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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Scientific Method
Scientific Method
An orderly method which used to investigate a problemor an event.
DEFINE THE
PROBLEM
PLAN THE
INVESTIGATION
COLLECT THE
DATAWRITE A
REPORT
CONTROL THE
VARIABLES
FORM A
HYPOTHESIS
1
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CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Ultrastructure Of An Animal Cell Ultrastructure Of An Animal Cell Ultrastructure Of An Animal Cell Ultrastructure Of An Animal Cell Ultrastructure Of An Animal Cell
N
uclear
M
embrane
Flagellu
m
C
hromatin
N
ucleolus
Nucleus
Endoplas
mic
reticulum
(rough)
Plasma
membrane
2
Microtuble
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CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONCHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Ultrastructure Of A Plant Cell Ultrastructure Of A Plant Cell Ultrastructure Of A Plant Cell Ultrastructure Of A Plant Cell Ultrastructure Of A Plant Cell
Mitochondrion
Cell Wall
Vacuole
Microtubule
Nuclear
Chromatin
3
Cytoplasm
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CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Structure And Function Of Animal Cells And Plant Cells (i)
Controls all the all activities in the cell
Responsible for all cellular structure,chemical function, growth andreproduction.
Produce all the cellschemical energy(ATP) and thecomponents that
structure nucleicacids
Changes protein intoglycoprotein
Nucleus
4
Mitochondrion
Golgi Body
outer membrane
inner membrane
cristaematrix
Nucleolus
Chromatin
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Synthesis of protein
The smallest cellular organelles
Filled with cell sap in plants
Protects the plant cellMaintains the shape of the cell
RIBOSOME
5 CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Structure And Function Of Animal Cells And Plant Cells (ii)
VACUOLE
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Both have nucleus
Both have cell
membrane
Both have cytoplasm
Animal cell Plant Cell
6 CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Similarities And Differences of Animal Cell And Plant Cell
SIMILARITIES
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CHAPTER3:M
OVEMENTOFSUBSTANCESACROSS
T
HEPLASMAMEMBRANE
P
lasmaMembrane
Outside cell Glycolipid
Carrier
protein
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Phospholipidbilayer
The structure of the plasma membrane
Consists of lipid bilayer and globular proteins.
The globular proteins float like icebergs in an
ocean of lipid molecules.
s of the plasma membrane: ts as a boundry between the inside and outside of cell
ntrols movement of substances into and out of cell
otects cells
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CHAPTER3
:MO
VEMENTOFSUBSTANCESA
CROSS
THEPLASMAMEMBRANE
8
Sodium ionsbind tothe proteininside theplasmamembrane.
Protein will change back quicklyto its original shape or structurefollowing the removal of thephosphate group.
Potassium ions move tothe inside of the cell.
1
carrier protein
lipid
Na+
ATP
ADPPhospholipid
bilayer
Na+
P
ATP is hydrolyzedand phosphate isproduced.
2
Na+
Na+
P
K+
The shape orstructure ofprotein changesand causes sodiumions to be expelledto the externalspace.
P
K+
Potassium ionsbind to the protein.
P
K+
3
45
6
ACTIVETRANSPORT
Acti
veTran
spor
t
Extracellularspace
Cytoplasm
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CHAPTER3:MOVEMEN
TOFSUBTANCESACROSSTHEPLAS
MAMEMBRANE
ThePassiveTransport
Facilitated Diffusion
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Simple Diffusion Osmosis
The transport of molecules
across the outer membrane ofliving cell by process thatinvolves carrier protein within
Molecules transport randomly
from a dilute solution to a moreconcentrated solution.
The passage of a solvent (eg.
water) from a dilute solutionto a more concentratedsolution across asemipermeable membrane.
Hydrophilicgroups(Specific bindingsite)
Carrierprotein
Solute molecule
Carrierproteinchangesshape
Sucrosemolecule
Watermolecule
Copper (ll) sulphate particle
9
Semipermeablemembrane
Higherconcen-tration
Lowerconcen-tration
Carrierprotein snapsback to itsoriginalconformation
Waterpot
entialgra
dient
Strong SucroseSolution
(less water = low
water potential)
Weak SucroseSolution
(more water = high
water potential)
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water concentration outside thecell is higher than that of in thecytoplasm.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Hiypotonic
water concentration inside andout of cell is equal.
