Factors making WWI Unlikely
Last major war in Europe was in 1870- Franco Prussian War
The Royal Houses intermarried World became smaller due to improvements
in communication Anti- War Societies International conferences for prevention of
war
International Conferences for prevention of War
Pan-American Union = organization of American States, Western Hemisphere
Conference of all Americans Agreed to discussion and arbitration of difference
Created to promote international cooperation, it offered technical and informational services to all the American republics, served as the repository for international documents, and was responsible through subsidiary councils for the furtherance of economic, social, juridical, and cultural relations.
Pan American Union Building
The cornerstone was laid on May 11, 1908, by Theodore Roosevelt, Elihu Root, and Andrew Carnegie
First Hague Conference 1899
Called by Czar of RussiaHeld in the NetherlandsAgreed to arbitration and mediationThought war was something of the past Hague Conventions were among the first
formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law. A third conference was planned for 1914 and later rescheduled for 1915, but it did not take place due to the start of World War I.
Second Hague Conference 1907
Called by Czar and Teddy RooseveltSet rules for conduct of warfareAdopted Drago Doctrine- lending money to
countries at your own risk, could not use force to collect it
• Applied to any country• A country which could not settle its debts had to
submit to arbitration
Drago Doctrine
Addressing the Monroe Doctrine and the influence of European imperial powers, it set forth the policy that no foreign power, including the United States, could use force against an Latin America nation to collect debt.
The doctrine held that international law did not authorize European powers to use armed intervention to force American republics to pay public debts.
Beginning in the late 1800’s, however, cooperation among nations broke down as intense rivalries increased. These rivalries grew both within Europe as new nations were formed, and overseas as a result of imperialism.
As rivalries intensified in the early 1900s, the great powers plunged toward war, pressed forward by four factors:
NationalismImperialismMilitarismSystem of Alliances
Nationalism
The desire to unite all the people of a nation under a single government, however, had explosive possibilities in a Europe where a single government often ruled many nationalities.
It caused intense competition for materials, markets, and territories.
Nationalism
This over-confidence gave birth to a fatal misconception: that in the event of war in Europe, one’s own country would be victorious inside a few months. This arrogance was fuelled by the jingoistic press in every country.
The pages of newspapers, even usually sedate broadsheets, were often packed with stories and editorials filled with nationalist rhetoric. Heightened nationalism could also be found in other cultural expressions, like literature, music and theatre
Nationalism European populations became
convinced of two things: that their nations and governments were right and that their military would win any conflict.
Nationalism led to the creation of two new powers - Italy and Germany - through the uniting of many small states.
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Empire loosely tied togetherFranz Joseph = forceful rulerMany nationalities within the empire all
struggling for a homeland
He divided his empire into the Dual Monarchy, in which Austria and Hungary coexisted as equal partners. In 1879 he formed an alliance with Prussian-led Germany, and in 1914 his ultimatum to Serbia led Austria and Germany into World War I.
Rivalry between Germany and England
Before the unification of Germany in 1871, Britain was often allied in wartime with Prussia. The royal families often intermarried.
German people dream of getting a great empire. They believe that to become a world power, Germany must gain land overseas. This is needed to allow its overflowing population to emigrate. An empire requires Germany to build up a great navy. When told there are no colonies left, they reply that the world belongs to the strong. Such ambition is a clear threat to Britain.
Weltpolitik or the desire for world power status was very popular in Germany.
Franco Prussian War
Germany/Prussia won
The French desire for revenge over Alsace and Lorraine was very strong.
German Persecution Complex
Constant feeling of being mistreated or threatened
Surrounded by Russia, France, and EnglandAfraid of their positions
Definition: An irrational and obsessive feeling or fear that one is the object of collective hostility or ill-treatment on the part of others.
Boundary Dispute in the Balkans
Russian and Austria both wanted to dominate the region
Throughout the 19th and early 20th century the Ottoman Empire had lost land in the Balkans to the peoples who lived there.
The great powers were also interested in extending their influence in the region. Austrian and Russian relations were poor over their rivalry in the Balkans.
Boundary Dispute in the Balkans
Both hoped to expand there at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Another important factor was the growth of Slav nationalism among the people who lived there, especially Serbia.
