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~ ) P e r g a m o n
International Journal of Project ManagementVol. 15, No. 4, pp. 235-243, 1997
© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPM A. All rights reserved
Printed in G reat Britain
0263-7863/97 17.00 + 0.00
P II : S0263- 7863 96) 00076- 2
o t a l q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t i n t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s
D a v i d r d it i a n d H M u r a t G u n a y d i n
Illinois Institute of Technology Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering Chicago IL 60616 USA
T h e r e i s g r e a t p o t e n t ia l f o r q u a l i ty i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e c o n s t r u c t io n p r o c e s s . A s t u d y o f t h e
l it e r a tu r e a n d o f s u r v e y s c o n d u c t e d i n th e U S A i n d i c a t e d t h a t m a n a g e m e n t c o m m i t m e n t t o
q u a l i t y a n d t o c o n t i n u o u s q u a l i t y i m p r o v e m e n t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t ; c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y
p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e w e l l a w a r e o f th e i m p o r t a n c e o f q u a l i ty t r a i n in g ; p a r t n e r i n g a g r e e m e n t s
a m o n g t h e p a r t i e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s c o n s t i t u t e a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n s e c u r i n g a h i g h
q u a l i t y p r o d u c t ; a f e e d b a c k l o o p c o u l d u p g r a d e t h e o r i g i n a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s u s e d i n t h e
i n d u s t r y ; t h e c l a ri ty o f p r o j e c t s c o p e a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s a s w e l l a s o f d r a w i n g s a n d s p e c i fi c a ti o n s
i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r h i g h p r o c e s s q u a l i t y . © 1 9 9 7 E l s e v i e r S c i e n c e L t d a n d I P M A
Keywords: T otal quality m anagement, construction, quality assurance, qua lity control
A t t a i n m e n t o f a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s o f q u a l it y i n t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n
i n d u s t r y h a s l o n g b e e n a p r o b l e m . G r e a t e x p e n d i t u r e s o f
t i m e , m o n e y a n d r e s o u r c e s , b o t h h u m a n a n d m a t e r i a l , a r e
w a s t e d e a c h y e a r b e c a u s e o f i n e f f ic i e n t o r n o n - e x i s t e n t
q u a l it y m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s . T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n du s t ry
h a s d e v e l o p e d T o ta l Q u a l i ty M a n a g e m e n t ( T Q M ) c o n c e p t s ,
f i rs t a p p l ie d i n J a p a n a n d i n r e c e n t y e a r s u s e d i n th e U n i t e d
S t a te s , w h i c h h a v e i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t iv i t y , d e c r e a s e d p r o d u c t
c o s t a n d i m p r o v e d p r o d u c t r e l i a b il i ty . T h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e
a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o th e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t ry . F o r e x a m p l e ,
J a p a n e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s , b e n e f i t i n g f r o m t h e e x -
p e r i e nc e s o f J a p a n e s e m a n u f a c t u r e r s , b e g a n i m p l e m e n t i n g
T Q M d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s . E v e n t h o u g h c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a
c rea t i v e , o n e- t im e p ro cess , t h e Jap an ese co n s t ru c t i o n i n d u s t ry
e m b r a c e d t h e T Q M c o n c e p t s t h a t s o m e a r g u e d c o u l d o n l y
a p p l y t o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n .
T Q M i s a n e ff o r t t h a t i n v o l v e s e v e r y o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e
i n d u s t ry i n t h e e ff o r t t o i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e . I t p e r m e a t e s
e v e r y a s p e c t o f a c o m p a n y a n d m a k e s q u a l i t y a s tr a t e g i c
o b j e c t i v e . T Q M i s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a n i n t e g r a t e d e f f o r t
a m o n g p e r s o n n e l a t a l l l e v e l s t o i n c r e a s e c u s t o m e r s a t i s -
f a c t i o n b y c o n t i n u o u s l y i m p r o v i n g p e r f o r m a n c e . T Q M
f o c u s e s o n p r o c e s s i m p r o v e m e n t , c u s t o m e r a n d s u p p l i e r
i n v o l v e m e n t , t e a m w o r k , a n d t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n i n
a n e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e c u s t o m e r s a t i s f a c t i o n , c o s t e f f e c t i v e -
n e s s , a n d d e f e c t - f r e e w o r k . T Q M p r o v i d e s t h e c u l t u r e
a n d c l i m a t e e s s e n t i a l f o r i n n o v a t i o n a n d f o r t e c h n o l o g y
a d v a n c e m e n t .
I n th i s p a p e r , T Q M c o n c e p t s a n d t h e i r i m p l i c a t io n s i n th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . R e f e r e n c e w i l l b e
m a d e t o i n d u s t r y s u r v e y s c o n d u c t e d i n t h e U S A a n d t o t h e
p u b l i sh ed l i t e r a tu re .
D e f i n i t i o n o f q u a l i t y
Q u a l i t y c a n b e d e f i n e d a s m e e t i n g t h e l e g a l , a e s t h e t i c a n d
f u n c t io n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a p r o j e c t . R e q u i r e m e n t s m a y b e
s i m p l e o r c o m p l e x , o r t h e y m a y b e s t a t e d i n t e r m s o f th e
e n d r e s u l t r e q u i r e d o r a s a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t io n o f w h a t i s
t o b e d o n e . B u t , h o w e v e r e x p r e s s e d , q u a l i t y i s o b t a i n e d i f
t h e s t at e d r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e a d e q u a t e , a n d i f t h e c o m p l e t e d
p r o j e c t c o n f o r m s t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
L a w d e f i n e s q u a li t y i n t e r m s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l l i a b il i ty , a
l e g a l c o n c e p t t h a t r e q u i r e s a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o k n o w t h e i r
t r a d e a n d p r a c t i c e i t r e s p o n s i b l y . E v e r y a r c h i t e c t a n d
e n g i n e e r w h o o f f e r s h i s o r h e r e x p e r t i s e to o w n e r s i s s u b j e c t
t o p ro fess io n a l l i ab i l i t y l aws .
S o m e d es ig n p ro fess io n a l s b e l i ev e t h a t q u a l i t y i s m easu red
b y t h e aes th e t i c s o f t h e f ac i l i ti e s t h ey d es ig n . A cco rd in g t o
S t as io w sk i an d Bu r s t e in , ~ t h i s t r ad i t i o n a l d e f i n i t io n o f
q u a l i t y i s b ase d o n su ch i s su es as h o w wel l a b u i l d in g b l en d s
i n to i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s , a b u i l d i n g ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p a c t s o n
i t s i n h ab i t an t s , t h e ab i l i t y o f a l an d scap in g d es ig n t o m a tch
t h e t h e m e o f a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h e u s e o f b o l d n e w
d e s i g n c o n c e p t s t h a t c a p tu r e p e o p l e ' s i m a g i n a t io n s . B e c a u s e
a e s t h e t ic d e f in i t io n s o f q u a l i t y a r e l a r g e l y s u b j e c t i v e , m a j o r
d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r i s e a s t o w h e t h e r q u a l i t y h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d
o r n o t . S in ce o b j ec t i v e d e f i n i ti o n s o f aes th e t i c q u a l i t y d o n o t
e x i s t, d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l s g e n e r a l ly t a k e i t u p o n t h e m s e l v e s
to d e f i n e t h e aes th e t i c q u a l i t y o f t h e i r d es ig n s .
Q u a l i t y c a n a l s o b e d e f i n e d f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f f u n c -
t i o n , b y h o w c l o s e l y t h e p r o j e c t c o n f o r m s t o i t s r e q u i r e -
m en t s . Us in g t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , a h ig h q u a l i t y p ro j ec t can b e
d e s c r i b e d b y s u c h t e r m s a s e a s e in u n d e r s t a n d in g d r a w i n g s ,
l e v e l o f c o n f li c t in d r a w i n g s a n d s p e c i f ic a t i o n s, e c o n o m i c s
2 3 5
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Total quality management in construction: D Arditi and H M Gunaydin
o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , e a s e o f o p e r a t i o n , e a s e o f m a i n t e n a n c e ,
a n d e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y .
I n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y , q u a l i t y c a n b e d e f i n e d a s
m e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e d e s i g n e r , c o n s t r u c t o r a n d
r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s a s w e l l a s t h e o w n e r . A c c o r d i n g t o a n
A S C E s t u d y , 2 q u a l i t y c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s f o l l o w s .
• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e o w n e r a s t o fu n c t i o n a l
a d e q u a c y ; c o m p l e t i o n o n t i m e a n d w i t h i n b u d g e t ; l i f e -
c y c l e c o s t s ; a n d o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e .
• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e d e si g n p r o f e s s io n a l a s
t o p r o v i s i o n o f w e l l - d e f i n e d s c o p e o f w o r k ; b u d g e t t o
a s s e m b l e a n d u s e a q u a l i f i e d , t r a i n e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e d
s ta f f; b u d g e t t o o b t a i n a d e q u a t e f i e ld i n f o r m a t i o n p r i o r t o
d e s i g n ; p r o v i s i o n s f o r t i m e l y d e c i s i o n s b y o w n e r a n d
d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l ; a n d c o n t r a c t t o p e r f o r m n e c e s s a r y
w o r k a t a f a i r f e e w i t h a d e q u a t e t i m e a l l o w a n c e .
• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t o r a s t o p r o v i -
s ion of con t rac t p lans , spec i f ica t ions, and o the r docum e nts
p r e p a r e d i n s u f f i c ie n t d e t a il t o p e r m i t t h e c o n s t r u c t o r t o
p r e p a r e p r i c e d p r o p o s a l o r c o m p e t i t i v e b i d ; t i m e l y
d e c i s i o n s b y t h e o w n e r a n d d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l o n
a u t h o r i z a t i o n a n d p r o c e s s i n g o f c h a n g e o r d e r s ; f a i r a n d
t i m e l y i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f c o n t r a c t r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m f i el d
d e s i g n a n d i n s p e c t i o n s t a f f ; a n d c o n t r a c t f o r p e r f o r -
m a n c e o f w o r k o n a r e a s o n a b l e s c h e d u l e w h i c h p e r m i t s
a reasonab le p rof i t .
• M e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s ( t h e
p u b l i c ) a s t o p u b l i c s a f e t y a n d h e a l t h ; e n v i r o n m e n t a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; p r o t e c t i o n o f p u b l i c p r o p e r t y i n c l u d in g
u t i li t ie s ; a n d c o n f o r m a n c e w i t h a p p l i c a b l e l a w s , r e g u l a -
t ions , codes and po l ic ie s .
I n a d d i t i o n , o n e s h o u l d d i f f e r e n ti a t e b e t w e e n ' q u a l i ty
i n f a c t ' a n d ' q u a l i t y i n p e r c e p t i o n ' . T h e p r o v i d e r s o f
se rv ices o r goo ds tha t m ee t spec i f i ca t ions ach ieve qua l i ty in
f a c t . A s e r v i c e o r p r o d u c t t h a t m e e t s t h e c u s t o m e r ' s e x p e c -
ta t ions ach iev es qua l i ty in pe rcep t ion . 3 In o the r w ords , a
p r o d u c t c a n b e o f h i g h q u a l i t y a n d y e t i t m a y n o t m e e t
c u s t o m e r ' s n e e d s a n d v i c e v e r s a . A n e x a m p l e o f n o t
m e e t i n g c u s t o m e r n e e d s i s t h e p r e f a b r i c a t e d h i g h - r i s e
apa r tm ent bu i ld ings tha t were bu i l t in the 1970s us ing
c u t t in g e d g e t e c h n o l o g y i n l o w - c o s t b u i l d in g p r o c e s s e s . T h e
bui ld ings had to be pu l l ed down in the l a te 1980s because
n o o n e w a n t e d t o l i v e i n t h e s e a p a r t m e n t s d e s p i t e t h e l o w
ren t s . The bu i ld ings fa i l ed to m ee t the t enan t s ' expec ta t ions
o f c o m f o r t , a e s t h e t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n .
O n e s h o u l d a l so d i f f e r e n t ia t e b e t w e e n ' p r o d u c t q u a l i t y ' ,
i . e . t h e q u a l i ty o f e l e m e n t s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p h y s i c a l
p r o d u c t i t se l f , a n d ' p r o c e s s q u a l i t y ' , i . e . t h e q u a l i ty o f t h e
p r o c e s s t h a t c a u s e s t h e p r o d u c t t o b e e i t h e r a c c e p t a b l e o r
n o t . 4 F o r e x a m p l e , ' p r o d u c t q u a l i t y ' i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
i n d u s t r y m a y r e f e r t o a c h i e v i n g q u a l i t y i n t h e m a t e r i a l s ,
e q u i p m e n t a n d t e c h n o l o g y t h a t g o i n t o t h e b u i l d i n g o f a
s t r u c t u r e , w h e r e a s ' p r o c e s s q u a l i t y ' m a y r e f e r t o a c h i e v in g
q u a l i t y i n t h e w a y t h e p r o j e c t is o r g a n i z e d a n d m a n a g e d i n
t h e t h r e e p h a s e s o f p l a n n in g a n d d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d
o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e .
Qual i ty assurance qual i ty control
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Manual of Professional Practice or Quafity
in the Constructed Project 2
Q u a l i t y A s s u r a n c e ( Q A ) i s
a p r o g r a m c o v e r i n g a c t i v i t ie s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e q u a l i t y
i n t h e w o r k t o m e e t t h e p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . Q A i n v o l v e s
es tab l i sh ing pro jec t re la ted po l i c ie s , p rocedures , s t anda rds ,
t r a i n i n g , g u i d e l i n e s , a n d s y s t e m n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e
q u a l i t y . T h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d c o n s t r u c t o r a r e r e s -
p o n s i b l e f o r d e v e l o p i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e p r o g r a m f o r e a c h
p r o j e c t . Q A p r o v i d e s p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t q u a l i t y p r o b l e m s
t h r o u g h e a r l y w a r n i n g s o f t r o u b l e a h e a d . S u c h e a r l y
w a r n i n g s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f b o t h
i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l p r o b l e m s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d Q u a l i t y
C o n t r o l ( Q C ) i s t h e s p e c i f i c i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e Q A
p r o g r a m a n d r e l a t e d a ct i v it i e s. E f f e c t i v e Q C r e d u c e s t h e
p o s s i b l i ty o f c h a n g e s , m i s t a k e s a n d o m i s s i o n s , w h i c h i n
tu rn re su l t in few er conf l i c t s and d i spu tes . 5
A s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , q u a l i t y i n c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t o o
i m p o r t a n t t o b e l e f t to c h a n c e . A l o o k a t h i s to r y g i v e s s o m e
i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p r o b l e m . T h r o u g h t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h i s
c e n t u r y , e n g i n e e r s a n d a r c h i t e c t s w e r e i n t o t a l c o n t r o l
d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n p h a s e . D u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a se t h e y
c a r r i e d o u t a r o l e d e s c r i b e d a s ' s u p e r v i s i o n ' , i n s u r in g t h a t
t h e o w n e r r e c e i v e d h i s m o n e y ' s w o r t h i n t e r m s o f q u a l i t y .
I n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s, o w n e r s b e c a m e i n c r e a s in g l y c o n -
c e r n e d w i t h c o s t a n d s c h e d u l e , a r e a s w h e r e d e s i g n p r o f e s -
s i o n a ls w e r e n o t p r o v i d i n g g o o d c o n t r o l . 6 T h e e m p h a s i s
con t inued to b e o n qua l i ty and con t ro l o f ex posure to l iab il ity .
A t a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e i n t h e p u b l i c
sec tor and , to a l a rge deg ree , in the p r iva te s ec to r , o f the
s e a le d c o m p e t i t i v e b i d g a v e t h e o w n e r t h e a d v a n t a g e o f c o m -
pe t i t ive p r ic ing , bu t a l so fo rce d the gene ra l con t rac to r to look
f o r e v e r y a d v a n t a g e d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o c o n t r o l c o s t an d
m ain ta in a p rof i t ab le s t ance . As m echanica l and e lec t r i ca l
sys tem s becam e m ore co m plex , the gene ra l con t rac to r tu rned
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s u c h w o r k o v e r t o s u b c o n t r a c t o r s , i n -
c l u d i n g q u a l i ty c o n t r o l o f t h e i r w o r k m a n s h i p . 6 T h r o u g h
c o n t r a c t , s u b c o n t r a c t a n d s u b - s u b c o n t r a c t , t h e g e n e r a l
c o n t r a c t o r e n d e d u p d e l e g a ti n g r e s p o n s i b i li t y f o r q u a l i t y .
I n t h e 1 9 80 s c a m e t h e a d v e n t o f t h e c o n s tr u c t i o n m a n -
a g e m e n t p r o j e c t d e l i v e r y s y s t e m w h e r e b y c o n s t r u c t i o n
m a n a g e m e n t f i r m s e m e r g e d a s e n t i t i e s n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
d e s i g n a n d / o r c o n s t r u c t io n , b u t p e r f o r m i n g o n l y m a n a g e r i a l
f u n c t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f t h e o w n e r f r o m t h e i n c e p t i o n p h a s e
t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n p h a s e . I n s p e c t i o n a n d
q u a l i t y c o n t r o l t h a t h a d t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n p e r f o r m e d b y
a rch i t ec ts and eng inee rs wer e now p e r form ed by cons t ruc t ion
m a n a g e m e n t f i r m s .
A c c o r d i n g t o O ' B r i e n , 6 o n e w a y i n w h i c h m o r e a t t e n ti o n
w i l l b e g i v e n t o q u a l i ty c o n t r o l i s d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p r o j e c t
qua l i ty con t ro l p lan . P resen t ly , t e s t ing and inspec t ion
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n t r a c t s p e c i -
f i ca t ions . To de ve lo p a f irm p lan , the t e s t ing and inspec t ion
r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e c o m b i n e d i n t o a n e w d i v i s i o n o f t h e
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T h i s w o u l d e m p h a s i z e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a n d
p r o v i d e a n o r g a n i z e d l o c a t i o n i n w h i c h a l l q u a l i t y c o n t r o l
i s sues a re iden t i f i ed to the b idde rs . As a pa r t o f a qua l i ty
c o n t r o l p l a n , t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n m a n a g e r
w i l l a p p l y q u a l i t y c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s s h o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d t o
t h e b i d d e r s . T h i s w i l l p e r m i t t h e m t o a s s i g n a p p r o p r i a t e
cos t s to the t e s t ing p rocedures .
