DIMETIC, Strasbourg, 11 April 2008
fedea
Cátedra FEDEA –
Santander
Capital Humano y Empleo
Natalia Zinovyeva
Foundation for Applied Economic Research - FEDEA
UNIVERSITIES AND INDUSTRIAL INNOVATION:
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
DIMETIC, 11 April 2008
MotivationTheoretical Background
Descriptive evidenceSurveys and case studies
Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
Universities and Industrial Innovation
Motivation
Lisbon strategy: Investing in R&D, Boosting innovation, Better education and skills
Close interactions between government, university and industry
Which form should they take?
DIMETIC, 11 April 2008
MotivationTheoretical Background
Descriptive evidenceSurveys and case studies
Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
Universities and Industrial Innovation
Theoretical arguments
Market failures Suboptimal allocation of resources to knowledge production Causes:
Fundamental uncertainty in research outcomes Non-proprietary nature of knowledge Information asymmetries between users and producers
System failures Inefficiencies in interaction among agents Suboptimal supportive structures Causes:
Lock-ins in existing networks Structural inertia Failures in infrastructural provision
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Descriptive evidenceSurveys and case studies
Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
Universities and Industrial Innovation
Correction strategies
Government as a risk taker: direct procurement of research
Incentives: public procurement, taxation relives, university labs, government funding
IPR legislation Enabling collaborative schemes Collaboration between university and industry
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MotivationTheoretical Background
Descriptive evidenceSurveys and case studies
Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
Universities and Industrial Innovation
Evidence on system failure?
Edwin Mansfield (1991, 1998) 2 samples of 76 major American firms for 1975-1985 and 1986-1994
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Descriptive evidenceSurveys and case studies
Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
Universities and Industrial Innovation
Role of university in knowledge clusters
Silicon Valley: beginning in 1938 from Hewlett-Packard - a spin-off of Stanford University
Route 128 knowledge cluster: since the 1930s MIT has spawned 4,000 companies employing more than a million people
Do these cases represent a rule or an exception?
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MotivationTheoretical Background
Descriptive evidenceSurveys and case studies
Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
Universities and Industrial Innovation
Methodologies
Descriptive evidence
Surveys and case studies
Econometric studies
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MotivationTheoretical Background
Descriptive evidenceSurveys and case studies
Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
Universities and Industrial Innovation
1. Descriptive evidence on technology transfer
Claim that university presence is important Route 128 (Dorfman 1983) Silicon Valley and Route 128 (Saxenian 1985) Cambridge, UK (Wicksteed 1985)
Counter-examples High technology centers in England (Breheny and
McQuaid 1987) Some US centers (Colorado Springs and Portland)
(Rogers and Larsen 1984) John Hopkins University (Feldman 1994)
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2. Survey and case study evidence: Effect of university on firms’ location
Several studies find that firms consider university presence as an important factor for firms’ location Premus 1982: 60% of surveyed US firms Schmenner 1982: 52% Other studies on the US
Counter-examples Howells 1984: only 2.6% of firms in pharmaceuticals in
England indicate university as their first reason for choosing location, ¾ that it is not significant
Gripaios et al. 1989: only 9% indicate any university effect in the Plymouth region, England.
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2. Survey and case study evidence:Effect on innovation activity
Mansfield (1991, 1998)
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3. Econometric evidence: Effect of university in high-tech location
Claim that university is important for high technology location Glasmeier (1991)
247 US metropolitan statistical areas in 1982 Dependent variable: High tech employment University variable: number of colleges Controls: climate, housing prices, property tax, wage rate,
migration, educational options, freeway density, poverty rate,.. Method: OLS
No effect on high tech location (Markusen et al, 1986)
264 US metropolitan statistical areas in 1977 Dependent variable: High tech employment University variable: university R&D Controls: climate, housing prices, property tax, educational
options, freeway density, business services Method: OLS
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3. Factors determining the effect of university on high-tech location (Cont.)
Sectors: Some evidence of positive effect in various sectors:
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (Bania et al., 1993) Biotechnology (Audretsch and Stephan 1996, Zucker et al.