Russia encouraged Slav nationalism while Austria worried that this nationalism could undermine her empire. Russia supported Serbia which was very bitter at the annexation of Bosnia and saw herself as Serbia’s protector.
As a result of the Balkan Wars (1912 - 1913) Serbia had doubled in size and there was growing demands for the union of south Slavs (Yugoslavism) under the leadership of Serbia. Austria had a large south Slav population in the provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, the Banat and Bosnia. Austria was very alarmed at the growing power of Serbia. She felt Serbia could weaken her own Empire.
Italy and Germany became Imperialistic
Imperialism
In the early 1900’s, the imperialist nations came to the brink of war several times as they scrambled for Africa.
Managed to settle each incident with makeshift compromises that usually left one of the participants dissatisfied.
Germany and Italy entered the race for colonies later than most
Kaiser Wilhelm II felt it was his duty to get more land or colonies for Germany
Militarism
Dominated the thinking of many European leaders before WWI
Leaders believed that only the use of force could solve problems among nations
Idea: Military strong nations got what they wanted
European nations believed it was necessary to keep its armed forces stronger than those of a potential enemy
Countries began spending billion on weapons
Militarism Race for armsNaval Race on the high seas
1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1914
94 130 154 268 289 398
1910-1914 Increase in Defense Expenditures
France 10%
Britain 13%
Russia 39%
Germany
73%
The System of Alliances
The unification of Italy and Germany shifted the balance of power in Europe
Agreements between nations pledging mutual support and protection against all enemies
Desire for securitySecret treaties Balance of power
Triple Entente
EnglandFranceRussia
Entente- an agreement or understanding between two or more nations agreeing to follow a particular policy with regard to affairs of international concern.
Triple Entente
France began searching for alliesEconomic crisis shook Russia, and France
hurried to lend the money and took other steps to win Russia’s friendship
1894 France and Russia formed an alliance, making Bismarck’s fear of facing potential enemies on two sides a reality
Triple Entente
1904 British and the French reached an agreement over the control of Morocco and Egypt
In order to counterbalance the Triple Alliance Great Britain and Russia had to come to an agreement
1907 The Triple Entente was formed
Both France and Russia also had a secret understanding with Italy, which meant that the Italians had a foot in both camps
Triple Alliance
GermanyAustriaAustria-Hungary ItalyBulgaria and Turkey secretly allied
Triple Alliance
Bismarck feared that France would seek revenge for its 1871 defeat in the Franco Prussian War
Bismarck dedicated his foreign policy to keeping France isolated and without allies
He also wanted to prevent a Franco-Russian alliance because alliance because it would serve to isolate Germany diplomatically and Germany would have to fight on both eastern and western borders in the event of a war
Triple Alliance
1879 Dual Alliance- mutual defense pact between Germany and Austria-Hungary
1881 Three Emperors League- secret agreement among the emperors of Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary
1882 – Bismarck agreed to Italy’s request for the Triple Alliance a pact among Germany, Austria-Hungry, and Italy
Balkan Crisis
Russian nationalist who resented Germany’s support of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, demanded that the Russian government make an alliance with France
Russia insisted Germany enter a new treaty that would exclude Austria-Hungary
The Reinsurance Treaty of 1887- provided for neutrality in case either Russia or Germany become involved in a defensive war.
United States Remains Neutral
Woodrow Wilson: “Remain neutral in thought as well as deed”
To protect international trading rights“He kept us out of war.” 1916 presidential
campaign slogan
Dangers of the Alliance System
By 1907 the alliance system threatened world peace because it divided Europe into two armed camps
Should hostilities develop between any two rival powers, all six nations would become involved
The Balkan Powder Keg The many conflicts that plagued the Balkans
gave rise to the region’s nickname- “power keg of Europe”
Amid the growing system of alliances, the powder keg threatened to explode.
Nationalists in Serbia, which had become independent in 1878, hoped to make their country the center of a large Slavic state.
The Balkan Powder Keg
The Serbian nationalists especially wanted the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina because Serbia was landlocked and these two provinces would provide an outlet on the Adriatic Sea.