T h e t e r m s q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e ( Q A ) a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l
( Q C ) a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . S i n c e q u a l i t y
con t ro l i s a pa r t o f qua l i ty a s su rance , z m a in ta in ing a c lea r
d i s t inc t ion be twe en then i s d i ff i cu l t bu t im po r tan t . Q ua l i ty
as suran ce i s al l p lanned an d sys tem a t ic ac tions neces sa r y to
p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t a s tr u c t u r e , s y s t e m o r
c o m p o n e n t w i l l p e r f o r m s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a n d c o n f o r m w i t h
p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , q u a l i t y c o n t r o l
i s a s e t o f spec i f i c p rocedures invo lved in the qua l i ty -
a s s u r a n c e p r o c e s s . T h e s e p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e p l a n n i n g ,
c o o r d i n a t i n g , d e v e l o p i n g , c h e c k i n g , r e v i e w i n g , a n d s c h e d -
u l i n g t h e w o r k . T h e q u a l i ty c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n i s c l o s e s t t o t h e
2 3 6
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3/9
Tota l qua l i t y management in cons t ruc t ion: D Ard i t i and H M Gunayd in
p r o d u c t i n t h a t v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s a n d a c t i v i t ie s a r e u s e d t o
m o n i t o r t h e p r o c e s s a n d t o p u r s u e t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f s o u r c e s
t h a t l e a d t o u n s a t i s f a c t o r y q u a l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e . 7 M o s t
des ign- re la ted qua l i ty a s surance and qu a l i ty con t ro l ac t iv i ti e s
a r e c o v e r e d b y a d e s i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n s s t a n d a r d o f f ic e p r o -
c e d u r e s . D e v e l o p i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g t h e a c t i v i ti e s w i t h in t h e
q u a l i t y a s su r a n c e p r o g r a m i n t h e c o n s t r u c t io n p h a s e a r e t h e
r e s p o n s ib i l i ty o f e i t h e r t h e d e s i g n e r o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n -
agem ent f i rm depending on the p ro jec t de l ive ry sys tem in use .
F a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t q u a l i t y
E s t a b l is h i n g t h e p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r q u a l i ty b e g i n s a t
p r o j e c t i n c e p t i o n . A c a r e f u l b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e o w n e r s
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e p r o j e c t c o s t s a n d s c h e d u l e , d e s i r e d
o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m a t e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , e t c .
a n d t h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l s n e e d f o r a d e q u a t e t i m e a n d
b u d g e t t o m e e t t h o s e r e q u i r e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n
p r o c e s s i s e s s e n t i a l . O w n e r s b a l a n c e t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s
a g a i n s t e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s ,
a g a i n s t c h a n c e o f f a i l u r e . T h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l i s
o b l i g a t e d t o p r o t e c t p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y i n t h e c o n t e x t
of the f ina l com ple ted p ro jec t . T he cons t ru c tor i s re spons ib le
f o r th e m e a n s , m e t h o d s , t e c h n i q u e s , s e q u e n c e s , a n d
p r o c e d u r e s o f c o n s t r u c t io n , a s w e l l a s s a f e ty p r e c a u t i o n s
a n d p r o g r a m s d u r i n g t h e c o n st r u c ti o n p r o c e s s ]
P r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e k e y f a c t o r s t h a t d e f i n e q u a l it y
i n th e p r o c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e p r o c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
c a n b e b r o k e n d o w n i n t o t h r e e m a i n p h a s e s , n a m e l y , ( 1 ) th e
p l a n n i n g a n d d e s i g n p h a s e , ( 2 ) th e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e , a n d
( 3 ) t h e m a i n t e n a n c e a n d o p e r a t i o n p h a s e . F i g u r e s h o w s
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d e l e m e n t s o f T Q M a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n
indus t ry -spec i f ic fac to rs tha t a f fec t qua l ity o f the p roces s o f a
bu i ld ing pro jec t . Th e fac to rs tha t a f fec t qua l i ty in each phase
o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h a
l i t e ra tu re rev iew and a re d i s cus sed in the fo l lowing sec t ions .
M a n a g e m e n t c o m m i t m e n t a n d l e a d e r s h i p
T h e B u s i n e s s R o u n d t a b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y c o s t e f f e c -
t i v e n e s s s t u d y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p r i m a r y c a u s e s f o r t h e
d e c l i n e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c t i v i t y d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y
i n v o l v e d p o o r m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . 8 S i n c e q u a l i t y i s p a r t
o f p r o d u c t i v i ty , t h e f i r st s t ep f o r m a n a g e m e n t i s t o r e c o g n i z e
tha t the re i s a p rob lem .
T h e s u c c e s s o f a T Q M p r o g r a m f i r s t o f a l l d e p e n d s o n
m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . T Q M i s a c u l t u r e a n d p h i l o s o p h y
t h a t m u s t p e r m e a t e a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a s t h e m e t h o d o f m a n -
a g e m e n t . 9 I t c a n t h r i v e o n l y u n d e r a s e n i o r m a n a g e m e n t
t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s T Q M a s a t o p p r i o r i t y . T h i s c o m m i t m e n t
m u s t b e c o u p l e d w i t h a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f T Q M .
O n l y i f s u p p o r t e d b y t h i s c o m m i t m e n t a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
c a n s e n i o r m a n a g e m e n t l e a d t h e c o m p a n y t o w a r d t h e
rea l i za t ion o f h ighe r qua l i ty in i t s unde r tak ings .
T h e p r o m i n e n t m e t h o d o f m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c ed i n t h e
Uni ted S ta te s today , inc lud ing the cons t ruc t ion indus t ry , i s
m a n a g e m e n t b y c o n t r o l , n o t b y p a r t i c i p a t i o n . F o r c e d b y
i n t e r n a ti o n a l c o m p e t i t i v e p r e s s u r e s a n d i n c r e a s in g d e m a n d s
for qua l i ty p roduc t s and s e rv ices , indus t r i e s a re reeva lua t ing
t h e e f f e c ti v e n e s s o f m a n a g e m e n t b y c o n t r o l . A c c o r d i n g t o
Jo in e r an d S c hol te s , t ° in th i s s ty le o f m an agem ent , the
e m p h a s i s i s o n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t a n d t h e k e y c o n t r o l
po in t s wi th in the s t ruc ture . Al l m anagers , beg inn ing a t the
t o p , a r e g i v e n c e r t a i n g o a l s f o r t h e n e x t y e a r . T h e y , i n t u r n ,
s e t g o a l s a n d i m p o s e c o n t r o l s o n e a c h o f t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t es .
I n c o n s t r u c t i o n t e r m s , c o s t , s c h e d u l e , a n d p o s s i b l y q u a l i t y
g o a l s a r e e s t a b li s h e d f o r e a c h p r o j e c t . P r o j e c t m a n a g e r s a r e
r e w a r d e d o n t h e b a s is o f m e e t i n g t h e s e g o a l s. T h i s m e t h o d
has been som ewha t succes s fu l . I t i s s im ple , log ica l , and
c o n s i s t e n t . B u t t h e r e a r e p r o b l e m s w h e n t h e w o r k g e t s
d i s p l a c e d b y t h e c o n t r o l s t h e m s e l v e s . 9 A l s o , c o m p e t i t i o n
to m ee t sho r t - t e rm goa l s can l ead to in te rna l conf l i c t , adve r -
s a r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r e d u c e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a c c u s a t i o n s
T r a i n i n g
S ta t is t i ca l Method s
C u s t o m e r S e r v i c e
Management
Commitment and
Leadersh ip
ConstructionIndustry-
S pec i f i c F ac tors
Teamwork
S uppl ie r
Involvement
C o s t o f Q u a l i ty
Q u a l i ty o f C o d e s
and Standard
Drawings and S pec i f i ca t ions
Cons t ruc tab i l i ty Ana lyses
Figure 1 Elements of total quality managem ent in the construction process
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Total quality management in construction D Arditi and H M Gunaydin
w h e n g o a l s a r e n o t a c h i e v e d , a n d e v e n f a b r i c a t e d r e p o r t s
o f c o n f o r m i t y . M a n a g e m e n t b y c o n tr o l e n c o u r a g e s an
o r g a n i z a t i o n t o l o o k i n w a r d r a t h e r t h a n o u t w a r d t o t h e
c u s t o m e r a n d t h e c u s t o m e r ' s n e e d s /
O n c e i t a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t th e r e i s a p r o b l e m , t h e s e c o n d
s t e p f o r m a n a g e m e n t i s to d e v e l o p a c l e a r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f
t h e u n d e rl y i ng p r i n c ip l e s a n d e l e m e n ts o f T Q M . M a n a g e m e n t
the n de mon s t ra t e s i t s c om mi tm e n t to qua l i ty t h rough a c t ion .
