INTRODUCTION
Just as firefighters prepare to fight firesFF must also prepare for the situation they
hope to avoidThe incidents where firefighters have lost
their lives, or where they lived to tell about it, have a consistent theme:Inadequate situational awareness
NIOSH AND USFA REPORT FINDINGS
Several NIOSH line-of-duty-death (LODD) investigations indicate Firefighters :May not be adequately trained on fire ground
survival proceduresHow to call a Mayday Actions to take while waiting to be rescued
NIOSH AND USFA REPORT FINDINGS
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI FD. May 3, 2002.The NIOSH incident report can be viewed at
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire/reports/face200220.html.
Lessons learned include:Team continuityFFs operating on the floor above a fire should
have charged hoseline.Train FFs to manually activate Personal Alert
Safety Systems PASS when lost or disoriented
NIOSH AND USFA REPORT FINDINGS
HOUSTON, TEXAS FD. FEB 19, 2005.The NIOSH incident report can be viewed at
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire/reports/face200509.html.
Lessons learned include:Proper size upCommunicate interior condition to the outside
IC.Train FFs on the actions to take while waiting
to be rescuedUse exit locators such as high intensity
floodlights / strobe lights
PREVENTING THE MAYDAY
Preventing a Mayday must consciously occupy a fire fighter’s thoughts during:TrainingEmergency calls
Summarize the knowledge and skills fire fighters must acquire during drills to prevent a real Mayday
MAYDAY PREVENTIONKNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL AWARENESSFirefighters most often find themselves in
trouble because:Develop tunnel visionOperate off the hose line and lose their “lifeline”Fail to monitor their SCBA air consumptionGet separated from their partner
Operate alone.
MAYDAY PREVENTIONKNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Firefighters need to assess the situation for changing conditions also improves situational awareness and safety stay on or close to the hose lineclosely monitor their SCBA air supplyListening to radio traffic
What’s going on about the fire ground
Firefighters should never push the safety envelope
PREPLANNING
To increase survivability, firefighters must become familiar with their response districts
Allows us to see:Construction elementsDiscuss strategiesRecognize potential response problemsProvide clues to where and when a building
may fail
PREPLANNING
May prevent a Mayday situationUltimately, this knowledge allows personnel
to anticipate building compromise during fire involvement so fireground safety is maintained.
CONSTRUCTION TYPE
Critical findings during a preplan:Building constructionRoof construction
Conventional construction regular timber or metal beams
Light-weight construction truss systems.
CONSTRUCTION TYPE
Further classified as:Protected construction
Has a fire rated covering.Unprotected construction
Structural members are fully exposed.
Unprotected lightweight construction is the most dangerous.
Must be identified on the preplan
LIGHTWEIGHT TRUSS SYSTEMS
Inherently dangerousMust be considered high riskNational Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) lightweight “I-joist “ was exposed to firecollapsed in only six minutes
LIGHTWEIGHT TRUSS SYSTEMS
Phoenix / NIOSH Lightweight roof trussesOnly eight minutes
Collapse will occur about the time firefighters arrive on scene
LIGHTWEIGHT TRUSS SYSTEMS
UL also foundInsulation qualities of flooring and carpet
above light-weight truss systems:1,200 degree fire below100 degree above
Measured just prior to collapseMisleading “cool” environment
Inability of thermal imaging cameras to detect the severity of fire below in the basement
FUEL LOADS
All contents stored in a buildingAdd fuel to the fireDetermine the rate of
spreadAmount of heat released
from burning fuels plays a significant role in fire spread
FUEL LOADS
Heat release / Time to peak heat releaseSignificantly enhanced when the fuel is
contained within an enclosureGenerally, contemporary furnishings made of
synthetics such as polyurethanes and microsuede fabrics, have a higher heat release
FUEL LOADS
Natural Material Furnished265 Seconds (4 min. 25 sec.)
Synthetic Material Furnished240 Seconds (4 minutes)
FUEL LOADS
Rapid fire growthSmoke rapidly fills the occupancyDifficult to locate the fire
A decision Search above the fire floorBefore having hose lines in place on the floor
belowResulted in fire fighter fatalities and numerous
Mayday situations
SIZE UP
Critical fire ground survival taskAssess the risk versus benefitAssessment of the situation
ChangesMode of attack for the operationFire fighters should risk very little to save
just the building and/or its contents
SIZE UP
ConstructionAssessing the way the fire building is erected.
Questions to ask include: How is the building built? How long will it contain the fire to its current
location? How long will the building allow fire crews to
operate inside if the decision is made to enter? Was the building built using light-weight truss
construction?