The decision of the Congress of Berlin in 1878 to make the two provinces protectorates of Austria Hungary severely disappointed the Serbs.
The Balkan Powder Keg
After Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnian and Herzegovina in 1908, infuriated Serbian nationalists distributed propaganda against Austria-Hungary to win sympathy for their cause. The rivalry between the two groups intensified.
June 28,1914 The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife were visiting Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As they rode in an open automobile a young man fired a revolver.
Assassination at Sarajevo
The assassin, Gavrilo Princip, belonged to the Black Hand, one of the many secret societies of Serbian nationalists opposed to Austro-Hungarian rule.
The Austro-Hungarian government was determined to punish the Serbs. But beofre Austria-Hungary acted, it wanted to make sure of German support in case the Russians tried to help Serbia. Black Hand - was a secret military society
formed on 6 September 1901 by members of the Serbian Army in the Kingdom of Serbia
The Ultimatum
The Austro-Hungarian presented an ultimatum to the Serbian government.
An ultimatum puts forth the final terms offered for a settlement.
It states that if the ultimatum is rejected, negotiations will end and the country that issued the ultimatum will use force.
The Ultimatum Austria Hungary made the following
demands:1. Serbian government would condemn all
propaganda against Austria-Hungary and suppress publications and societies that oppressed Austria-Hungary
2. Serbia would ban from its schools books and teachers who did not favor Austro-Hungary
3. Serbia would dismiss any officials who had promoted propaganda against Austria-Hungary
4. Austro-Hungarian judges would conduct the trial of those accused of the crimes at Sarajevo
5. Serbia had to accept all of these terms within 48hrs or Austria-Hungary would declare war.
Response to the Ultimatum
Serbia accepted all the terms except the last two, but offered to submit the entire dispute to the international court at The Hague.
In spite of the Serbian reply, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, after the time limit on the ultimatum had elapsed.
Mobilization in Europe All attempts to persuade Austria-Hungary to continue
negotiations proved futile, especially since Germany continued to support Austria-Hungary.
Russia prepared to defend Serbia by mobilizing troops along the Russian-Austro Hungarian border. Expecting Germany to join Austria-Hungary, Russia also sent troops to the German border.
Germany immediately demanded that Russia cancel mobilization within 12 hours or face war. Russia ignored this ultimatum, and August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. Then declared war on France 2 days later.
Schlieffen Plan
Like the Russian’s Germany had a military plan
General Alfred von Schlieffen helped draw up a plan
It called for a two-front war with France and Russia because the two had formed a military alliance
They would invade France by moving quickly along the level coastal area through Belgium
After France was defeated Germany would move to the east against Russia
Great Britain Enters the War
Belgium agreed to stay out of any European war, and not help any belligerents, or warring nations. In return the other nations agreed to not attack Belgium.
Belgium’s location was of great importance to Germany’s military plans. Germany wanted to mobilize, strike, and knock France out of the war before Russians could attack from the east.
After the German government declared war on France, it sent an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding that German troops be allowed to cross Belgian territory.
Great Britain Enters the War
The British protested, insisting that Germany observe Belgian neutrality. The German foreign minister replied that surely Great Britain would not fight over “a scrap of paper.”
German soldiers marched into Belgium on August 4, 1914, secure in the Kaiser's message- “You will be home before the leaves have fallen from the trees.”
Great Britain declared war on Germany later that day.
Expansion of the War
Within 6 weeks after Gavrilo Princip had assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo, the rapidly modernizing nation of Japan had entered the war on the side of Great Britain and France.
Expansion of the War
The Central Powers- countries of the Triple Alliance:
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey
The Allies- Triple Entente:England, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan, China, U.S., Serbia, Belgium, and others.
Italy’s Position
Italy remained neutral for nine months, while each side pleased desperately for its help.
Finally Italy signed secret treaties with Great Britain, France, and Russia that guaranteed Italy a share of the spoils of war in case of victory over Germany and Austria-Hungary
May 1915 Italy entered the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary, its former allies.