W i t h o u t t h is u n d e r s t a n d in g , m a n a g e m e n t ' s a c ti o n w i ll m o s t
l i k el y c o n t r a d ic t T Q M , c o n f i r m i n g t h e d o u b ts o f t h e l a b o r
fo rc e a nd doom ing the e f fo r t t o f a i l u re , i1 Th e f ind ings o f a
su rve y c on duc te d by G una yd in o f a t o t a l o f 143 c ons t ruc t ion
m a n a g e r s , d e s i g n e r s , c o n t r a c t o r s a n d f a c i l i t y m a n a g e r s t o
i n v e s t ig a t e T Q M i n th e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d o p e r a t i o n
pha se s o f p ro j e c t s un de r t a ke n in t he U S A , ind ic a t e d tha t t he
l e v e l o f m a n a g e m e n t c o m m i t m e n t t o co n t i n u o u s q u a l it y
i m p r o v e m e n t w a s r a t e d a s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s
tha t a ff ec t the qua l i ty of the co nst ru c ted fac i l i ty . ~2
Trai n i ng
T h e i m p o r t a n c e i s r e c o g n i z e d b y e v e r y q u a l i t y e x p e r t .
U n d e r T Q M , q u a l i t y b e c o m e s e v e r y o n e ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
a nd the t r a in ing mus t be t a rge t e d fo r e ve ry l e ve l o f t he
c om pa ny . 13 Th e re shou ld be c us tom iz e d t r a in ing p l a ns fo r
m a n a g e m e n t , e n g i n e e r s , t e c h n i c ia n s , h o m e a n d f i el d o ff i ce
s t a f f , supp o r t p e r sonn e l a nd f i e ld l a bo r . ~4
I t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t th e t r a n s i en t c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k f o r c e
i s qu i t e d i f f e re n t f rom the r e l a t i ve ly s t a b l e ma nufa c tu r ing
w o r k f o r c e . T h i s t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e m a y m a k e i t m o r e d i f f ic u lt
t o t r a in w orke r s , pa r t i c u l a r ly c ra f t l a bo r , fo r t he c ons t ruc tion
i n d u s tr y 9. H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e m a n y a s p e c t s , s u c h a s t r a i n -
i n g a n d a w a r e n e s s , t h a t a r e s i m i l a r b e t w e e n t h e s a f e t y
c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n f i r m s a n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
o f T Q M c o n c e p t s . M a n y U S c o n s t r u c t io n c o m p a n i e s th a t
h a d s a f e t y f o r c e d u p o n t h e m w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t he
O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e t y a n d H e a l t h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a v e
p r o v e n t h e c o s t e f fe c t i v en e s s o f t h e ir s a f e t y p r o g r a m s a n d
n o w u s e t h e i r s a f e t y r e c o r d s a s a m a r k e t i n g t o o l . ~ S o m e
of t he sa me t e c hn ique s u se d to i n s t il l a sa fe ty a w a re ne ss i n
c ra f t l a bo r ma y be a da p ta b le t o i n s t i l l a s imi l a r qua l i t y
a w a re ne ss . I t i s e a sy to e nv i s ion u s ing a good qua l i t y
p e r f o r m a n c e r e c o r d a s a s t r o n g m a r k e t i n g t o o l .
I f T Q M c o n c e p t s b e c o m e w i d e l y a c c e p t e d t h r o u g h o u t th e
c o n s t r u ct i o n i n d u s tr y , w o r k e r s s w i t ch i n g f r o m o n e c o m p a n y
to a no the r shou ld r e qu i re l e ss TQ M t ra in ing s inc e a l l
w o r k e r s w o u l d h a v e r e c e i v e d b a s i c q u a l i t y a w a r e n e s s i n
t h e i r p r e v i o u s e m p l o y m e n t . 9
The t r a in ing e f fo r t ma y inc lude in s t ruc t ion in t he ba s i c s
o f T Q M , c a u s e - a n d - e f fe c t a n a l y s is , t e a m p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ,
i n t e r p e rs o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d i n t e r a c ti o n , r u d i m e n t a r y
s t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s a n d c o s t o f q u a l it y m e a s u r e m e n t . A
s t u d y o f T Q M i n m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 c o m p a n i e s f o u n d t h a t s k i ll s
in huma n in t e ra c t ion , l e a de r sh ip , a nd in i t i a t i ve a re i n s t ru -
me n ta l t o t he suc c e ss o f a ny qu a l i t y im pro ve m e n t e f fo r t . ~5
T h e d e m a n d s o n t h e s e i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s i n c r e a s e a s t h e
c om ple x i ty a nd soph i s t i c a t ion o f t he t e c hn ic a l sy s t e m s
inc re a se . Th e t r a in ing e f fo r t fo l low s a spe c i f ic p l a n , a nd i t s
imp le me n ta t ion a nd e f fe c t ive ne ss a re c a re fu l ly t r a c ke d . I t i s
i n i t ia t e d in a l im i t e d num be r o f p i lo t t e a ms . Th e suc c e ss
s to r i e s o f t he p i lo t t e a ms a re t he n u se d to fue l t he r e ma in ing
t ra in ing e f fo r t . Fo l low -up t r a in ing i s e sse n t i a l , a nd i s pa r t
o f t h e o v e r a l l t ra i n i n g p l a n a n d a j o b r e q u i r e m e n t f o r e a c h
ind ivid ual. ~6
T h e t r a i n i n g o f e m p l o y e e s i n t h e d e s i g n p h a s e w a s
f o u n d t o b e n o t v e r y i m p o r t a n t , i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e
m o d e r a t e l y i m p o r t a n t , a n d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n p h a s e v e r y
i m p o r t a n t b y th e r e s p o n d e n t s in G u n a y d i n ' s s t u d y o f T Q M
in U S c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s . 12 I t fo l low s tha t ope ra t ion a nd
ma in te na nc e c re w s w ork ing in c ons t ruc t e d f a c i l i t i e s shou ld
be the m a in r e c ip i e n t o f t r a in ing e f fo r t s . F ind ings a re pa ra l l e l
t o I S O 9 0 0 1 w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t ra i n in g
a nd unde r l i ne s t ha t a c t iv i t i e s de ma nd ing a c qu i re d sk i l l s
shou ld be ide n t i f i e d a nd the ne c e ssa ry t r a in ing p rov ide d . 17
T e a m w o r k
Q u a l i t y t e a m s p r o v i d e c o m p a n i e s w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e d e n -
v i r o n m e n t n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s f u l l y i m p l e m e n t i n g a n d
c o n t i n u o u s l y a p p l y i n g th e T Q M p r o c e s s . Q u a l i ty t r a i n in g i s
c onduc te d a nd the c on t inuous im prove me n t p roc e ss e xe c u te d
t h r o u g h a w e l l - p l a n n e d t e a m s t r u c t u r e . T h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f
t h e t e a m a p p r o a c h i s to g e t e v e r y o n e , i n c lu d i n g c o n t r a c t o r s ,
d e s i g n e r s , v e n d o r s , s u b c o n t r a c t o r s , a n d o w n e r s i n v o l v e d
w i t h t h e T Q M p r o c e s s .
A t t h e i n d u s t ry l e v e l , ex t e n d i n g t h e T Q M c o n c e p t t o th e
p a r t i es m e n t i o n e d a b o v e i n t h e f o r m o f j o i n t t e a m s a c h i e v e s
h i g h e r c u s t o m e r s a t i sf a c ti o n . T h e s e jo i n t t e a m s a r e r e s p o n -
s ib l e fo r e s t a b l i sh ing jo in t goa l s , p l a ns , a nd c on t ro l s . T he
t e a m s p r o v i d e a m e c h a n i s m f o r l i s t e n i n g t o a n d c o m m u n i -
c a t i n g w i t h t h e o w n e r a n d f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e l e v e l o f
c us to me r sa t i s f a c t ion . T w o ob s t a c l e s t o e s t a b l i sh ing jo in t
t e a ms a re t he s t a t e o f l ega l i nde pe nde nc e be tw e e n c om pa n ie s
a n d t h e i r t r ad i t io n a l m e t h o d s o f w o r k i n g i n d i v i d u a l l y /
T h e s e o b s t a c l e s c a n b e o v e r c o m e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
indus t ry ho w e v e r , i f t he ow ne r i s de d ic a t e d to do ing so .
The re a re se ve ra l c a se s tud ie s o f suc c e ss fu l pa r tne r ing
a r r a n g e m e n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n a l a r g e r e fi n e r y p r o j e c t ,
T Q M w a s a p p l i e d o n a p r o j e c t t e a m b a s i s ; r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f t h e o w n e r a n d t h e t w o m a j o r c o n t r a c t o r s o n t h e p r o j e c t
se rve d on the p ro j e c t qua l i t y s t e e r ing c ommi t t e e . W hi l e t h i s
i s a ne w c o nc e p t , e a r ly p rog re ss i s e nc ou r a g ing . 9
A t t h e c o m p a n y l e v e l , t e a m s c o m p o s e d o f d e p a r t m e n t
re p re se n ta t ive s a re ne c e ssa ry to imp le me n t TQ M th roughou t
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e s a m e t e a m a p p r o a c h c a n b e u s e d a t
t he p ro j e c t l e ve l .
