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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Concrete is a !ersatile material" #hich is #idely used for construction material in the
#orld$ %t is obtained by mixin& cementitious materials" #ater" a&&re&ate and
sometimes admixtures in re'uired proportions$ Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is
freshly mixed material #hich can be moulded into any shape hardens into a roc(-li(e
mass (no#n as concrete$ )he hardenin& is because of chemical reaction bet#een
#ater and cement" #hich continues for lon& period leadin& to stron&er #ith a&e$
Concrete is the preferred construction material in %ndia$ )he cement production has
increased" than(s" mainly* to the rene#ed thrust on infrastructure de!elopment in the
country$ %n the past fi!e-six years me&a construction pro+ects in!ol!in& the use of
concrete ha!e been executed in the country in alar&e number$ Some of them include
construction of a lar&e number of flyo!ers" ,elhi metro rail" atomic and thermal
po#er plants" &olden 'uadran&le road pro+ect" and reconstruction of u+arat after
.anuary 2001 earth'ua(e" etc$ )he 'uality and type of concretes bein& employed ha!eunder&one a transformation #ith the use of state of the art concrete technolo&y$
/mon&st the recent de!elopments in the field of concrete such as i&h erformance
Concrete C3" Compacted Reinforced Concrete CRC3 Reacti!e o#der Concrete
RC3" Self-compactin& Concrete" etc$" C could find applications in %ndia in some
of the presti&ious pro+ects$ 4156
1.2 CONCRETE AND ITS QUALITY
Concrete 7 Cement 8 Sand 8 /&&re&ate 8 Water 8 /dmixtures 8 /ir$
)he mixture of cement and #ater is called paste$ )he function of paste is to bind
sand and a&&re&ate particles by the chemical process of hydration$ %t also fills the
!oid ratio bet#een sand and a&&re&ate particles$ )he stren&th of concrete depends
upon the properties of cement" sand" a&&re&ates" etc$
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)he >olanic materials #hich can be used in
concrete as partial replacement of cement$ / number of studies are &oin& on in
%ndia as #ell as abroad to study the impact of use of these po>>olanic materials as
cement replacements and the results are encoura&in&$ )he stren&th" durability and
other characteristic of concrete depends on the properties of its in&redients"
proportion of mix" method of compaction and other controls durin& placin& and
curin&$
Chemical and mineral admixtures and methods to produce concrete of needed
characteristics are discussed$ )he concrete mix proportion has an important
influence on producin& &ood 'uality concrete$ )ypical data of stren&ths of
concrete for different #ater-cementitious materials ratios #ith different
percenta&es of fly ash or &round &ranulated blast furnace sla& sho# that such
concretes are comparable made usin& 5-&rade ordinary ortland cement #ithout
any fly ash ?&round &ranulated blast furnace sla&$ o#e!er" #hen silica fume is
used #ith super plasticiser" the stren&th of concrete can be increased to @0 toA0;a$4126
Buality of concrete depends on the constituent materials" their proportions"
mixin&" transportin&" placin&" compaction and curin& of concrete$ )he concrete
#ith proper mix proportion has the needed #or(ability and de!elops the tar&eted
compressi!e stren&th$ Efficient concrete mixers are needed to mix the in&redients
and to produce a cohesi!e and #or(able concrete$ Concrete admixtures play an
important role in pro!idin& the needed #or(ability for transportin& and placin&
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the concrete in the form#or($
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%:$ Self-Compactin& Concrete
1.3.1 High Perfor!"#e Co"#re$e
i&h-performance concrete C3 exceeds the properties and constructability of
normal concrete$ Normal and special materials are used to ma(e these specially
desi&ned concretes that must meet a combination of performance re'uirements$
Special mixin&" placin&" and curin& practices may be needed to produce and handle
hi&h-performance concrete$ Extensi!e performance tests are usually re'uired to
demonstrate compliance #ith specific pro+ect needs$ i&h-performance concrete has
been primarily used in tunnels" brid&es" and tall buildin&s for its stren&th" durability"
and hi&h modulus of elasticity$ %t has also been used in shotcrete repair" poles" par(in&
&ara&es" and a&ricultural applications$
i&h performance concrete characteristics are de!eloped for particular applications