Isotonic
wce
th
Description
water enters the cell. cell expands and eventually bursts
(haemolisis).
flow of water into and out of cellthrough plasma is balanced.
shape and cell size is definite.
w ce
de
Implicationon animalcell
water enters the cell by osmosis. cell expands and becomes firm or
turgid. The rigid cellulose cell wallexpands slightly only and so pre-
No change because flow of waterinto and out of cell through plasma
is balanced.
fla wa
ceH2O
H2O
H2O
H 2O
H2O
H2O H 2O
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CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS
Charateristics Of Enzymes
SpecificAction
Reactions arereversible May need cofactors/
coenzymes
Rate
ofreaction
Optimum
Temperature
n o n specificsubstrate
Specific
substrate
yme
reaction
rate
amylase
t rypsin
optimum pH
Some enzymes may need tobe bound with coenzymebefore they can catalysereactions
11
+
+
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
ENZYMES
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(554690-H)12CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS
Extracellular Enzymes
Roughendoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Transitionvesicle
Golgicomplex
Secretory
vesicle
Membranefusionoccuring
Discharge by
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CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS
The Mechanism Of Enzymes Action
A building up reaction
(synthesis)
A breaking down reaction
(hydrolysis)
Substrate molecule aligning itselfat the enzyme molecule active
site.
Two substrate molecules (A and
B)which can fit into the active
site.substrate
activesites
enzymemolecule
AB
1 2
A substratemolecule(sucrose)
enzymemolecule(sucrase)
activesites
13
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CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS
Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity
enzyme
reaction
rate
enzyme
reaction
rate
different enzymes, differentoptimum pH.
pH changes, protein
conformation changes. reduced ability to
each 10C increment (until 40C)reaction rate doubles.
37C - 40C, optimum range foranimal enzyme.
10
2
4
6
8
10
12
20 30 40 50 60
pH TEMPERATURE
denaturation beginsh T 40C l
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 pH
T = 37CT < 37C T >37C
T = 60Cenzymedenatures
Temperature(C)
pepsin
amylase
t rypsin
optimum pH
14
optimumtemperature
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CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION
The Cell CycleThe Cel l CycleThe Cell CycleThe Cel l CycleThe Cell Cycle
G 1
S
G2
Prophase
Metaphase
Ana
phas
e
Telophas
e
Cytokin
esis
DNA replication
Chromosomeduplication
Synthesis of enzymeand protein for cell
division.
Cell grows and
prepares for mitosis.
Cell grows andcarries out normalmetabolism.Organelles duplicate.
INTERPHASE
15
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CHANGES OF THE DNA CONTENT OF A CELL
CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION Changes Of The DNA Content Of A CellChanges Of The DNA Content Of A CellChanges Of The DNA Content Of A CellChanges Of The DNA Content Of A CellChanges Of The DNA Content Of A Cell
2nnnnn
3nnnnn
4nnnnn
DNA ContentDNA ContentDNA ContentDNA ContentDNA Content
Of CellOf CellOf CellOf CellOf Cell
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
16
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CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION
MitosisMitosisMitosisMitosisMitosis
The periods between cell
divisons. Chromosomes are in the
form of fine threads and
uncondensed.
Chromosomes condense.
Spindle microtubules
form between the
centrioles.
Nucleolus and nucleus
membrane disappear.
Chromosomes align at the
equator.
The centromeres attach to
the spindle microtubules.
INTERPHASE
Prophase
METAPHASE
17
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CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION
MeiosisMeiosisMeiosisMeiosisMeiosis
The periods between cell
divisons. Chromosomes are in the
form of fine threads and
uncondensed.
Chromosomes condense.
Homologous chromosomes
synapse to form a tetrad.
Crossing over occurs at
chiasma.
Nucleus membrane dissapears.
Spindle is formed.