SIZE UP
Location and ExtentWhere the fire is located in the buildingHow it will spread inside due to the
construction style. Reading of smoke conditionsIdentifying the color, velocity, density and
volume of the smoke
SIZE UP
OccupancyIs the building an empty factoryOccupied
Single familyTwo-unit apartment building
Consider secondary means of egress prior to entering the fire building
READING SMOKE
Would you enter a building filled with propane?Propane is extremely dangerous because they
are susceptible to gas explosionsSmoke filled buildings are just as dangerous
READING SMOKE
Recognize the dangers associated with the smoke conditions:En routeUpon arrivalDuring fire fighting operations
READING SMOKE
Missing signsFlash overSmoke explosionsBackdraftRapid fire development
Deadly to fire fightersThe ability to read smoke correctly will prevent
a Mayday situation from occurring
READING SMOKE
VelocitySpeed the smoke comes
out of the buildingHelp locate the fireHigh velocity indicates
high heat
READING SMOKE
DensityThicknessMost important factorIndicates
Continuous fuels burningPossible flashover conditions
Fire fighters should not enter structures where dense smoke is
banking down the walls and nearing the floor.
READING SMOKE
ColorHow long the fire has
been burningDistance the smoke
has traveled to the outside
Gray/white and slow movingyoung fire
READING SMOKE
ColorGray/white smoke
exiting with high velocityHot fire - smoke has
traveled a distance
READING SMOKE
ColorBlack smoke
The fire has been burning for a while.
Black, dense smokea precursor to flash
over…Get out
ROOM ORIENTATIONINTERIOR LAYOUT SIZE UP
Stay oriented Critical to being able to get
Fire fighters must know at all times are:1. Where they are2. How they got there.3. How they can get out.
ROOM ORIENTATIONINTERIOR LAYOUT SIZE UP
DispatchRecall that they know about the building
Prior knowledgeCreate images of what you might see when you
arriveAnticipate what they expect to see when they
arriveShare any information that may be of value
Girlfriend lives in complex, etc
ROOM ORIENTATIONINTERIOR LAYOUT SIZE UP
CreateMental image of layout
Location of windowsLocation of doors
ROOM ORIENTATIONINTERIOR LAYOUT SIZE UP
OrientationKnows where you are
“I’m in a bedroom because I feel a bed and a window.”
Remember how you got there“I entered the bedroom from a hallway adjacent to
the kitchen.”Know how to get out
“I can use the bedroom window if conditions worsen.”
MAINTAIN AWARENESS OFCHANGING CONDITIONS
Awareness of worsening conditions alert the fire fighter that it’s time to exit the buildingContinued increase in heat or flame productionCracking noises Monitoring radio traffic
indicate worsening The fire fighter should never hesitate abandoning
a position and exiting the building if conditions worsen.
RAPIDLY CHANGING FIRE CONDITIONS
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Scientific Study of the Iowa Fire in December 1999Post incident analysis of fire fighter fatalityIn December 1999 a two story duplex fire in Iowa
claimed the lives of three fire fighters. The fire was reported by a 9-1-1 caller at 0824. Upon arrival fire fighters found white to dark
brown smoke coming from a single unit of a two-story two-unit duplex.
RAPIDLY CHANGING FIRE CONDITIONS
First floor layout of the unit involved. Fire fighters entered on the A-side, through the front door (left side of diagram where the porch is located). Fire originated on the stove in the kitchen (C-side). One fire fighter was found in the living room.
RAPIDLY CHANGING FIRE CONDITIONS
Second floor layout of the unit involved. Hot gases and fire extended up the stairwell. One fire fighter was found on the second floor near the stairwell and another in bedroom 1.
RAPIDLY CHANGING FIRE CONDITIONS
The following timeline, along with computer images of the fire at various stages, indicate how thermal conditions trapped fire fighters only minutes after arriving on scene.
RAPIDLY CHANGING FIRE CONDITIONS
The following FDS/Smokeview images are scientific re-creations of the incident. This dataincludes: size of the building, materials used in construction, and building contents (furnishings, window coverings).
View looking through the wall (D-side) into the living and dining rooms with the kitchen behind the yellow door. Thermal conditions at approximately 0832 (491 s into the simulation). Hot gases (390 °F to 570 °F) rapidly extending into the adjacent rooms.
RAPIDLY CHANGING FIRE CONDITIONS
Thermal conditions at approximately 0833 (524 s into simulation). Thermal conditions consistent with flash over extending further into the structure.
Temperatures exceeding1000° F were experienced in areas where fire fighters were searching for children.
RAPIDLY CHANGING FIRE CONDITIONS
View from the opposite side with the walls removed. Thefront door is on the right and the kitchen on the left. Thermal conditions at approximately 0834 (605 s into simulation).
Temperatures exceeding 1000° F were consistent with a flash over event. Fire extending up stairwell where fire fighters were searching for victims.
SUMMARY
All fire ground personnel are responsible for safety and must be aware of fire conditions that may lead to a Mayday situation
All personnel must maintain situational awareness to prevent a Mayday.
A coordinated effort with good communications will help with an ongoing assessment.
SUMMARY
Ongoing reports from:Interior operationsVentilation teamsExposure groups
Help the IC make better decisions to continue the current attack or move to a defensive, exterior position.
Preventing a Mayday requires all personnel to communicate what they see, especially when conditions indicate immediate disengagement is necessary.
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