Propaganda
Government propaganda ideas that are spread to influence public opinion for or against a cause- had stirred national hatreds before the war
Most people seemed genuinely convinced that their nation’s cause was just
Aug 1914 many people believed the war would be over in just a few weeks
Nations fought a new kind of War
The Triple Alliances geographical proximity gave them an advantage for easy communication and rapid troop movements
Germany had a well=organized, well-trained, and well equipped army
Central Powers had more soldiers, greater industrial potential, and controlled the seas. Therefore they could obtain food and raw materials more easily and could blockade and attempt to starve the Triple Alliance
Innovations in Warfare
WWI was an industrial warMost important weapon of WWI = machine
gun Trenches= to protect themselves from the
machine guns raking fire and from artillery bombardments
Both sides used weapons that had never been tried before
1916 the tank was introduced- enabled troops to tear through barbed wire and break through enemy lines
Innovations in Warfare
Airplane were primarily used for observing troop movements and dropping explosives
Germany became the first nation to make extensive use of submarines. U-boats to defeat the English Navy
To stir the patriotism of the people, government made wide use of propaganda- ideas, facts, or rumors spread deliberately to further one’s cause or to damage an opposite cause.
Northern France Germany’s attack on France, launched
through neutral Belgium, nearly succeeded. By September, German troops had reached the Marne River near Paris. But the French army stood fast and Paris was saved.
The Battle of Marne changed the entire nature of the war. Germany’s hope of swift victory ended. Both armies dug trenches on the western front, which stretched from the Swiss border to the shores of the North Sea.
Trench Warfare Miserable conditionsNetwork of trenches stretched 500 miles
from Switzerland to the English Channel“No Man’s Land”- between the trenches“Over the Top”- all out attack across no man’s
land
The Western Front
The war quickly turned into a stalemate as neither the Germans nor the French could dislodge each other from the trenches they had dug for shelter.
Two lines of trenches soon reached from the English Channel to the frontiers of Switzerland
The Western Front had become bogged down in trench warfare.Both sides were kept virtually the same position for four years
The Eastern Front
Eastern front was marked by mobility
At the beginning of the war, the Russian army moved into eastern Germany but was defeated at the Battle of Tannenberg and the Battle of Masurian Lakes. After these defeats Russia was no longer a threat to Germany
By 1917 the war had truly become a world conflict. That year while stationed in the Middle East, a British officer known as Lawrence of Arabia urged Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman overlords.
In 1918 British forces from Egypt mobilized troops from India, Australia, and New Zealand and worked to destroy the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.
America Neutral CountryAs a strong industrialized neutral nation the
US became a supplier of food, raw materials, and munitions.
The government insisted on the right of American citizens and business firms to trade freely with either side
However, if an American ship carried contraband the goods could be seized
Because of their neutrality the US could not lend money to either side
America At the beginning of the war, America
investors and business people dealt with both sides
However, as the British blockade tightened American trade became more one sided
Soon the US only traded with the AlliesBritain’s propaganda impressed Americans
far more than did Germany’s1917 – the issue of American involvement
was settled
Lusitania May 1915 – without warning, a German
submarine sank the British passenger liner Lusitania off the coast of Ireland
Lusitania carried cargo of war materials to England
Killed 1200 people including 128 AmericansWoodrow Wilson warned Germany the US
would not tolerate another such incident
War of Stalemate 1916 the war had reached a stalemate on
land as well as at sea Each side realized they could not break
through the other’s line of trenchesThe conflict had become a war of attrition- a
slow wearing-down process in which each side tries to outlast the other
Most famous example of such warfare occurred at Verdun
Sussex Pledge Promise made in 1916 during World War I by
Germany to the United States prior to the latter's entry into the war
After sinking the French ship SussexLeaving 80 casualtiesThe German government responded with the
so-called Sussex pledge, agreeing to give adequate warning before sinking merchant and passenger ships and to provide for the safety of passengers and crew.