Chromosomes line up inpairs across the cell
MEIOSIS I
INTERPHASE
PROPHASE I
METAPHASE I
18
CHAPTER 5 CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 CELL DIVISION
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INTERPHASE
Chromosomes become thick
and short.
Nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear.
Chromosomes line up singly
across the centre of each
cell.
Prophase ii
METAPHASE II
MEIOSIS II
19
CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISIONCHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION
MeiosisMeiosisMeiosisMeiosisMeiosis
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MEIOSIS
Pole
Chromatids
Centromere
Centriole
Spindle
MITOSIS
M
eios
Prophase I
INTERPHASE
Metaphase I
Metaphase
Prophase
CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION
Comparison Of Mitosis And Meiosis20
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LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
Building blocks of all organismse.g simple molecule: Amino acid
complex molecule: Protein
Subcellular compartmentsspecialised for specificcellular functions.e.g. mitochondria
ORGANELLE
A
fo
MOLECULE
ORGAN SYSTEM
CHAPTER 6 : ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
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CHAPTER 6 : ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
Human Organ Systems
Nervous System RespiratorySystem
Muscular System
SkeletalSystem
22
coordinates andcontrols most nerveactivities
inhales oxygen andexhales carbon dioxide
support the body
protect the organsallows body movement
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Pseudopodia
Nucleus
EctoplasmFood vacuoles
Contractile
vacuole
Cell
membrane
CHAPTER 6 : ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
Unicellular Organisms - Amoeba
Respiration Feeding in AmeobaCO2
O2
Pseudopodium engulfs
E di b i
Nutrients areabsorbed
24
Endoplasm
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2
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MATURE CELL DIVISION OF THE NUCLEUS
DAUGHTER CELLS SEPERATE DIVISION OF THE CYTOPLASM
Parent cell
Nucleus divides
Cytoplasm divides
Daughter cell
CHAPTER6:
ORGANIZATIONOFCELLS
REPRODUCTIONINAMOEBA
26
Nucleus
Cell becomesrounded and
nucleus startsto divide
Daughter
nuclei form
and cytoplasm
constricts
Daughter cells separate
PNICHAPTER 6 : ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
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CHAPTER 6 : ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
Unicellular Organisms - Paramecium
Movement Respiration
M ith th h l f ili hi h
Cilium
TrichocystsMacronucleus
MicronucleusCytostome
Food vacuole
Contractile
vacuole
CO2
O2
Ab b f th t d i
27
2
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN PARAMECIUM
Daughter cells form4
Both nuclei start to divide2
Mature Cell1
Cell contents divide3
CHAPTER6:ORGANIZATIONOF
CELLS
28
Paramecium
macronucleus
micronucleus
UnicellularOrganisms-AsexualReproduction
Micronucleus begins mitosis
Micronucleus divides
Macronucleus pulls in two
New gullet forms
Two new contractile appear
Micronucleus in mitosis
Macronucleus begins elongation
Bud appears on cytostome
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1 The conjugants come to lieside by side.
2 The macronucleidisintegrate and themicronuclei divide.
3 Eachmicronucleusdivides twiceto form 4nuclei and 3of thesedisintegrate.
4 Each remainingmicronucleusdivides into 2.One of thesemigrate into theadjacent cell.
5 Migratory nucleus fuseswith stationary nucleus ofother conjugant.
6 The cojugants separate.Each ex-conjugantcontains zygotic nucleus.
8 Each ex-cojungant dividestwice to form four new
young paramecia.
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
IN PARAMECIUM
7The zygoticnucleusdivides intoeight.
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macronucleus
micronucleus CHAPTER6:ORGANIZATION
OFCELLS
Un
icellularorganisms-SexualReproduction
29
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CHAPTER 7: NUTRITION
Classes Of Food - Lipids
Elements
C , H , OC - CarbonH - Hydrogen
O - Oxygen
Fats And Oil
Unsaturated fat : - Oil products from plants
: - Animal fatSaturated fat
Phospolipids
Main component of
plasma membrane
Functions
Give us energy
Make cell membraneKeep us warm
Control body
temperature
LIPIDS
31
+
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Help to repair and build
up new cells
There are 20 amino
acids.
