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M. Paisey 1
From Scrolls to Hypermedia
Books, scrolls, papyrus rolls, clay tablets, manuscripts, maps all materials and forms
that carry human thought and understanding have long been the province of archives or
libraries, both private and institutional. These repositories have functioned to collect,
preserve, document, and make available to a diverse public such items as government
records, books, manuscripts, music, film, and realia among other knowledge bearing
objects (Given and McTavish 8). Librarians have invented classification schemes,
bibliographic systems, and educational programs. They have provided sensory space, a
site for exploration and inspiration where librarians collaborate with patrons and further
inquiry (Aurand 13). The physical space architecture, furnishings, art invites readers
to ponder and transcend their immediate lives. The hermeneutics of libraries nurtures
imagination and thought (Slyck 523).
Libraries and archives have been wondrous gifts passed from one hand to another, one
spirit to another, one generation to another. They communicate. Libraries traditionally
contain texts that encapsulate technical and scientific observations, the stark facts of
recordkeeping, and creative texts expressive of human experience. As soon as one person
created a mark intended to communicate, human awareness was manifest and
represented. Had an innate, electronic means of creating texts been realizable, our history
our story, its multilayered, labyrinthine complexity would reach back further than we
can now imagine. Or so we would hope.
Libraries and archives inspire such hope. We understand that libraries and archives
select, preserve, represent, organize, and provide access in varying ways to diverse
documents, providing an account of the human story imperfectly, yet still productively.
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M. Paisey 2
Complex political, social, and cultural restrictions have often shaped collections and
access privileging and censoring, or distorting information through an imprudent
balance in collections. Wars and natural disasters have destroyed much. However, despite
cultural and political constraints, a librarys higher mission preserves the human record,
contains knowledge required of its users, and thereby educates as well as fosters
individual growth as well as the growth of knowledge (Swanson 113).
Therein lies the crux. The librarys higher mission not only provides calming space for
personal reflection, it provides materials to further knowledge work. Thanks to Father
Busa and his use of computing to produce the Index Thomisticus , automation and itsmethodologies and tools joined the humanities (Hockey Electronic 5). We were ready.
With the advent of electronic tools and texts, cyberspace, and networked systems, library
space has gradually moved beyond physical walls. From its genesis, digital
humanities...has remained in touch with the goals that have animated it from the outset:
using information technology to illuminate the human record, and bringing understanding
of the human record to bear on the development and use of information technology
(Schreibman 1).
Humanities scholars whose lives have straddled the analog and digital will have a
keen awareness of what electronic textuality has brought to our understandings of not
only the humanities, but also scientific discourse. Stanford Universitys Spatial History
Project includes studies of insect and animal populations. Using visualization
technologies to map spatial and demographic history of such populations, scientists hope
to examine familial collective behavior as well as migratory behavior. Hard science has
been slow to adopt or perhaps associate its digital tools with those of digital humanists,
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M. Paisey 3
but this may have less to do with the tools than the unfortunate and perpetual schism
between the two cultures.
So, what is digital humanities? Digital scholarship or digital humanities is
fundamentally an outlook or awareness of and attentiveness to the interpretive
potentialities and innovative research that electronic tools and methodologies bring to
humanities studies. Unsworth poses a key question, ...what new opportunities for
scholarship are presented by the existence of digital primary resources? (2). Warwick
recognizes the role that digitization plays in expanding research horizons; however, she
views digital tools "to think with" as the most exciting aspect of digital humanities orhumanities computing (378).
McGann also underscores the primacy of digital tools and states, "What we have now
is not so much a new world as a new set of tools for certain purposes, by certain people
(Reimagining 22). Galey and Siemens offer the most comprehensive, yet succinct
description of humanities computing and digital humanities. They state, "The field of
humanities computing deals with computational tools and methods that intersect with
humanities research; digital humanities, a more recent development, names the broader
context of disciplinary interactions that look to digital culture and technology to prompt
new modes of humanities scholarship -- and, in turn, to reassert the humanities' value in
those traditionally science- and business-dominated domains" (204).
Background and Historical Roots
Digital humanities or humanities computing, as the interdiscipline was initially
conceived, emerged during the mid twentieth century when humanities scholars initiated
a series of diverse projects requiring computational methodologies and tools. These early
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M. Paisey 4
electronic projects involved large-scale efforts aimed at automating linguistic textual
analysis, organization of information, textual or data representation, authorship
investigation, data retrieval, and data storage (Hockey History 3). Father Roberto Busa, a
Jesuit priest, is widely credited with initiating the foundational project in humanities
computing (Svensson 3). His groundbreaking project, Index Thomisticus is a lemmatized
concordance of every instance of eleven million words from St. Thomas Aquinas and
related authors works (Hockey Electronic 5). This immense accomplishment in
humanities computing earned him the credit as pioneer of humanities computing
(Hindley 2). Available now, online, Busas Index Thomisticus is fully searchable inEnglish along with several other languages.
