestandmostinterestingworldskyscrapers:ShanghaiTower,632min2015;ShanghaiWorldFinancialCenter,492min2008andJinMaoTower,421min1999andothersaswellasthenewPudongairport.(ill.9).

The turningpoint in theway thecitywasperceivedanddevelopedwaseXPo2010,organisedbythecityofShanghai.itledtoinvestmentsinthecentre,expansionoftheun-derground,buildingasystemofflyoversandcreatinganewdistrictthepartofwhichwereeXPo-relatedinvestments.

oneofthemainguidelinesofthecurrentgeneralPlanofShanghaifortheyears1999–2020 is to reclaimpost-industrial areas in the city centre and to creategreenareas alongnumerouswatercoursesandtheHuangpuriver[17].

6. Recapitulation

Forthelast150yearsShanghai’sspatialdevelopmenthasbeendependentonthevaryingpoliticalconfigurationsathomeandabroad;ithasbeenshapedbywars,politicalalliancesandideology.ChinahasestablishedmutuallysignificanttieswiththeWesttwice:inthe1840sandinthe1980s.Twice,ithasseveredthetieswiththeworldforpoliticalreasons.inthe1920sthecountrycreateditsowncodeofnationalarchitectureandadoptedimporteddesignstylesinthepost-warperiod.AllthesechangeshavelefttheirmarkonthecontemporaryspaceofShanghai.

r e f e r e n c e s

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[14] http://www.mcgill.ca/mchg/student/lilong/(accessed07.06.2015).[15] http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/shanghai-population/(accessed03.05.

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