Synthesizes enzymes,
hormones, antibodies
and haemoglobin
i) Essential amino acids
animal produts :
meat, egg, milk
ii) Non-
plant
(bea
TYPES OF
AMINO
ACID
SOURCES
C CarbonH Hydrogen
O OxygenN Nitrogen
S SulphurP Phosphorus
C, H, O, N, S and P
ELEMENT
PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS
Can be classify as :
Canbeusedforenergywhenthebodyisstarving
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PRIMARY STUCTURE
SECONDARY STRUCTURE
The linear sequenceof amino acids in apolypeptide chain.
The folding ofthe polypeptidechain to form apleated sheet.
The twisting of the
polypeptide chain toform a helix.
HELIX
Amino acids
Polypeptide chain
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
The structure of protein is characterized in 4 ways:
A Primary Stucture C Tertiary Structure
B Secondary Structure D Quarternary Structure
}
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BODY SIZE
AGE
GENDER
CLIMATE
HEALTH
An individual who has a
Adolescentsmore calorie
Women need lesscalories compared
to men.
Insufficient secretion of thyroxineresults in a lower metabolic rate.
Meanwhile over-secretion of thyroxinecauses higher metabolic rate.
An individual who is physically activeneeds more calories than an individual
who is inactive.
6OCCUPATION / PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY
FACTORS THAT
AFFECT DAILY
ENERGYREQUIREMENTS
1bigger build needs more calories than anindividual with a smaller build.
2
3
4
5
35CHAPTER 7 : NUTRITION
A B l d Di t F d G id P id
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Food Guide PyramidFood Guide PyramidFood Guide PyramidFood Guide PyramidFood Guide Pyramid
Fats, oils and
sweets group
Eat sparingly
Fruit group
Milk, yogurt andcheese group
2-3 servings
35
Vegetable
group
3-5 servings
Meat, poultry, fish,
eggs and nuts group
2-3 servings
A Balanced Diet : Food Guide Pyramid
Eat least
CHAPTER 7 : NUTRITION
Human Digestive System
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H Di ti S t
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Human Digestive System
Trachea
The Digestive Process
In The Alimentary Canal Starch
BileFats
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Milk protein Casein
Break food into
small pieces Glands : Salivary glandsSecretion : Saliva (pH 7)
Glands : Liver
Secretion : Bile (pH 8)
Glands : Pancreas
Secretion : Pancreatic juice (pH 8)
Glands : Gastric glandsSecretion : Gastric juice (pH 1)
Salivary
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Teeth
Mouth
Amylase
Amino Acids
Stomach
Rennin
Duodenum
Emulsified fatsLiver
Oesophagus
36 Human Digestive System
ProteinsProtease
Peptones
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Liver
Blood vessel
Glucose and amino acid are transported to the whole body.
Glucose respirated
Amino acid hormone synthesis, enzymes and new cells
Glucose Glycogen
Amino acid urea
Amino acid protein
37
Hepatic Vein
carries processednutrients from liver intosystemic circulation.
Absorption And Assimi lat ion
Sugar andamino acidabsorb in thesmall intestine.
Large intestineSmall Intestine
carries solubleproducts ofabsorption
to the liver.
Hepatic Portal Vein
Absorption ofwater, mineralsalts and water
salts solublei i
Lymphatic Vessel
carries fatty acid,glycerol, fat-solublevitamins (A, D, E, K)to lymphatic system.