E x t e n t o f t e a m w o r k o f p a r t i e s p a rt i c i p at i n g i n t he
d e s i g n p h a s e w a s f o u n d t o b e th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c to r
t h a t a ff e c ts q u a li t y i n G u n a y d i n ' s s t u d y o f T Q M i n U S
c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s . 12 In t he sa m e s tudy , c ons t ruc t ion
m a n a g e r s a n d d e s i g n e r s r a n k e d t h i s f a c t o r a s t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . T h i s r e s u l t s h o w s t h a t t e a m w o r k a m o n g
pa r t i e s suc h a s s t ruc tu ra l , e l e c t r i c a l , e nv i ronme n ta l , c iv i l
e ng ine e r s , a rc h i t e c t s , a nd ow ne rs i s e sse n t i a l t o r e a c h the
qua l i t y goa l s fo r de s ign . In t he c ons t ruc t ion pha se , e x t e n t
o f t e a m w o r k o f p a r t i e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
p r o c e s s w a s f o u n d t o b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t a n d r a n k e d 2 n d b y
c ons t ruc to r s a nd 4 th by c ons t ruc t ion ma n a ge rs . 12 I t a ppe a r s
t h a t th e i m p o r t a n c e o f t e a m w o r k i n t h e d e s ig n p h a s e w a s
r e l a ti v e l y m o r e p r o n o u n c e d t h a n i n t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n p h a s e .
tat i s t ical methods
S t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s p r o v i d e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t o o l s t o t h e
T Q M p r o c e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o P e r i s c o , ~8 t h e y p r o v i d e t e a m s
w i th the t oo l s t o i de n t i fy t he c a use s o f qua l i t y p rob le ms , t o
c o m m u n i c a t e i n a p r e c i s e l a n g u a g e t h a t c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d
b y a l l t e a m m e m b e r s , t o v e r i f y , r e p e a t , a n d r e p r o d u c e
m e a s u r e m e n t s b a s e d o n d a t a , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a s t ,
p re se n t , a nd to a l e sse r de g re e , t he fu tu re s t a tu s o f a w ork
p r o c e s s , a n d t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s o n f a c t s t h a t a r e b a s e d o n
da ta r a the r t ha n the op in ions a nd p re fe re nc e s o f i nd iv idua l s
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Total quality management in construction: D Arditi and H M Gunaydin
o r g r o u p s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d s t a t i s t i c a l m e t h o d s i n
t h e T Q M p r o c e s s i n c l u d e h i s t o g r a m s , c a u s e a n d e f f e c t
d i a g r a m s , c h e c k s h e e t s , P a r e t o d i a g r a m s , g r a p h s , c o n t r o l
c ha r t s , a nd sc a t t e r d i a g ra ms . t9
S t a ti s ti c a l m e t h o d s a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g
i n d u s t ri e s i n o r d e r t o i m p r o v e q u a l i t y . 2° O b e r l e n d e r u n d e r -
l i ne s t he impor t a nc e o f s t a t i s t i c a l me thods in o rde r t o
p r o v i d e e s s e n t i a l p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t o o l s t o t h e T Q M
p r o c e s s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t a t is t ic a l t e c h n iq u e s i s a ls o
u n d e r l i n e d b y I S O 9 0 0 1 . 21 H o w e v e r , c o n t r a r y t o T Q M
p h i l o s o p h y , t h e u s e o f s t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s w a s f o u n d t o b e
i n G u n a y d i n ' s s u r v e y t h e l e a s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r t h a t a ff e c ts
q u a l i t y i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s a n d r a n k e d a t t h e v e r y
b o t t o m o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e l i s t s i n t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n -
s t ruc t ion pha se s by de s igne r s , c ons t ruc to r s , a nd c ons t ruc t ion
m a n a g e r s . I t c a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l l t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s
invo lve d in t h i s s tudy a g re e tha t t he u se o f s t a t i s t i c a l
me th ods ha s r e l a t i ve ly ve r y l i t t le e f fe c t on the qua l i t y o f t he
c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t . 12 Th i s f i nd ing su ppor t s H e l l a rd ' s 2t
c on te n t ion tha t i nd iv idua l c ons t ruc t ion a c t iv i t i e s a re
typ ic a l ly un ique a nd e l imina t e t he po te n t i a l fo r a ny k ind o f
s t a t i s t i c a l p roc e ss c on t ro l .
o s t o f q u a l i t y
T h e c o s t o f q u a l i t y i s c o n s i d e r e d b y b o t h C r o s b y 22 a n d
J u r a n 5 t o b e t h e p r i m a r y t o o l f o r m e a s u r i n g q u a l it y . I n
the i r a pp ro a c h , i t i s u se d to t r a c k the e f fe c t ive ne ss o f t he
T Q M p r o c e s s , s e l e c t q u a l it y i m p r o v e m e n t p r o j e c t s , a n d
p r o v i d e c o s t j u s t i fi c a t io n t o d o u b t e r s . B y b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r
t h e s e e a s i ly a s s e m b l e d c o s t s o f r e v i e w , i n s p e c t io n , t e s ti n g ,
s c r a p , a n d r e w o r k , o n e c a n c o n v i n c e m a n a g e m e n t a n d
o t h e r s o f t h e n e e d f o r q u a l it y i m p r o v e m e n t . C o s t o f
qua l i t y ha s r e c e ive d inc re a s ing a t t e n t ion in r e c e n t ye a r s . I t
i s e f f e c t ive i n i t s i n t e nde d pu rpose o f r a i s ing a w a re ne ss
a b o u t q u a l i t y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i n g t o m a n a g e m e n t t h e
b e n e f it s o f T Q M i n t e r m s o f d o l l a rs .
Q u a l i t y c o s t s c o n s i s t o f t h e c o s t o f p r e v e n t i o n , t h e c o s t
o f a p p r a i s a l , a n d t h e c o s t o f d e v ia t i o n . P r e v e n t i o n c o s t s a r e
those r e su l t i ng f rom a c t iv i t i e s u se d to a vo id de v ia t ions o r
e r r o r s , w h i l e a p p r a i s a l co s t s c o n s i st o f c o s ts i n c u r r e d f r o m
a c t iv i t ie s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a p r o d u c t , p r o c e s s , o r
s e r v i c e c o n f o r m s t o e s t a b l i s h e d r e q u i r e m e n t s . 23 T h e c o s t
o f d e s i g n o r c o n s t r u c t a b i l it y r e v i e w s , a s w e l l a s t h e c o s t o f
m o d i f y i n g w o r k p r o c e d u r e s t o a d h e r e t o q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s
m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d p r e v e n t i o n c o s t s , w h i l e i n s p e c t i o n i s
a n e x a m p l e o f a n a p p r a i s a l c o s t. A s u r v e y o f U S f i r m s
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m a j o r o b s t a c l e t o u s i n g t h e I S O 9 0 0 0
s t a n d a r d s i s t h e a d d i ti o n a l c o s t o f m o d i f y i n g w o r k p r o -
c e du re s a n d the a dd i t i ona l c os t o f r e v i s in g s t a nda rds f l 4
D e v i a t i o n c o s t s a r e t h o s e r e s u l t i n g f r o m n o t m e e t i n g t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s . S o m e d e v i a t i o n c o s t s a r e i n c u r r e d o n t h e
p r o j e c t s i te d u e t o s c r a p , r e w o r k , f a i l u r e an a l y s i s , r e -
i n s p e c t i o n , s u p p l i e r e r r o r , o r p r i c e r e d u c t i o n d u e t o n o n -
c o n f o r m i t y . O t h e r d e v i a t i o n c o s t s a r e i n c u r r e d o n c e t h e
o w n e r t a k e s p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t e d f a c i li t y . T h e s e
i n c lu d e c o s t s f o r a d j u s t m e n t o f c o m p l a i n t s , r e p a i r c o s t s ,
c o s t s f o r h a n d l i n g a n d r e p l a c i n g r e j e c t e d m a t e r i a l , w o r k -
m a n s h i p o r e q u i p m e n t c o s t s f o r c o r r e c t i n g e r r o r s , a n d
l i t iga t ion c os t s f l 5
In the c ons t ruc t ion indus t ry , c on t ra c to r s a re se l e c t e d by
o w n e r s o n a c o m p e t i t i v e b a s i s. E v e n t h o u g h t h e b id i s
c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e m a j o r c r i t e r i o n o f s e l e c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y
p r i v a t e o w n e r s a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e c o n t r a c t o r s ' s a f e t y r e c o r d ,
t e c hn ic a l suppor t , e qu ipme n t c a pa b i l i t i e s , a nd e spe c i a l ly
r e p u t a ti o n r e g a r d i n g t h e q u a li t y o f th e w o r k p e r f o r m e d .
C o n t r a c t o r s w i t h a r e p u t a t i o n f o r p o o r q u a l i t y a r e n o t l i k e l y
t o b e a w a r d e d m a n y p r o j e c t s i n t h e e x i s t i n g c o m p e t i t i v e
m a r k e t p l a c e . I t t h e r e f o r e p a y s f o r c o n t r a c t o r s t o i n v e s t i n
m e a s u r e s t o a c h i e v e h i g h w o r k q u a l it y i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e
c h a n c e s o f w i n n i n g c o n t r a c t s .