Suspended unconditional submarine warfare
Gallipoli Russia had a large army, but it lacked enough
guns and ammunition to properly equip its soldiers
1915 Great Britain and France decided on a daring venture to try to help Russia
They would attempt to force their way through the Dardanelles and capture Constantinople on the Bosporus and Sea of Marmara
It turned into a disastrous loss for the allies, and Winston Churchill was fired
145,000 men killed or wounded
The Arab War Arab nationalists rebelled against the
Ottoman Turk Empire in the Middle EastT.E. Lawrence who became known as
“Lawrence of Arabia” lead daring guerrilla attacks
Allies armies with Arab helpCaptured Baghdad, Jerusalem, and Damascus
The Russian Front
On the eastern front Russia completed mobilization much more quickly than the Germans had expected
One Russian army moved westward toward Budapest, the capital of Hungary
A second army moved through East Prussia, threatening the important Baltic seaport of Danzig
Battle at Tannenberg
In East PrussiaThe Russians retreated after suffering a
humiliating defeatSoon afterward the Germans launched an
offensive in the east and drove the Russians completely out of Germany and eastward into Russian Poland.
Public Opinion
As the war continued and casualties worsened, the patriotic enthusiasm that marked the early stages of the war began to wane.
War governments however fought back against growing opposition to the war.
The British Parliament passed the Defense of the Realm Act (DORA) – it allowed the government to arrest protesters as traitors.
Wartime governments made active use of propaganda to increase enthusiasm for the war
Influenza
Fall of 1918 a deadly influenza struck, adding to the horrors of WWI.
Influenza became the deadliest epidemic in history
50 million people died worldwide
RUSSIA
Russia was unprepared militarily and technologically for the total war of WWI
Russia had no military leaders, Czar Nicholas II insisted on taking personal charge of the armed forces despite his lack of ability and training
Russian industry was unable to produce the weapons needed for an army. Many soldiers were training using broomsticks.
Rasputin
Rasputin- known to be a mysticBegan to influence czar’s wife, AlexandraIt was rumored that Alexandra made all of the
decisions after consulting RasputinRasputin made him an important power behind the
throne
Russian people grew more upset with the czarist regime- they assassinated Rasputin in 1916 but it was too late to save the monarchy
Russia in World War I
Exposed Russia’s weaknesses The country lacked enough railroads, developed roads,
and its industry could not adequately equip or supply its army
Steamroller- the great masses of soldiers in the Russian army
When war came Russian troops proved to be poorly equipped and badly led
For more than 3 years Russian troops held back more than half the troops of the Central Powers
During the period 2 million Russians were killed and 5 million wounded and 2 million taken prisoner
If the Russians had not fought so well the allies might have lost the war
Czar Nicholas Spring 1917 Russian people weary of hardships
and disheartened by the appalling causalities they had suffered in the war
People lost all faith in their government and in Czar Nicholas II
Strikes and demonstrations broke out in Russia, Czar ordered the troops to crush the protests
March 15, 1917 unable to control either his subjects or his army Nicholas II abdicated. He and his family were executed the following year
The Romanov Dynasty that had maintained Russian autocracy for 300 years was finished
Soviets
The government also faced a challenge to its authority- the Soviets.
The Soviets were councils comprised of representatives from the workers and soldiers
The Soviet’s were largely made up of Socialists, represented the more radical interests of the lower classes.
One group – the Bolsheviks- came to play a crucial role
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks began a small fraction of a Marxist party called the Russian Social Democrats
Bolsheviks were under the leadership of V.I. Lenin The party was dedicated to violent revolutionLenin believed that only violent revolution could
destroy the capitalist systemActivists must form a small party, well disciplined,
professional revolutionaries to accomplish the task
Communist Revolution
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917Leader of the Bolshevik’s Nikolai Lenin Radical Socialist, favored a modified Marxism November 7, 1917 the Bolsheviks over-threw
the provisional government and seized control of Russia
1918 Bolsheviks renamed themselves the Communist Party
Bolshevik Program
3 simple slogans
“ Peace, Land, Bread”“Worker Control of Production”
“All Power to the Soviets”
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Allowed the Germans to withdraw troops from the eastern front and concentrate their efforts on a huge offensive in the west during 1918
This offense represented a last desperate gamble to break through the Allies lines, capture Paris, and end the war before Americas could arrive in strength
The Communists signed peace treaties with each of the Central Powers early in 1918 as Brest-Litovsk
Russia anxiously made peace on any terms, since its army exhausted from three years of bitter fighting
The harsh treaties forced Russia to give up a sizable amount of territory
Treaty of Bucharest
Peace treaty between Romania on one side and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany and the Ottoman Empire on the other, following the stalemate reached after campaign of 1916–17 and Romania's isolation after Russia's unilateral exit from World War I (see Treaty of Brest-Litovsk).