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CHAPTER 7 : NUTRITION
Photosynthesis38
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Water + Glucose +Light
Carbon dioxideChlorophyll
Oxygen
Process in which green plants make use of carbondioxide and water to make food (glucose) in thepresence of sunlightand chlorophyll.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The Equation for Photosynthesis is:
6H2O 6CO6 C6H12O6 6O2
Oxygen isreleased as a
waste product
Chrophyllmolecule that
can trap light
Light energy split thewater moleculesinto oxygen and hydrogen
Starch grains transportedto other parts of the plant
CHAPTER 7 : NUTRITION
Mechanism Of Photosynthesis39
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Mechanism Of Photosynthesis
MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
39
Aspect Light Reactions Dark React ions
Site
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIGHT REACTIONS AND
DARK REACTIONS
Grana of Chloroplast Stroma of Chloroplast
C6H
12O
6
LIGHT
6H2
0
6O2
DARK
REACTIONS
6CO2
6H2O
LIGHT
REACTIONS
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leaves
Phloem sieve tubes
carry away sucrose
2 to diffuse
Guard cellcontrolsopening/closure ofstomatal pores
Cuticle
waxy
reduce water loss byevaporation
Spongy mesophyll
allows diffusion of water and
gases through leaves
Palisade mesophyllmajor site ofphotosynthesis
Upper epidermis
protects against
water losstransparent to
visible light
Lower epidermis
protects against
water loss
transparent tovisible light
INTERIOR OF LEAF
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CHAPTER7
:
NUTRITION
LEAF
STRUCTU
RE
Leaf Structure
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Nutrients that needed in large
quantities
Necessary for the formation ofthe cell walls and protoplasm ofcells.
Example :(i) Carbon(ii) Hydrogen(iii) O xy gen
(iv) Nitrogen(v) Phosphorus(vi) Sulphur (vii) Potass ium(vii i) Magnesium(ix) Calcium
Nutrients that needed in small quantities.
Required mainly for the formationof plgments and enzymes
MINERAL REQ
How Mineral Ge
Mineral elemenfrom the soil
MACRONUTRIENTS
MICRONUTRIENTS
non-metallic
metallic
MINERAL
NUTRITION INPLANTS
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CHAPTER 7 : NUTRITION
Mineral Nutrition In Plants42
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NITROGEN
Used for : Making leaves and
growth of new cellsNecessary for : (a) Protein synthesis(b) Synthesis of
(a)growth
(b)(c)
Sources :(i)(ii)
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MAGNESIUM
Used for : Formation of chlorophyll
Absence causes : (a) Poor growth (b) Yellowing of leaves
42
Source : Magnesium salts in the soil
The LimitingFactors That Influences Rate Of Photosynthesis
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rate
of
ph
otosynthesis
ynthesis
rate
of
ph
otosynthesis
light need to
be increased
plenty of light
and warmth
High intensityof light
Low intensity o
amount of carbon dioxide
Carbon Dioxide Concentration Temperature
0.03% CO2
1 3
210 20
1Light Intensity 2
Photosynthesis willgo as fast as theamount of light willal low, when it is
warm and there isplenty of carbon
dioxide .Light becomes thelimiting factor.
The LimitingFactors That Influences Rate Of Photosynthesis
When amount oflight increases,
the rate of photo-synthesis in-creases to a cer-
tain point. Beyondthis point amount
The Ruminants Digestive System
44
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The Ruminants Digestive System
Ruminants have four - chambered stomach
OESOPHAGUS
Rumen
cellulase
Receives fermented grass mixture
from rumen
OMASUM
Ruminants release large
volumes of methane from
both ends of their gut.
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CHAPT
ER7:NUTRITION
Digestive
SystemOfRuminants
2
1
Mouth
Food is ingested and
chewed ready forswallowing.
RETICULUM34
HCI andpepsin
conditions
1
2
3
4
5
6 sugarscellulose
Proteins fromgrass, bacteriaand ciliates
peptides
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Digestive System Of Rodents
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Digestive System Of A Rabbit
Salivary glands
Oesophagus
Heart
Gall-bladder
IleumPancrease
Duodenum
Stomach
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Cell Respiration
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C6H12O6+ 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
P
ADP ATP
PActive
transport
+
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CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATION Fish Respiratory StructureFish Respiratory StructureFish Respiratory StructureFish Respiratory StructureFish Respiratory Structure47
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Gill raker
- Have very thin walls which are permeable to gases.
- Covered with many gill lamellas.- Have a dense network of blood
capillaries
Characteristics of gill filaments
for gases exchange
Has four pairs of gills. The gillsare covered by the operculum.