S u p p l i e r i n v o l v e m e n t
T h e a b i l it y t o p r o d u c e a q u a l i t y p r o d u c t l a r g e l y d e p e n d s o n
t h e r e l a t io n s h i p a m o n g t h e p a r t i es i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o c e s s ;
t h e s u p p l i e r , t h e p r o c e s s o r , a n d t h e c u s t o m e r . T h e q u a l i t y
o f a n y s t a g e i n a p r o c e s s i s c o n t i n g e n t u p o n t h e q u a l i t y o f
the p re v iou s s t a ge s . T he qua l i t y o f t he p ro j e c t bu i l t by the
c ons t ruc to r i s d i r e c t ly r e l a t e d to t he qua l i ty o f t he p l a ns a nd
the spe c i f i c a t ions p re pa re d by the de s igne r , t he qua l i t y o f
t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d m a t e r i a l s s u p p l i e d b y t h e v e n d o r s , a n d
t h e q u a l it y o f w o r k p e r f o r m e d b y t h e s u b c o n t r a c to r s . C l o s e
a nd long - t e rm re l a t i onsh ips w i th t he se supp l i e r s t o t he
c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s a r e r e q u i r e d i f t h e c o n s t r u c t o r i s t o
a c h ie ve the be s t e c onomy a nd qua l i t y . l~
Tra d i t i ona l ly , i n t he c ons t ruc t ion indus t ry , c on t ra c to r s ,
subc on t ra c to r s , a nd ve ndors a re a l l p i t t e d a ga in s t one
a n o t h e r t o c o m p e t e o n t h e b a s i s o f l o w - b i d c o n t r a c ts . Y e t ,
t h e f o ur t h o f D e m i n g ' s 26 14 re c omme nda t ions fo r r e a c h ing
a h i g h l e v e l o f q u a l i ty s t r e s s e s t h a t c o m p a n i e s m u s t e n d t h e
p r a c t i c e o f a w a r d i n g b u s i n e s s o n t h e b a s i s o f p r i c e t a g
a lone . A c c o rd ing to Pe t e r s , 27 suc c e ss fu l p ro j e c t s i n t he
fu tu re a re l i ke ly t o be de c ide d ba se d on qua l i t y , l i f e -c yc l e
c os t s (no t i n i t i a l c o s t ) , a nd supp l i e r r e spons ive ne ss , w h ic h
c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h p a r t n e r s h i p r e l a t i o n s h i p s ;
the se r e l a t i onsh ips w i l l i nvo lve f e w e r supp l i e r s , a nd the y
a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e b a s e d o n m u t u a l t r u s t . T h i s i s a l r e a d y
be ing p r ove n t rue in c e r t a in a re a s o f t he i ndus t ri a l c on -
s t r u c ti o n m a r k e t . L o n g - t e r m p a r t n e r i n g a g r e e m e n t s h a v e
b e e n f o r m e d b e t w e e n a n u m b e r o f o w n e r s a n d c o n t r a c t o rs .
S o m e o w n e r s a r e r e q u i r i n g t h e i r c o n t r a c t o rs t o h a v e f o r m a l
T Q M p r o g r a m s , a n d b o t h o w n e r s a n d c o n t r a c t o r s a r e
r e q u i r in g t h e i r v e n d o r s t o i m p l e m e n t T Q M i f t h e y w i s h t o
b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r f u t u r e w o r k . 9
u s t o m e r s e r v i c e
T Q M i s a p r o c e s s t h a t r e q u ir e s u n i v e r s a l i n v o l v e m e n t t o b e
s u c c e s s f u l . T h i s i n c l u d e s c u s t o m e r i n v o l v e m e n t . A s m o r e
a n d m o r e c o m p a n i e s b e c o m e i n v o lv e d i n th e T Q M p r o c e s s
a n d d e m a n d s f o r i m p r o v e d q u a l i t y i n c re a s e , t h i s c o n c e p t
b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t .
C u s t o m e r s m a y b e e i t h e r i n te r n a l o r e x t e r n a l. S a t i s fy i n g
t h e n e e d s o f t h e s e c u s t o m e r s i s a n e s s e n ti a l p a r t o f t h e
p r o c e s s o f s u p p l y i n g t h e f i n a l e x t e r n a l c u s t o m e r w i t h a
qua l i t y p rod uc t . Ju ra n 5 c l a ims tha t t he pa r t i e s i n a p ro c e ss
( s u p p l i er , p r o c e s s o r , a n d c u s t o m e r ) h a v e a t r i p l e r o l e .
Figure s h o w s J u r a n ' s t r i p l e r o l e c o n c e p t a p p l i ed t o
c ons t ruc t ion . 28 The de s igne r i s t he c us tom e r o f t he ow ne r
b e c a u s e t h e d e s i g n e r h a s t o r e c e i v e t h e p r o j e c t r e q u i r e -
m e n t s f r o m t h e o w n e r i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a f e a s i b l e d e s i g n .
The de s igne r supp l i e s p l a ns a nd spe c i f i c a t ions t o t he c on -
s t ruc to r ; i n t h i s c a se t he c ons t ruc to r i s t he de s igne r ' s
c u s t o m e r b e c a u s e t h e c o n s t r u c t o r u s e s t h e d e s i g n e r ' s p l a n s
a nd spe c i f i c a t ions , t he n c onduc t s t he c ons t ruc t ion p ro -
c e ss , a nd f ina l ly supp l i e s t he c omple t e d bu i ld ing to t he
o w n e r . T h e o w n e r i s n o w t h e c o n s t r u c t o r ' s c u s t o m e r .
Q ua l i t y i n e a c h pha se i s a f f e c t e d by the qua l i t y i n t he p re -
c e d i n g p h a s e s . T h e r e f o r e c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e i n e a c h p h a s e
i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e o v e r a l l q u a l i ty p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
p r o c e s s .
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Total quality management in construction D Arditi and H M Gunaydin
O W N E R
R equirem ents D esign Plans nd
o fowner Phase Specifications
I Input
I Process
Output
A R C H I T E C T / E N G I N E E R
Figure
2 Construction process
C O N S T R U C T O R
I Process
I Output
Constructed
Facility
O p e r a t i o n ~
M ainta~dnance
Phase
I Process
Input
C o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y sp e c i f i c f a c t o r s
W h i le t he e vo lu t ion o f qua l i t y c on t ro l i n t he c ons t ruc t ion
indus t ry i s pa ra l l e l t o tha t o f t he ma n ufa c tu r in g indus t ry ,
ma ny d i ss imi l a r c ha ra c t e r i s t i c s d i s t i ngu i sh the tw o in -
dus t r i e s . T he fo l low ing d i f f e re nc e s , som e o f t he m s ign i f i -
c a n t , m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d w h e n a p p l y i n g a q ua l i ty p r o g r a m
to cons t ruc t io n . 29
• A l m o s t a ll co n s t r u c t i o n p r o je c t s a r e u n i q u e . T h e y a r e
s i n g l e - o r d e r , s i n g l e - p r o d u c ti o n p r o d u c t s .
• U n l ik e o the r i ndus t r i e s , w h ic h u sua l ly ha ve a f i xe d s i t e
w i th s imi l a r c ond i t i ons fo r p roduc t ion , e a c h c ons t ruc t ion
p roduc t ion s i t e a lw a ys d i sp l a ys d i f f e re n t c ond i t i ons .
• T h e l i f e - c y c l e o f a c o n s t r u c t io n p r o j e c t i s m u c h l o n g e r
t h a n t h e l i f e - c y c l e o f m o s t m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t s .
• T h e r e i s n o c l e a r an d u n i f o r m s t a n d a rd i n e v a l u at i n g
ove ra l l c ons t ruc t ion qua l i t y a s t he re i s i n ma nufa c tu re d
i t e ms a nd ma te r i a l s ; t hus , c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s u sua l ly
a re e va lua t e d sub je c t ive ly .
• S inc e c ons t ruc t ion p ro j e c t s a re a s ing le -o rde r de s ign p ro -
j e c t , t he ow ne r u sua l ly d i r e c t ly i n f lue nc e s t he p roduc t ion .
• T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t - - o w n e r ,
d e s i g n e r , g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t o r , s u b c o n t r a c t o r , m a t e r i a l
s u p p l i e r , e t c . - - d i f f e r f o r e a c h p r o j e c t .
B e c a u se o f t he se d i s t i ngu i sh ing c ha ra c t e r i s t i c s , t he c on -
s t ruc t ion indus t ry ha s ge ne ra l ly be e n c ons ide re d to be qu i t e
d i f f e r e n t f r o m m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s . T h a t i s w h y ,
q u a l it y c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s t h a t w o r k e f f e c ti v e l y i n a m a s s
p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y h a v e n o t b e e n c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e f o r
the c ons t ruc t ion indus t ry . C onse que n t ly , qua l i t y c on t ro l
t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n i n d u s t r y h a s n o t e v o l v e d t o t h e
l e ve l a t t a ine d in ma nufa c tu r ing indus t r i e s .