and en!ironments" some of the properties that may be re'uired include*
i&h stren&th
i&h early stren&th
i&h modulus of elasticity
i&h abrasion resistance
i&h durability and lon& life in se!ere en!ironments
Do# permeability and diffusion
Resistance to chemical attac(
i&h resistance to frost and deicer scalin& dama&e
)ou&hness and impact resistance
:olume stability
Ease of placement
Compaction #ithout se&re&ation
%nhibition of bacterial and mould &ro#th
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i&h-performance concretes are made #ith carefully selected hi&h-'uality in&redients
and optimi>ed mixture desi&ns these are batched" mixed" placed" compacted and
cured to the hi&hest industry standards$ )ypically" such concretes #ill ha!e a lo#
#ater cementin& materials ratio of 0$20 to 0$5$ lastici>ers are usually used to ma(e
these concretes fluid and #or(able$
i&h-performance concrete almost al#ays has a hi&her stren&th than normal concrete$
o#e!er" stren&th is not al#ays the primary re'uired property$ For example" a normal
stren&th concrete #ith !ery hi&h durability and !ery lo# permeability is considered to
ha!e hi&h performance properties$ ,emonstrated that 50;a @"000 psi3 hi&h
performance concrete for brid&es could be economically made #hile meetin&
durability factors for air-!oid system and resistance to chloride penetration$
1$$1$1 S!%ie"$ Fe!$&re' of HPC416
i&h Compressi!e stren&th
Do# #ater-binder ratio
Reduced flocculation of cement &rains
Wide ran&e of &rain si>es
,ensified cement paste
No bleedin& homo&eneous mix
Dess capillary porosity
,iscontinuous pores
Stron&er transition >one at the interface bet#een cement paste and
a&&re&ate
Do# free lime content
Endo&enous shrin(a&e
o#erful confinement of a&&re&ates
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Dittle micro-crac(in& until about @-A0G of fc(
Smooth fracture surface
Fi&$ 1$1 i&h erformance Concrete is often used in brid&es and tall buildin&s
1$$2 High S$re"g$h Co"#re$e416
)he definition of hi&h stren&th chan&es o!er the years as concrete stren&th used in the
field increases$ )his publication considers hi&h-stren&th concrete SC3 to ha!e a
stren&th si&nificantly beyond #hat is used in normal practice$ For example" today
about H0G of ready mixed concrete has a 2I-day specified compressi!e stren&th
ran&in& from 20;a 000 psi3 to 50;a @000 psi3" #ith most ofit bet#een 2I;a
5000 psi3 and ;a 000 psi3$)herefore" SC considered here has desi&n stren&th
of at least A0;a 10"000 psi3$
)o put the concrete into ser!ice at much earlier a&e" for example openin& the
pa!ement at -days$
)o build hi&h-rise buildin&s by reducin& column si>es and increasin& a!ailable
space$
)o build the superstructure of lon& span brid&es and to enhance the durability ofbrid&e dec(s$
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)o satisfy the specific needs of special applications" such as durability" modulus of
elasticity and flexural stren&th$ Some of these applications include dams"
&randstand roofs" marine foundations" par(in& &ara&es and hea!y duty industrial
floors$ Note that hi&h stren&th concrete does not &uarantee durable concrete3$
i&h-stren&th concrete columns can hold more #ei&ht and therefore be made slimmer
than re&ular stren&th concrete columns" #hich allo#s for more useable space"
especially in the lo#er floors of buildin&s$ i&h-stren&th concrete is specified #here
reduced #ei&ht is important or #here architectural considerations call for small
support elements$ 9y carryin& loads more efficiently than normal-stren&th concrete"
hi&h-stren&th concrete also reduces the total amount of material placed and lo#er the
o!erall cost of the structure$
1.3.2.1 S(e#i!% )e$ho*' For )!+i"g HSC
Seedin&
Re!ibration
i&h speed slurry mixin&
=se of admixtures
%nhibition of crac(s
Sulphur impre&nation
=se of cementitious a&&re&ate
See*i"g,)his in!ol!es addin& a small percenta&e of finely &round" fully hydrated
ortland cement to the fresh concrete mix$ )his method may not hold much promise$
Re-ir!$io",Concrete under &oes plastic shrin(a&e$ ;ixin& #ater creates continuous
capillary channels" bleedin& and #ater accumulates at some selected places reducin&
stren&th of concrete$ Controlled re!ibration remo!es all these defects and increases
the stren&th of concrete$
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High S(ee* S%&rr/ )i0i"g,%t in!ol!es the ad!anced preparation of cement #ater
mixer #hich is then blended #ith a&&re&ate to produce concrete$ i&her compressi!e
stren&th obtained is attributed to more efficient hydration of cement particle and #ater