Gill bar holds out the gill
filaments into thestream of water.
Gill filament
Water in
Each gill consists of two gill
rakers, gill arches and tworows of gill filaments.
OperculumA muscular flapwhich covers
the gill chamber.
Water out
provide enourmoussurface area for
gas exchange.
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CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATION Breathing Mechanism In FishBreathing Mechanism In FishBreathing Mechanism In FishBreathing Mechanism In FishBreathing Mechanism In Fish48
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EXPIRATIONDIFFERENCESINSPIRATION
Waterin
Mouth
Gill
Operculum
Operculum
valve
Water out Water outBuccal cavity
Flowing of waterthrough the gills.
KEYBreathe
inBreathe
out
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CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION
The Respiratory System And Mechanism49
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THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND MECHANISM
Larynx
Bronchus
Rib
Trachea
Internalintercostal
muscle
Pleuralmembranes
Di h
Pleural cavity withpleural fluid
Externalintercostal
muscle
Bronchiole
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CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATION The Breathing MechanismThe Breathing MechanismThe Breathing MechanismThe Breathing MechanismThe Breathing Mechanism
50
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EXPIRATION (EXHALATION)
Air in
INSPIRATION (INHALATION)
Air out
RibsLung
Vertebral
column
Internal
intercostal
muscle
Diaphragm Sternum
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CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION
The Regulation Of Breathing
C t l
5151515151
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The nerve impulsessent to
medulla oblongata.
Central
chemoreceptors
In medula oblongata,information analysedand impulses sent tointercostal muscle
and diaphragmmuscle.
The chemoreceptors in the carotidbody and aorta body are stimulatedwhen: concentration of O
2 decreases
concentration of CO2
increases Blood pH changes
Intercostal
l
Cerebellum
Medulla Oblongata
2
1
3
Cerebrum
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CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 :CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATIONRESPIRATION Gaseous Exchange In The Alveolus AndGaseous Exchange In The Alveolus AndGaseous Exchange In The Alveolus AndGaseous Exchange In The Alveolus AndGaseous Exchange In The Alveolus And
TissuesTissu esTissuesTissu esTissues52
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ALVEOLAR AIRALVEOLAR AIRALVEOLAR AIRALVEOLAR AIRALVEOLAR AIR
Po2 104 mm Hg
Pco2 40 mm Hg
Inspired air
Po2 160 mm HgPco
2 0.3 mm Hg
Expired air
Po2 120 mm HgPco
2 27 mm Hg
Blood leavingtissue capillaries
Po2
104 mm Hg
Pco2 40 mm Hg
Bloodentering alveolar
capillaries
Po2 40 mm Hg
Pco2 45 mm Hg
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CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION Site Of Photosynthesis And Respiration In Mesophyll CellsSite Of Photosynthesis And Respiration In Mesophyll CellsSite Of Photosynthesis And Respiration In Mesophyll CellsSite Of Photosynthesis And Respiration In Mesophyll CellsSite Of Photosynthesis And Respiration In Mesophyl l Cells53
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C6H12O6 + 6O26CO6 + 6H2 O
Light energy
chlorophyll
Sunlight
Sunlight
Sunlight
Sunlight
Sunlight
Chlorophyll containingorganelles that are found inlarge numbers in plant cells
undergoing photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
ATP and
heat
A structure within thecytoplasm that carry outaerobic respiration
CHLOROPLAST
MITOCHONDRION
Respiration (heat) 70%Respiration energy used
Use of energy entering an animal
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PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
Describes the number ofindividuals at each link ina food chain.
Some energy arelost during
excretion and respiration
processes.