A c c o rd ing to A sa ka o ru , 3° p ro j e c t de s ign a nd c ons t ruc t ion
p l a n n i n g a r e c a r r i e d o u t b a s e d u p o n a s t a n d a r d d e r i v e d
f r o m r e l e v a n t c o d e s , o w n e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d d e s i g n c o m -
p a n y s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e . C o n s t r u c t i o n i s t h e n m a n a g e d t o
c o n f o r m t o t h i s c o m p o s i t e s t a n d a r d a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e
c o n s t r u c t o r . Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e v i a o w n e r , d e s i g n e r , o r
b u i l d i n g a u t h o r i t y , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n , o c c u r s a f t e r c o m -
p l e t i o n , a n d i n s o m e c a s e s , a f t e r p a r t ia l c o m p e n s a t i o n . T h i s
p roc e ss r e su l t s i n t he fo l low ing t r e nds .
• Q ua l i t y i s de s igne d in to a nd e va lua t e d fo r e a c h ind iv idua l
p r o j e c t e a c h t im e . E x c e p t f o r s o m e s p e c i a l iz e d a r e a s o f
c ons t ruc t ion suc h a s nuc l e a r pow e r p l a n t s a nd in t e r s t a t e
r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e r e i s n o c o m p r e h e n s i v e q u a l i t y
po l i c y e mp loye d to e s t a b l i sh qua l i t y a ssu ra nc e fo r t he
e n t i r e i ndus t ry o r l a rge se gm e n t s o f the i ndus t ry .
• N o f e e d b a c k s y s t e m e x i s ts f o r r e e x a m i n i n g q u a l i ty
c o n t r o l w o r k . C o r r e c t i o n o n l y o c c u r s w h e n t h e o w n e r ,
de s igne r , o r bu i ld ing a u tho r i t y po in t s ou t de fe c t s i n t he
p ro j e c t . Th i s ma ke s qua l i t y e va lua t ion d i f f i c u l t .
• I t i s d i f f ic u l t t o e s t a b l i sh a da t a c o l l e c t ion sy s t e m to
bu i ld a n in fo rma t ion ba se t ha t c ou ld l e a d to e a r ly i de n -
t i f i c a t ion o f de fe c t s . S inc e pos t - c omple t ion c o r re c t ion
o f u n a c c ep t a b le w o r k i s d a m a g i n g t o a c o m p a n y ' s o r
a n ind iv idua l ' s r e pu ta t ion , o r bo th , t he de fe c t t ha t oc c u rs
du r ing c ons t ruc t ion i s u sua l ly c o r re c t e d o r c onc e a l e d
b e f o r e t o p l e v e l m a n a g e m e n t o r t h e o w n e r d i s c o v e r s
i t . T h u s , l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n m e a n s n o c h a n g e i n p r o -
c e du re s , a nd a l l ow s the de fe c t t o r e oc c u r du r ing the ne x t
p ro j e c t .
• N o m e c h a n i s m e x i s t s f o r p r ac t i c al i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f
s t a n d a rd s . T h i s i s n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t o o m a n y s t a n d ar d s
e x i s t , bu t a l so be c a use the re a re no e f f i c i e n t me a ns fo r
inpu t t i ng ne w in fo rma t ion a nd , t hus , ma in t a in ing
re l e va n t s t a nda rds .
• N o s y s t e m e x i s ts t o m a n a g e q u a l i ty t h r o u g h o u t t h e
d e s i g n / c o n s t r u c ti o n p r o c e s s . W h i l e a ' c o n s t r u c t io n m a n -
a g e m e n t ' b l o c k a p p e a r s i n
Figure 3
i t i s only the
e xe c u t ion o f t he c ons t ruc t ion p l a n , a nd doe s no t c on ta in
a q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t c o m p o n e n t .
A c c o r d i n g
t o K u b a l , 1
t he c onc e p t o f qua l i t y c on t ro l
s h o u l d b e c h a n g e d f r o m c o n t r o l l i n g q u a l i t y t o c o n t r o l -
l i ng m a n a g e m e n t f o r q u a l i t y . T h i s w o u l d r e s u l t in u s in g
a n in t e g ra t e d qua l i t y s t a nda rd , ba se d upon c u r re n t i ndus t ry -
w ide e xpe r i e nc e , t o de f ine po l i c i e s a nd o rga n iz a t ion to
ma na ge qua l i t y . Po l i c i e s a re de f ine d fo r t he qua l i t y , fo r t he
c o n t r o l o f q u a l i t y , a n d f o r m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e q u a li t y
c o n t r o l s y s t e m .
The o rga n iz a t ion c re a t e d to imp le me n t qua l i t y c on t ro l
pol ic ies mu st have w el l -def ined responsib i l i t ies and authori ty .
I n c o n s t r u c t io n , f a i l u re c a n r e s u l t f r o m m a l f u n c t i o n o n t h e
p a r t o f c o n s t ru c t o r , d e s i g n e r , o r e v e n o w n e r . I n m o s t c a s e s
h o w e v e r , i t is t h e r e s u l t o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c ti o n s b y
s e v e r a l o r a l l o f t h e s e p a r ti e s . T h e q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t
2 4 0
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Total quality managem ent in construction: D Arditi and H M Gunaydin
FEEDBACK
_~ Quali ty
Standard
I Quality ]
~- Mana gement [
C o n s t r u c t io n M a n a g e m e n t
Planning Design
-~ Construct ion
Operat ion Maintenance
•
Evaluation
Evaluation ~-~
Evaluation I
I
Fig ure 3 Total quality control flow chart
o r g a n i z a t i o n m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o d e a l
e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h a l l p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d . A q u a l i ty f l o w c h a r t
Figure 3 ) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r
a p r o p e r l y o r g a n i z e d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l p r o g r a m i n t h e c o n -
s t ruc t ion indus t ry .
• T h e q u a l i t y st a n d a r d is d e r i v e d f r o m a c u r r e n t d a t a b a s e
c r e a t e d t h r o u g h f e e d b a c k f r o m p r e v i o u s p r o j e c t s , p r o -
v i d i n g a m o r e u n i f o r m a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t a n d a r d .
• Q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t in th e p la n n i n g a n d d e s i g n , c o n -
s t r u c t i o n , a n d o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e p h a s e s i s
i n t e g r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e m e n t p r o j e c t
d e l i v e r y s y s t e m .
• D e f e c t s a r e i d en t i fi e d a n d c o r r e c t e d e a r l y .
• F e e d b a c k e x p a n d s t h e q u a l i t y d a t a b a s e to e l i m i n a t e
repe t i t ion o f the iden t i f i ed de fec t s .
Qual i ty o f codes and s tandards
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e A S C E m a n u a l , 2 t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f
c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s i s t o p r o t e c t t h e p u b l i c ' s h e a l t h a n d
s a f e t y . C o m p l i a n c e w i t h c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s s h o u l d b e a n
i s s u e a d d r e s s e d e a r l y i n t h e d e s i g n p h a s e . W i t h o u t e a r l y
i d e n t if i c a ti o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o d e s a n d s t a n d a rd s , r e -
w o r k i n g p l a n s a n d s p e c i fi c a ti o n s c a n r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e
c o s t a n d d e l a y . T h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s t b e k n o w l -
e d g e a b l e a b o u t t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f c o d e s a n d s t a n d a r d s b e f o r e
s t a r t i n g t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s b e c a u s e t h e b u i l d i n g c o d e s
d i r e c t ly c o n t r o l th e m i n i m u m s t a nd a r d s o f m a n y c o m p o n e n t s
o f a b u i l d in g p r o j e c t , a n d a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m u c h o f t h e
f in i shed p rod uc t qua l i ty . Ku ba l 3~ c la im s tha t reg u la t ions
c o n t r o l l i n g th e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s a r e m u c h m o r e r e s t r i c -
t i v e t h a n i n m o s t m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s .
S t a s io w s k i a n d B u r s t e i n ~ u n d e r l i n e t h a t q u a l i ty d e s i g n
b e g i n s w i t h s o u n d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s ,
m u s t s a t i sf y t h e c r i t e r i a o f a p p l i c a b l e c o d e s a n d s t a n d a rd s ,
b u t a l s o t h e o w n e r ' s p r o j e c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . C o d e s a n d
s t a n d a rd s r e f e r t o t h e m i n i m u m c r i t e r i a . O w n e r s , h o w e v e r ,
m a y h a v e p a r t i c u l a r r e q u i r e m e n t s . G u n a y d i n ' s s u r v e y o f
U S d e s i g n e r s a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e r s i n d i c at e s t h a t t h e
e f f e c t o f c o d e s a n d s t a n d a rd s o n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e o p e r a t i o n
i s pe rce iv ed a s m in im a l . ~2
Quali ty o f drawings and speci f icat ions
D r a w i n g s a n d s p e c i fi c a ti o n s a r e t h e t w o s e ts o f d o c u m e n t s
g i v e n t o t h e c o n s t r u c t o r t h a t p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n
o n m a t e r i a ls , p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t e d f a c i li t y , a n d
q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s . D r a w i n g s a r e t h e o n l y d o c u m e n t s
g i v e n t o t h e c o n s t r u c t o r t h a t s h o w t h e d e s i g n c o n c e p t , s i z e
a n d s c o p e o f t h e j o b , n u m b e r a n d s i z e o f m a t e r i a ls o r
i t e m s , a n d h o w t h e y a r e a s s e m b l e d i n t o a f in a l p r o j e c t .