1998) Ambiguous evidence
Chemicals and instruments Ownership structure
Headquarters consider important proximity to universities, branch plants – no (Malecki, 1986)
Firm size Big firms tend to locate close to universities (Rees
1991)
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3. Econometric evidence: Effect of university on private innovation activity
Positive effect of universities in the US: State level (Jaffe, 1989)
29 states in 8 years Dependent variable: Number of industrial patents Independent variables: Academic R&D investment
Private R&D investment Controls: Population size, year dummies Method: 3SLS. Instruments: number of private and public universities (in
Academic R&D equation) and manufacturing VA (in Private R&D equation)
Feldman (1994) and Feldman and Florida (1994) confirm the findings of Jaffe using innovation count data
Metropolitan statistical areas (Bania et al. 1992, Varga 1998)
Within a metropolitan area (Sivitanidou and Sivitanides 1995)
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Positive effect of universities in Europe: France
Autant-Bernard 2001 Austria
Fisher and Varga 2002 Italy
Audretsch and Vivarelly 1994 Cowan and Zinovyeva 2007
3. Econometric evidence: Effect of university on private innovation activity
(Cont.)
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MotivationTheoretical Background
The most important channels through which firms benefit from university research: publications, conferences, informal information channels, and consulting (Cohen et al., 1998).
Informal interactions (Bercovitz and Feldman, 2006)
Even in pharmaceuticals firms heavily rely on these channels (Gambardella, 1995)
More on the channels of technology transfer
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How academic research differentiate from any other R&D company?
Different researchers: Balconi, Breschi, Lissoni (2004) Academic inventors are more persistent and more central Networks hosting scientists are larger and more connected
than other research networks Different research output: Henderson, Jaffe, Trajtenberg
(1998) University patenting between 1965 and 1988 Until mid-1980s university patents were more cited, cited by
more technologically diverse patents
Why they are different? Self-selection Other selection Incentives Tasks …
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Summary:
Academic basic knowledge takes long time before being used in innovation activity
Both basic and applied academic research is important for industrial innovation activity (local, regional, national) in the short run
Academic research output has the features of general purpose knowledge/technology
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MotivationTheoretical Background
Crowding out of basic research Limiting the freedom of academic research Decline in scholar productivity Affecting the culture of university oriented on public good creation Restriction on the dissemination of research results (Example:
patents on research tools (genetic materials) in biology) High cost of administrative support and reorganization Science becoming inappropriate for graduate research Decreasing quality of education
Public institutional expenditures on instruction declined by 6%, - on research rose 4%
Crowding out of private research (professors as cheap labor for industry)
…
Possible risks of increasing university-industry collaboration and challenges for future research
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Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
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MotivationTheoretical Background
Thank you for your attention!
Contact: Natalia Zinovyeva
Foundation for Applied Economic Research (FEDEA)
c/Jorge Juan, 46
28001 Madrid
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Summary of identification problems in the econometric analysis
University effects Industrial innovation
(Universities might be created in response to the needs of regional industry in human capital)
Academic research Industrial innovation
(Academics might themselves benefit from interaction with innovative industrial sector by getting more and better research ideas and opportunities)
Location unobserved heterogeneity Separating the direct effect of academic research from
the effect of teaching and ultimately graduates’ human capital
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New universities have a positive effect on regional innovation in the short-run.
Some of this effect corresponds to the spillover effect via traditional channels like academic patenting and publishing activity.
New universities might push firms to rely more on collaboration with academics as a source of scientific knowledge rather than on own effort on searching the scientific literature.
CZ 2007: Hypotheses
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Main features of the paper
The effect of new university departments in sciences, medicine and engineering in Italy during 1985-2000
Short-term effect of new university departments: the channel corresponding to graduates’ human capital is excluded
According to Italian Ministry of Education the decision about the distribution of university departments across Italian regions was largely independent of any features of regional economy:
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Observatory for the evaluation of the university system: 1997
“The rule by which new institutions were created does not seem to have followed the logic of tailoring university development to territorial specificities. It seems not to have made reference to a demand for university education, nor to the demand for graduates or to existing infrastructure. […] So, […] at least to a large extent, the prevalent logic was the one of incremental expansion and distribution "by drops of rain", without giving evaluation opportunity to the suppressed initiatives […]”
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Number of new departments open between 1984 and 2000 by regional demand for corresponding
professions
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Number of new departments: Sciences, Medicine, Engineering
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The estimation models
With fixed effects for each university and discipline:
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Data
20 Italian regions during 1985-2001 Number of university departments (Sciences, Chemistry and
Pharmacy, Agriculture, Medicine, Veterinary, Engineering, Architecture): Italian National Statistical Bureau
Regional economic characteristics: GDP, population, R&D expenditure
Innovation activity from KEINS EP-INV database (Lissoni, Sanditov, Tarasconi, 2006): Academic and Industrial Patents Patent citations Non-Patent Literature (NPL) citations
Academic publications: ISI Thompson Science Citation Index
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Annual change in the number of industrial patents
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Number of patents: conditional negative binomial
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Academic publications: conditional negative binomial
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The channels of the university effect on short-term industrial patenting
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Evidence of crowding-out? Non-patent literature citation intensity by industrial patents
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Summary and conclusions of CZ 2007
New universities positively affect regional innovation activity:
Industrial Patenting responds within 3-4 years
Academic patenting and scientific activity increases already after 1-2 years
Part of the increase in industrial patents (around 30 percent) is explained by the corresponding growth of academic research
Negative correlation between new universities and NPL citation: potential crowding-out of resources devoted by industry to searching the academic literature. If this is the case, it might suppress firms’ continued development of absorptive capacity.