90% of energylost
10 kJ/m/year
90% of energylost
1 000 kJ/m/year
1(1 kg)
50
50 000(total 100 kg)
10 000 000
Tertiary consumer(4th trophic level)
Secondary consumers (3rd trophic)
Primary consumers (2nd trophic)
Producers (1st trophic level)
10% ofenergy
transmitted
10% ofenergy
transmitted
10% ofenergy
transmitted
10% ofenergy
transmitted
10 000 kJ/m/year
p ( )
Food eaten
100%
Growth 2%
Urine 3%
Faeces 10%
p gyin activities for living 5%
Respiration (movement) 10%
CHAPTER9
:DYNAMICECOSYSTEM
TheP
yramidOfNumbers
90% of energylost
100 kJ/m/year
FOOD WEB 55
Herbivores
Primary consumers Secondary consumers
Carnivores Carnivores
Tertiary consumersSunlight
Provides energyin the food
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CHAPTER9
:DYNAMICECOSYSTEM
FoodWeb
Producers
Usually green plants. They
can convert light energyto chemical energy in foodcompounds.
Obtain energy in foodcompounds obtainedfrom producers.
Carnivores
Obtain energy in foodcompounds obtained byeating primary consumers.
Carnivores
Obtain energy in foodcompounds obtained byeating primary/ secondaryconsumers.
chain.
Decomposers
Bacteria and fungi
CHAPTER 9 : DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
Symbiosis56
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SYMBIOSIS : An intersection between individuals ofdifferent species (symbionts)
Commensalism Parasitism Mutualism
A specific (commensal)
benefits from the
association with the
other (host) is not
affected significantly.
An association in
which one organism
(parasite) lives on
another body (host) to
obtain its nutrients.
An intersectionbetween two speciesin which bothspecies benefit.
Both species couldnot live separatelybut dependent oneach other to survive.
A plant that growsupon another plant.
A parasite that livesoutside itshost sbody.
Bacteria in rootd l k i
EctoparasiteEpiphyte
Host
1 1
Flea
CHAPTER 9 : DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
The Interaction Between Biotic Components57
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Any organism that feeds by absorbing dead organic matter.
Any plants that
Any animals that
Interactionbetween two
depends fully on dead organisms
for food.
obtain food from dead and
decaying organisms.
Saprophytism
Saprophyte Saprozoite
Prey -predator Competition
organisms in which one
INTERACTIONBETWEEN
BIOTIC
The interactionamong living
organisms that share
the limited resources
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CHAPTER 9 : MICROORGANISMS AND THIER EFFECT ON LIVING THINGS
Biodiversity - Classification of Organisms58
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Prokaryotae
Unicellular
Do not have nuclearmembrane
Simple organisationwithout muscle
Protoctista
Almost unicellular
Have nuclearmembrane
Simple organisationwithout muscle
Fungi
Do not have chlorophyll
Have chitin wall butnot cellulose
Produce spores
CLASSIFICATION
OF
CHAPTER 9 : MICROORANISMS AND ITS EFFECT ON LIVING THINGS
The Classification Of Microorganisms59
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Unicellular organism
Asexual reproductionthrough spores andbudding.
Do not have
hl h ll
Unicellular organisms. Asexual reproduction
through dual cleft. 4 ways of nutrition :
Living in the soil, sea, moist
area or upon another organism.
Reproduce through cell
division.
Sexual and asexual
reproduction.
BacteriaFungi
Protozoa
ParameciumAmoeba
Attachment1
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Virus attaches on thesurface of bacteria
cell.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF
A TYPICAL VIRUS
Attachment1
Complex virus
Protein coat
BacterialChromosome
Nucleic acid
Th i l ti f it g i th i tNITROGEN CYCLE
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The circulation of nitrogen in the environment.NITROGEN CYCLE
Denitrifyingbacteria
Animal proteins
Plant proteins
Nitrifyingbacteria
Nitratesabsorbed byroots.
Nibaso
Nitrogen in the
atmosphere
Ammonia andammoniumcompounds
DecompositionDecompositionof urea and
faeces.
Nitrogen-fixingbacteria inroots
death animal
and plants
Nirates in
th il
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Light energyfrom the sun
Sun
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About 10% of the solarenergy reflected backinto space.
Meltingicebergcausesto rise
Solar enerngy re-emittedin the infrared range.
About 83% of thesolar energypenetrates the
atmosphere.
Some of the Earthred emissions are r
back to the Earths
Greenhousegasesfromcombustion offossil fuels,car exhaustetc.
Sun
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