Busas project, his imagination, commitment, and resourcefulness moved humanities
research from the linear constraints of paper-based technologies, manually managed, to
electronic technologies. By automating a process previously anchored in print, Busa
transformed the scale of projects, possibilities, and knowledge construction. Humanities
scholars could now envision projects requiring a spatial working space. When the codex
no longer confined textual analysis, humanities scholarship along with scholarship in
any field using textual media was re-invented. McGann emphasizes this point, stating,
...electronic tools in literary studies dont simply provide a new point of view on the
materials, they lift ones general level of attention to a higher order (Rationale 55). This
conceptual shift in attention changed the perception of materials, the types of questions
researchers ask, and the ways to go about answering these questions.
Father Busa may not have foreseen his projects inherent potentialities and far-
reaching implications. Nonetheless, he set off a fundamental shift in the use of archives
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M. Paisey 5
and libraries as well as specific issues that concern information science particularly the
use of descriptive, administrative, and preservation metadata. During the 1960s, pre-
eminent humanities scholars recognized the research opportunities intrinsic to digital
humanities. Successive conferences ensued, the first humanities computing association
was established (Association for Computers and Humanities) along with the first journal
(Computers and the Humanities ). The 1960s inaugurated centers for humanities
computing. These centers developed suites of programs to address humanities questions,
particularly those that related to the production of critical editions. The problems
technologists and humanities scholars faced then variant spellings, variantalphanumeric characters, multiple manuscripts, data representation, and description
continue to be key concerns.
The late 1970s and 1980s brought about a momentous change and direction in
computing humanities. Oxford University founded the Oxford Text Archive (OTA) thus,
establishing an embryonic digital archive (Hockey Electronic 14). An early problem
facing archivists at the OTA was the extent of undocumented, undescribed material.
Archivists recognized the necessity of instituting a descriptive schema, but information
science was not yet participating in computing humanities. The various levels of
metadata so important in representation, discovery, provenance, and preservation
were barely emergent, particularly with respect to archives and electronic texts.
Nonetheless, the OTA had broken ground; the first digital library was unfolding
other centers emerged at universities and corporations. Governments also weighed in,
sponsoring electronic textual initiatives. At this point, digital archives (or databanks)
specializing in Old Greek, Old English, and Latin emerged. The benefits of creating an
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M. Paisey 6
electronic archive or databank for these rare texts became abundantly clear. They are
fragile, scarce, requested, and need preservation. One such document is the Nowell
Codex (Beowulf), dated around the first millennium clearly a fragile, scarce, requested
fragment that, despite substantial loss in fire, remains invaluable (Hockey History 9).
During 1980s and early 1990s, scholars increased their use of personal computers and
as soon as Macs emerged, humanities scholars recognized the value in the graphical user
interface. Such an interface could display non-standard characters such as those in Old
English. Importantly, the Mac-based program HyperCard made it possible to create a
network of hypertext. And, for the digitally inclined, hypertext and its capability to linkfiles was momentous.
Previously, electronic texts brought humanities research into a non-linear, spatial
realm where textual extractions engendered imaginative research opportunities such as
structuring concordances and textual comparisons. Now with hypertext, words could link
within an electronic concordance. Hypertext provided the means by which a complex
network of hyperlinks created information databases. The nascent digital archive
(databank) grew with an intricate, non-linear, networked scheme. Digital archivists could
map digitized text to digitized images and an authors notebook or sketches could be
mapped to the text, as the rhizomorphous Walt Whitman Archive does today.
Intersection of Libraries and Digital Humanities
Electronic text enabled humanities scholars to approach texts and drive their
resources "to their limits and beyond" (McGann Reimagining 4). Not only would
electronic texts introduce new research interests and questions, they would also change
the way users read and interact with materials (Todorov 67). Both the use and the users of
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M. Paisey 7
electronic texts would change. Shillingsburg states, ...electronic representations of
written texts have as much capacity to change the readers or users as they have of
changing the texts (Gutenberg 4). As a result, Shillingsburg, like McGann, claims that
electronic texts have altered textuality itself. This textuality embraces Darntons textual
communication circuit as well as a texts initial context, its current reception and
understanding, and the interpretive discourse surrounding a text or textual artifact
(Darnton 12).