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Descriptive evidence:
1988-2003 academic patents quadruple: 800 to 3200
1992-2003 number of US scientific publications flat, causing US decline in world article output from 38% to 30%
1988-2003: number of US patents referenced in scientific articles increased dramatically
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Share of industrial R&D expenditures in total university R&D expenditures and the share of
expenditures spent on basic research, US 1953-2006
SOURCE: National Science Foundation/Division of Science Resources Statistics, Survey of Research and Development Expenditures at Universities and Colleges, FY 2006.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1954
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
a19
8019
8219
8419
8619
8819
9019
9219
9419
9619
9820
0020
0220
0420
06
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Percent of university R&D expenditures funded by industry Percent of univeristy R&D expenditures dedicated to basic research
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Individual level evidence: how academic scientific productivity changes after academics’ engagement
in collaboration with industry? Zucker, Darby, several co-authors (1998a, 1998b, 2000)
Star scientists collaborating with or employed by firms, or who patent, have significantly higher citation rates than pure academic stars
Thursby and Thursby (2007) 3,241 faculty from six major US universities from 1983 through 1999 probability that a faculty member will disclose an invention increased
tenfold, the portion of research that is published in “basic” journals remained constant
Link, Siegel, Bozeman (2006) Academics who allocate a relatively higher percentage of their time to
grants-related research are more likely to engage in informal commercial knowledge transfer
Lowe and Gonzalez-Brambila (forthcoming, 2007) 15 research institutes Faculty entrepreneurs in general are more productive researchers than
control groups in terms of publication rate and the impact of their publications
Productivity does not decrease following the formation of a firm
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The Relationship between Academic Research, Teaching Quality and Graduates’ Employment
Outcomes
Sylos Labini and Zinovyeva (2007) Several surveys of Italian university graduates in 1995-2001 Rich information on individual quality and socioeconomic
background No negative effect of academic patenting activity at the
faculty level on teaching quality and graduates’ employment outcomes
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Public and Private R&D: complements or substitutes?
David, Hall, Tool (2000) Concern: Main focus in the literature is on publicly
funded research performed in academic institutions, and nothing on its comparison with the impacts of publicly sponsored R&D conducted under contract by industrial corporations
Public funding of research might “crowd out” private research via its generic impacts on the price of research and development inputs that are in inelastic supply
Not taking onto account price (researchers’ wage) effect leads to overestimation of positive effects of public R&D expenditures
“Investment displacement”: It is likely to exist the lobby for subsidies for projects with high private marginal rates of return, which would enable firms correspondingly to reduce their own outlays (because R&D activities are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous)
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Audretsch D. and Stephan P. (1996): Company-scientist Locational Links: The Case of Biotechnology, American Economic Review 86, 641-652
Audretsch D. and Vivarelli M. (1994): Small Firms and R&D Spillovers: Evidence from Italy, Discussion Paper 953, Centre for Economic Policy Research
Autant-Bernard C. (2001): Science and Knowledge Flows: Evidence from the French Case, Research Policy 30, 1069-107
Balconi, Breschi,Lissoni (2004): Networks of inventors and the role of academia: an exploration of Italian patent data, Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 33(1), pages 127-145
Bania N., Calkins L. and Dalenberg R. (1992): The Effects of Regional Science and Technology Policy on the Geographic Distribution of Industrial R&D Laboratories, Journal of Regional Science 32, 209-228
Bania N., Eberts R. and. Fogarty M (1993): Universities and the Startup of New Companies: Can We Generalize from Route 128 and Silicon Valley? The Review of Economics and Statistics 75, 761-766
Bercovitz, J. and M. Feldman (2006): Entrepreneurial Universities and Technology Transfer: A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Knowledge-Based Economic Development, Journal of Technology Transfer, 31, 175-188.