It was signed at Buftea, near Bucharest, on 7 May 1918.
Romania Surrendered
Battle of Copporetta
On the Austro-Italian front of World War IGermans wonStalemate along the Italian front The one-sided battle resulted in some
300,000 casualties and 265,000 prisoners
Battle of Verdun Germans attacked Verdun in February 1916,
hoping to use the Verdun offensive to bleed the French army to death
After 6 months of fighting the Germans gave up
Germany lost 330,000 solidersFrench lost 350,000
France General Ludendorf wanted to knock out
France and England before the US could interfere
US had to declare war because Germany had resumed unrestricted U-boat warfare
American Expeditionary Forces- in France = Doughboys
AEF headed by BlackJack Pershing
France Under a newly organized joint command,
headed by the French general Ferdinand Foch, the Allied forces stopped the Germans in June at Chateau-Thierry
In July the Allies began to counterattack St. Mihiel and in the Argonne Forest forced
the German armies back to the borders of Germany
Lafayette Escadrille
French Air Service, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters.
The onset of war in Europe in 1914 many Americans travelled to Europe and offered their volunteer services to the Allied nations
Battle of Cantigny
First American offensive of World War I. The U.S. 1st Division, the most experienced of the seven American divisions then in France and in reserve for the French Army near the village of Cantigny, was selected for the attack. The objective of the attack was both to reduce a small salient made by the German army in the front lines but also to instill confidence among the French and British allies in the ability of the inexperienced American Expeditionary Force.
Result: Allied victory
Battle of Chateau-Thierry
Fought on July 18, 1918 and was one of the first actions of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) under General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing. It was a battle in World War I as part of the Second Battle of the Marne, initially prompted by a German offensive launched on 15 July against the AEF, the newest troops on the front.
Result: Allied victory
Marines In Battle at Belleau Wood
First real taste of battle for the US Marines in World War One with General Pershing calling Belleau Wood the most important battle fought by US forces since the US Civil War.
Location: Belleau Wood near Paris, France ---Result: Allied victory
1918, German offensive penetrated the Western Front within 45 miles of Paris. U.S. forces helped halt the German advance, and on June 6 Pershing ordered a counteroffensive to drive the Germans out of Belleau Wood. U.S. Marines under led the attack against the Germans positioned in the woods and by the end of the first day suffered more than 1,000 casualties.
For the next three weeks, the Marines, backed by U.S. Army artillery, launched many attacks into the forested area, but Germany was determined to deny the Americans a victory. On June 26, the Americans prevailed but at the cost of nearly 10,000 dead, wounded, or missing in action.
Second Battle of the Marne
Last major German Spring Offensive on the Western Front during the First World War. The German attack failed when an Allied counterattack led by French forces and including several hundred tanks overwhelmed the Germans on their right flank, inflicting severe casualties. The German defeat marked the start of the relentless Allied advance which culminated in the Armistice about 100 days later. Thus the Second Battle of the Marne can be considered as the beginning of the end of the Great War.
Argonne Forest Long strip of rocky mountain and wild woodland in north-
eastern France.The attack was launched on September 26, 1918. The
combined attack was a success, with the French capturing over five miles of enemy territory and the Americans moving ahead by two miles.
Pershing called off the Meuse-Argonne offensive on September 30; it was renewed again just four days later, on October 4. Exhausted, demoralized and plagued by the spreading influenza epidemic, the German troops held on another month, before beginning their final retreat. Arriving U.S. reinforcements had time to advance some 32 kilometers before the general armistice was announced on November 11, bringing the First World War to a close.
Argonne Forest The casualties recorded by the Americans at
the Battle of Argonne Forest totaled 117,000, while the French lost 70,000 men and the Germans 100,000 soldiers. The battle was known for the Lost Battalion – 500 soldiers of the Seventy-seventh Division, who fought a brave battle between Bois d’Apremont and Charlevaux against impossible odds. Only about two hundred of them survived the battle.