The merits of electronic texts, digital archives, or editions for scholars are numerous,
yet the question of who creates the model, rationale, and construction arises. Closelyrelated to these challenges, and paramount, is who edits the electronic text, archive, or
edition? (Price 3). We have two distinct camps. One camp favors the digital humanist as
collection developer; the other camp emphasizes the digital archivists and librarians
role as collection developer. Price is firmly camped with the digital humanists. Still
another view and probably the view closest to a consensus -- relates to the deeply
collaborative nature of large-scale digital archives (Pitti 473). Collaborative efforts would
not only involve digital humanists and digital archivists, but also textual scholars, literary
scholars, disciplinary scholars, librarians, archivists, information scientists, and
technicians to name only a few.
Certainly, it seems Price's division between humanities' scholars and librarians is
artificial. Scholar librarians and archivists are trained not only in the humanities and
textual transmission, but also in the selection, organization, and representation of material
in a collection. This is not to say that a digital humanist should not endeavor to develop
an electronic digital collection. Kirschenbaum offers a view of the digital scholar in
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M. Paisey 8
relation to librarian or archivist. He believes,
Literary scholars need to play a role in decisions about what kind of data
survives and in what form as bibliographers and editors have long been
advocates in traditional library settings, where they have opposed policies that
tamper with bindings, dust jackets, and other important kinds of material
evidence (Approaches 4).
While Kirschenbaum's perspective is understandable, painstaking training in
bibliography is essential for special collections librarians and, regardless of what
expertise bears on a digital archive, edition, or collection, without punctilious metadata, both efficient information retrieval and archival or digital preservation is at risk. Ideal
conditions would unite the disciplinary scholar, the scholar librarian, and the scholar
information scientist as collaborators.
Price also raises the issue of terminology -- he objects to the current usage of digital
humanities as well as the terms archive, edition, database, and thematic research
collection (1). With regard to digital humanities, he feels the term inadequately
describes digital textual studies. He is equally unhappy with the terms archive,
edition, database, or thematic research collection (1-10). Of all terms, he is
inclined toward thematic research collection, but states that it is insufficiently pithy
(6). His points are fair. Throughout the literature, scholarly digital archives are known by
many other names, including electronic text, digital media (Rieger 5), electronic media,
digital representations, among numerous other names.
I am inclined toward the term scholarly digital archives or thematic research
collection. Both terms, digital archives and thematic research collection, imply the
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M. Paisey 9
digitization of primary source material as well as books different editions, versions,
copies, of a particular text along with other texts, including sound and video by an
author or authors where texts are contextualized, logical, indeterminate, and thematic
they organize how we investigate our cultural heritage, rather than focusing exclusively
on one particular text (McGann Electronic 5). Documents can be related and can be
"studied and synthesized to make new knowledge" (Smith 312).
Palmer defines a thematic collection as digital aggregations of primary sources and
related materials that support research on a theme (1). She is interested in both the
digital humanist and digital librarian building collections jointly (Thematic 350). Hercurrent research addresses the needs of humanist scholars, their information seeking
behaviors, and thematic collections. In addition, the concept of a scholarly thematic
collection suggests an interdisciplinary approach that is located in space and
concentrated in time (McGann Electronic 4). Prices recent Civil War Washington
project or Radcliffes Lord Byron: His Life and Times collection employ a hypermedia
model that integrates disparate documents, forming dynamic, de-centered archives that
take emphasize the role of culture and society in the production, transmission, and
interpretation of texts (McKenzie Bibliography 62).
Conclusion
Library science, information science, and digital humanities have or should have a
synergistic relationship. Each discipline or field brings requisite skills in constructing
digital collections whether one refers to them as digital archives or thematic research
collections. Library science brings formal collection development strategies that include
statements of mission, policy, selection, acquisition, organization, and representation. In
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M. Paisey 10
dealing with a rare and scholarly collection, special collections librarians understand
bibliography, scholarly editions, textual criticism, and digitization among other
specialized skills.
Information science establishes standards of representation and metadata as well as
information architecture, encoding, and website usability. Finally, the digital humanities
scholar brings in-depth knowledge of a particular subject area and the information habits
of scholarly users. As McGann has argued, digital humanities or digital scholarship is an
outlook and includes a new set of tools for specific users. Creating digital thematic
collections or archives is a multidisciplinary enterprise that requires communication andcollaboration among all professionals involved in a digital project or endeavor.
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M. Paisey 11
Questions
1. How have electronic or digital archives altered they ways in which humanitiesscholars both read and research?
2. What editorial principles relate to constructing a scholarly digital archive?
3. What is a thematic digital archive, how does it differ from a traditional archive, andwhat kinds of questions and research does it enable a scholar in any field to conduct.
4. Describe the workflow in constructing a thematic research collection or digitalarchive. For example, FSUs Strozier SC Library holds a substantial collection of LoisLenski Papers, if one were to develop a thematic research collection, what procedureswould need to be established?
5. What metadata should a digital archive include in order to ensure discoverability,accurate description, and optimal interoperability?
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M. Paisey 12
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