Breheny M. and McQuaid R. (1987): H.T.U.K.: The Development of the United Kingdom`s Major Centre of High Technology Industry. In: Breheny M. and McQuaid R. (eds.) (1987) The Development of High Technology Industries: An International Survey, London, Croom Helm, 296-354
Cohen, W., R. Florida, L. Randazzese, and J. Walsh. (1998): Industry and the Academy: Uneasy Partners in the Cause of Technological Advance, in R. Noll, ed., Challenges to the Research University. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution
Cowan, R. and N. Zinovyeva (2007): Short-Term effects of new universities on regional innovation, UNU-MERIT working paper WP2007-037.
David, P, B. Hall, A. Tool (2000). "Is public R&D a complement of substitute for private R&D? A review of the econometric evidence", Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 29(4-5), pages 497-529
Dorfman N. (1983): Route 128: The Development of a Regional High Technology Economy, Research Policy 12, 299-316
Feldman M. (1994a): The Geography of Innovation, Kluver Academic Publishers, Boston
Feldman M. (1994b): The University and Economic Development: The Case of Johns Hopkins University and Baltimore, Economic Development Quarterly 8, 67-66
Bibliography
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Feldman M. and Florida R. (1994): The Geographic Sources of Innovation: Technological Infrastructure and Product Innovation in the United States, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84, 210-229
Fischer M. and Varga A. (2002): Spatial Knowledge Spillovers and University Research: Evidence from Austria, Annals of Regional Science
Gambardella, A. (1995): Science and Innovation: The US Pharmaceutical Industry During the 1980s, Cambridge University Press.
Glasmeier A. (1991): The High-tech Potential. Economic Development in Rural America. New Center for Urban Policy Research, Brunswick, NJ
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Henderson, R., A. B. Jaffe and M. Trajtenberg (1998): Universities As A Source Of Commercial Technology: A Detailed Analysis Of University Patenting, 1965-1988, The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 80(1), pages 119-127.
Howells J. (1984): The Location of Research and Development: Some Observations and Evidence from Britain, Regional Studies 18, 13-29
Jaffe A. (1989): Real Effects of Academic Research, American Economic Review 79, 957-970 Link A. and Rees J. (1990): Firm Size, University Based Research, and the Returns to R&D, Small Business Economics 2,
25-32 Lissoni, F., B. Sanditov and G. Tarasconi (2006): The Keins Database on Academic Inventors: Methodology and Contents,
CESPRI Working Papers 181, CESPRI, Universita' Bocconi, Milano, Italy Lowe, R. and C. Gonzalez-Brambila (2007): Faculty Entrepreneurs and Research Productivity, The Journal of Technology
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Bibliography (Cont.)
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Econometric studiesProblems and challenges
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Rees J. (1991): State Technology Programs and Industry Experience in the United States, Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies 3, 39-59
Rogers E. and Larsen J. (1984): Silicon Valley Fever, Basic Books, New York
Saxenian A. (1985): Silicon Valley and Route 128: Regional Prototypes or Historic Exceptions? In: Castells M. (ed.) (1985) High Technology, Space, and Society, Sage Publications, 91-105
Schmenner R. (1982): Making Business Location Decisions, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Sivitanidou R. and Sivitanides P. (1995): The Intrametropolitan Distribution of R&D Activities: Theory and Empirical Evidence, Journal of Regional Science 25, 391-415
Sylos Labini, M. and N. Zinovyeva (2007): The Relationship between Academic Research, Teaching Quality and Graduates’ Employment Outcomes, paper for the EALE conference, Oslo, 20 – 22 September.
Thursby, J. and M. Thursby (2007): Knowledge Creation and Diffusion of Public Science with Intellectual Property Rights. "Intellectual Property Rights and Technical Change," Frontiers in Economics Series, Vol. 2, Elsevier Ltd.
Varga A. (1998): University Research and Regional Innovation: A Spatial Econometric Analysis of Academic Technology Transfers, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston
Varga, A. (2002): Knowledge Transfers from Universities to the Regional Economy: A Review of the Literature. In Varga, A. and László Szerb (Eds.) 2002 Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Regional Economic Development: International Experiences and Hungarian Challenges. University of Pécs Press, Pécs, 147-171
Wicksteed S. (1985): The Cambridge Phenomenon. The Growth of High Technology Industry in a University Town,. Wicksteed, Cambridge
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Zucker L., Darby M. and Armstrong J. (1998b): Geographically Localized Knowledge Spillovers or Markets? Economic Inquiry 36, 65-86
Bibliography (Cont.)
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