Middle East and Austria Hungary
Conditions worsened in the Middle East for the Central Powers
Bulgaria Surrenders 1918Turks soon asked for peace alsoNovember 1918 a revolution in Austria-
Hungary had brought the old Empire to an end
Austria and Hungary then formed to separate governments
Germany
The government of Kaiser William II soon collapsed
Woodrow Wilson had said he would deal only with a government that truly represented the German people
November 11, 1918 the chancellor of the new German Republic signed an armistice- an agreement to stop fighting until a treaty can be drawn up
11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month all fighting would cease
Reasons for American Involvement in WWI
Long and close historical ties with England and France
Unlimited submarine warfare angered USZimmerman NoteWilson’s Philosphy
Zimmerman Note
German Ambassador to Mexico –Arthur Zimmerman
Offered Mexican government an alliance against the US
Mexico was to re-conquer Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, ect
Note intercepted and decoded by British and given to the US
Wilson released note to Associated Press
Wilson’s Philosophy
No one expressed more idealist reasons for war better than the president of the US
Wilson outlined the “Fourteen Points”- his basis for a peace settlement that he believed justified the enormous military struggle being waged
Wilson became a spokesperson for a new world order based on democracy and international cooperation
Fourteen Points 6 of the points contained plans of a general nature8 remaining points dealt with specific countries and
regions, such a Russia, Belgium, Alsace-Lorraine, and the Balkans
The six general proposals may be summarized as follows: 1) No secret treaties 2.) Freedom of the seas for all nations 3.) Removal of all economic barriers or tariffs 4.) Reduction of national armaments 5.) Fair adjustments of all colonial claims, with equal
consideration given to the people of a region and the nation6-13 = redrew map of Europe 14.) Establishment of a general association of nations which
would guarantee political independence and protection to large and small state alike
Fourteen Points Caught the imagination of people everywhere
and raised the morale of Allies troopsCopies dropped behind the German lines
made the German people willing to surrenderSome historians believed Wilson made a
mistake – He did not make the Allies promise to accept the Fourteen Points.
Paris Peace Conference
1919 delegates met in Paris to determine the peace settlement
The most important decisions were made by Wilson, Clemenceau, and Lloyd George. They were called the Big Three.
Russia could not be present because of its own civil war
Paris Peace Conference
Wilson wanted to create a world organization- The League of Nations to present future wars
Clemenceau and Lloyd George wanted to punish Germany
The Treaty of Versailles
The final peace settlement of Paris consisted of five separate treaties with the defeated nations of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey
Germany was especially unhappy with the War Guilt Clause which declared that Germany was responsible for starting the war. Germany had to reduce its army to 100,000 men, cut back its navy, and eliminate its air force.
Alsace and Lorraine taken by Germany in 1871 was returned to France
Terms
Germany had to cancel the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Germany had to surrender all its submarines and a large part of its surface fleet
Had to release all war prisoners and turn over munitions that might make additional fighting possible
The Allies reserved the right to occupy all German territory west of the Rhine River
Costs of the War 10 million soldiers dead20 million woundedRussia suffered the most severely losing more than 2
million people Germany lost almost as manyFrance and its colonies lost 1.5 millionAustria-Hungary lost 1.25 millionGreat Britain lost 1 millionAmerica lost 115,000For the first time in history civilian casualties
numbered almost as many as those in the armed forcesTotal cost of property destruction estimated at 400
billion
Legacies of the War
Central Powers redrew the map of eastern EuropeGerman and Russian empires lost considerable
territory Austro-Hungarian Empire disappearedNew Nation-states emerged from the lands of 3
empires: Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Hungary.
Romania acquired additional lands.Serbia formed the nucleus of a new state called
Yugoslavia which combined Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
Legacies of the War
The mixtures of peoples in eastern Europe made it impossible to draw boundaries along strict ethnic lines. Almost every eastern European state was left with ethnic minorities
The problem of ethnic minorities within nations would lead to many conflicts later
The Ottoman Empire was broken up by the peace settlement. To gain Arab support against the Ottoman Turks during the war the Western Allies had promised to recognize the independence of Arab states, however the Western nations changed their minds- France controlled Syria and Britain controlled Iraq and Palestine
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