O b e r l e n d e r ~ a l s o u n d e r l i n e s t h a t t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t o f
d e s i g n w o r k i s a s e t o f c o n t r a c t d o c u m e n t s ( d r a w i n g s a n d
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ) t o g u i d e t h e p h y s i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e
pro jec t . T he re a re o f ten incons i s tenc ie s be tween the d rawings
and spec i f i ca t ions . I Tha t i s w hy i t i s c r i t i ca l tha t d raw -
i n g s b e c l e a r , c o n c i s e , a n d u n i f o r m . 2 I n d e e d G u n a y d i n ' s
f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e d r a w i n g s a n d
s p e c i fi c a t io n s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e d e s i g n e r a f f e c t t h e q u a l i t y
i n t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e
qua l i ty o f the cons t ru c ted fac i l i ty . 12
Constructability o f desig n
C o n s t r u c t a b i l it y i s o n e o f t h e m a j o r f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e
q u a l i t y o f d e s i g n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e A S C E m a n u a l , 2 t h e
d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e
c o n s t r u c t o r . T h e p r o j e c t m u s t b e c o n s t r u c t i b l e b y t h o s e
r e t a i n e d t o b u i l d t h e p r o j e c t . L i k e c o d e s , c o n s t r u c t a b i l i t y
a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s v a r y i n d i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l
a reas . Kub a l 3t ind ica te s f o r ex am p le tha t in ad d i t ion to
g e n e r a l r e v i e w s o f c o n s t r u c t a b i l it y , d e s i g n s m u s t a l s o b e
r e v i e w e d f o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h l o c a l
r e q u i r e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g b o t h t h e i n i t i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d
p o s t c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . B o t h t h e i n i t i a l d e s i g n c o n -
s t r u c ta b i l i ty a n d t h e c o m p l e t e d o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n s h o u l d b e
r e v i e w e d i n t h e q u a l i ty c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m s i n s ti t u te d b y
t h e d e s i g n t e a m m e m b e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , d e s i g n p r o f e s s io n a l s
m u s t c l e a r l y a n d a d e q u a t e l y c o m m u n i c a t e t h e d e s i g n i n t en t
t o t h e c o n s t r u c t o r . T h i s i s d o n e i n i t i a l l y w i t h t h e c o n t r a c t
d o c u m e n t s , b o t h p l a n s a n d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Q u a l i t y d e s i g n
e x t e n d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p h a s e o f t h e p r o j e c t . 2
Ob er len de r 11 ind ica te s tha t t rad i t iona l ly , eng in ee r ing
a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d e a r l y i n t h e p r o j e c t .
T h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o l o g y s u c h a s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
c o m p u t e r - a i d e d d r a f t i n g a n d d e s i g n , r o b o t i c s , a n d a u t o -
m a t i o n i n c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s g e n e r a t e d i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n
t h e c o n s t r u c t a b i l it y o f t h e p r o j e c t . W i t h t h e s e n e w i n n o v a -
t i o n s , d e s i g n s c a n b e c o n f i g u r e d t o e n a b l e e f f i c i e n t c o n -
s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h p l a c e s m o r e e m p h a s i s o n m e r g i n g
e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i n c l u d e c o n s t r u c t a b i l i t y ' s
inpu t in the des ign e f fo r t . The des i red re su l t i s to fac i l i t a t e
t h e e x c h a n g e o f i d e a s b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d d e s i g n
b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g d e s i g n , r a t h e r t h a n a f t e r d e s i g n .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e A S C E m a n u a l , 2 t h e p r o j e c t d e s i g n
t e a m s h o u l d i n c l u d e e n g i n e e r s w i t h f i e ld e x p e r i e n c e . M a n y
o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e t h e s e e n g i n e e r s o n s t a f f . H o w e v e r , i t
m a y b e n e c e s s a r y i n s o m e c a s e s t o r e t a i n e n g i n e e r s w i t h
t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t i s e , o r f o r m a j o i n t v e n t u r e w i t h a n
a p p r o p r i a t e c o n c e r n .
I S O s t a n d a r d s
T h e G e n e v a - b a s e d I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r S t a n -
da rd iz a t ion f i r s t pub l i shed a s e r i e s o f s t anda rd s in 1987 . 32
241
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T o t a l q u a l i t y m a n a g e m e n t i n c o n s t r u c t io n : D A r d i t i a n d H M G u n a y d i n
The term ISO describes the series o f international standards
dealing with product design, production, delivery, service
and testing. The ISO 9000 series comprises two basic types
of standard: those addressing quality assurance and those
addressing quality management. The quality assurance
standards are designed for contractual and assessment
purposes and are ISO 9001, ISO 9002, and ISO 9003. The
quality management standard is ISO 9004 and is designed
to provide guidance for companies developing and
implementing quality systems, t7 A company registered as
complying with ISO standards has demonstrated to an
accredited third party (an approved outside auditor) that its
processes have been documented and that the company is
systematically auditing and being audited that they are
following the policies and proce dures necessary to produce
high quality products.
ISO standards are directed towards improving a fir m s
production processes. A TQM system is the big picture and
is concerned with customer satisfaction and all activities
conducted by a firm. A good way o f viewing ISO is that the
emphasis in the ISO registration is on the management of
process quality. This is not meant to minimize the role of
ISO in a TQM system. The ISO standards provide an excel-
lent beginning point for a firm starting a TQM program.
on c l u s i o n s
There is great potential for quality improvement in the con-
struction industry. In today s competitive world, the term
quali ty and its concepts are vital for the construction
industry. There is not much time nor resources to waste.
Reworks and delays are not acceptable. As in the manufac-
turing industries, the construction industry should focus on
process quality. It is clear that TQM and its principles do
apply to the construction industry. TQM philosophy of
teamwork and co-operation not confrontation and conflict,
is long overdue for the construction industry.
This study indicates that future strategies and potential
developments should based on the following findings. Project
managers and company administrators should consider the
following points in developing their quality systems.
• Management commitment to quality and to continuous
quality improvement is very important in each phase of
the building process. Management must participate in
the implementation process and be fully committed to it
if TQM is to succeed.
• Construction industry professionals are aware of the
importance of quality training. Engineering, architecture
and construction management students who eventually
become the industry s future leaders must be instructed
in the basics of quality management. Education and
training in TQM theory and practice at all levels (man-
agement as well as operative levels) and in all phases
(design, construction, and operation phases) are essential
to enhance competitiveness.
• Teamwo rk is necessary to allow each person to get the
assistance required to be successful individually, and
collectively as a team. The whole construction industry
is project oriented; so improved quality performance
must be project-related and must include the whole
project team. Manufacturer, subcontractors, main con-
tractor, vendors, professional designers, project managers
and above all, the owner must be involved in the pro-
cess. Partnering arrangements between these parties will
enhance total quality.
• Statistical methods are essential prob lem solving tools
and are very important in monitoring quality in manu-
facturing industries. But they are not perceived as very
useful by construction professionals; yet, there appears
to be potential for a feedback system in the construction
process. As the project is being completed, feedback
loops originating at the end o f each phase could be used
to upgrade the original quality standards adopted at the
beginning of the project.
• Taking measures to achieve high quality cost money.
This cost should not be considered an expense but an
investment. Construction organizations that achieve repu-
tation for high quality can maximize their competitive-
ness and increase their business opportunities.
• The construction project should be considered as a
process where all customers must be satisfied. These
customers include internal customers (employees, units,
departments within an organization) and external
customers (owner, designer, contractor, etc.).
• The requirements of the owner must be clearly defined at
the beginning of the project and be agreed to by both the
owner and design finn. The more time and effort are spent
at the beginning in defining requirements, the more
smoothly the project will progress. Objective setting is
important because it provides a focus for scope definition,
guides the design process, controls the construction
process, and influences the motivation of the project team.
• Drawings and specifications received from the designer
affect the quality of the construction. Drawings are the
only documents given to the constructor that show the
design concept, size and scope of the job. It is critical
that drawings and specifications be clear, concise, and
uniform. The project must be constructible by those
retained to build the project. Design professionals must
be familiar with construction materials and techniques
that constructors will be using in the project.
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Dr David Arditi is Professor of Civil
and Architectural Engineering at
Illinois Institute of Technology. He is
the founder and coordinator of the
Construction Engineering and Man-
agement Program. He is currently
the Chairman of the Department of
Civil and Architectural Engineering.
Dr Arditi has received his PhD degree
from Loughborough Universit y of
Technology in the UK. His area of
expertise covers aspects of construc-
tion management, engineering and
support such as using neural net-
works to predict the outcome of
litigation, scheduling for repetitive construction, incentive/disincentive
contract provisions, to name but a few. Dr Ardz ti is an active member
of several professional societies including ASCE, AACE, PMI, IABSE,
IPMA and CMAA.
H. Murat Gunaydin is a graduate
research assistant and PhD candi-
date at the department of Civil and
Architectural Engineering at Illinois
Institute of Technology. He received
his MSc degree from the same
department and BSc in Architecture
from Yildiz Technical University in
Istanbul, Turkey. He designed some
projects as an architect in Istanbul,
Turkey.
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