achie!ed in the !i&orous blendin& of cement paste$
U'e of A*i0$&re', =se of #ater reducin& a&ents are (no#n to produce increase
compressi!e stren&th$
I"hii$io" of Cr!#+', Replacement of 2-G of fine a&&re&ate by polythene or
polystyrene JlentculesK 0$02 mm thic( and -5 mm in diameter results in hi&her
stren&th$ )hey appear to acts as crac( arresters #ithout re'uirin& extra #ater for
#or(ability$
S&%(h&r I(reg"!$io",Satisfactory hi&h stren&th concrete ha!e been produced by
impre&natin& lo# stren&th porous concrete by sulphur$ )he process consist of moist
curin& the fresh concrete specimen for 25 hours" dryin& them at 1200 C for 25 hours"
immersin& the specimen in molten sulphur under !acuum for 2hrs and then releasin&
the !acuum and soa(in& them for an additional hour for further infiltration of sulphur$
)he sulphur infiltrated concrete has &i!en stren&th up to I;a$
U'e of Cee"$i$io&' Aggreg!$e,%t has been found that use of cementitious a&&re&ate
has yielded hi&h stren&th$ Cement fondu is a (ind of clin(er$ )his &lassy clin(er #hen
finely &round results in a (ind of cement$ When coarsely crushed" it ma(es a (ind of
a&&re&ate (no#n as L/D/M$ =sin& /D/ as a&&re&ate stren&th up to 12;a has
been obtained #ith #?c ratio 0$2$
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Fi&$1$5 .$. Flyo!er at ;umbai usin& i&h erformance Concrete
1.3.3 Re!#$i-e Po*er Co"#re$e RPC416
Reacti!e o#der Concrete RC3 is the last step in the de!elopment of so-called hi&h
performance concrete C3$ )he stren&th of this type of concrete is usually abo!e
120 N?mm2$ %ts name" reacti!e po#der concrete is actually only a more precise
expression than the name used in technical literature - =C - =ltra i&h
erformance Concrete" because to ma(e this concrete" !ery fine" reacti!e dry
components li(e crushed silica sand" micro-silica" fly ash etc$ #ith a &rain si>e of 00
0"2Om are used$ )he production of this (ind of concrete is impossible #ithout
special (no#led&e of the used components and manufacturin& technolo&y and curin&$
)echnical literature claims that RC can reach !alues of stren&th as hi&h as I00
N?mm2 #ith !ery lo# !alue of #?c ratio$
Defi"i$io" of RPC
Reacti!e o#der Concrete RC3 is a de!elopin& composite material that #ill allo#
the concrete industry to optimi>e material use" &enerate economic benefits" and build
structures that are stron&" durable" and sensiti!e to en!ironment$
1.3.3.1 RPC Pro(er$ie'
1$ Compressi!e Stren&th* =p to 120"000 psi 200 to I0;a3
2$ 1"000 psi 100;a3 or &reater 25 hours after initial set$
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$ )ensile Stren&th* 000 to A000 psi 20 to 0;a" t#ice as stron& as normal
concrete in compression3
5$ @-1;a tensile stren&th after first crac(in&$
$ Flexural Stren&th* P15000 psi 100;a3 flexural stren&th at first crac(in& is
hi&her than ultimate flexural stren&th of normal concrete$
@$ Qoun&Ms ;odulus 0 to A /
A$ Fracture ener&ies ran&in& from 1"000 to 50"000 .?m plastic failure rather
than brittle3
1.3.3.2 A((%i#!$io" of RPC
1$ RCMs properties" especially its hi&h stren&th characteristic su&&ests the
material mi&ht be &ood for thin&s needin& lo#er structural #ei&ht" &reater
structural spans" and e!en in seismic re&ions" it outperforms normal concrete$
9elo# are a fe# examples of real-#orld applications" thou&h the future
possibilities are endless$
2$ First brid&e that used RC #as a pedestrian brid&e in Sherbroo(" Buebec"
Canada$ "000 psi P20;a3 %t #as used durin& the early days of RC
production$ as prompted brid&e buildin& in North /merica" Europe"
/ustralia" and /sia$
$ ortu&al has used it for sea#all anchors
5$ /ustralia has used it in a !ehicular brid&e
$ France has used it in buildin& po#er plants
@$ Bin&hai-)ibet Rail#ay 9rid&e
A$ Sha#nessy Di&ht Rail )ransit Station$
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Fi& 1$ /pplications of RC
9asically" structures needin& li&ht and thin components" thin&s li(e roofs for
stadiums" lon& brid&e spans" and anythin& that needs extra safety or security such as
blast resistant structures$
1.3.4 Se%f Co(!#$i"g Co"#re$e
Self-compactin& concrete #as first de!eloped in 1HII to achie!e durable concrete
structure$
Self-compactin& concrete #as defined as follo#s at the three sta&es of concrete$
1$ Fresh* self-compactable
2$ Early a&e* a!oidance of initial defects
$ /fter hardenin&* protection a&ainst external factors
Self-compactin& concrete has e!ol!ed as an inno!ati!e technolo&y" capable of
achie!in& the status of bein& an understandin& ad!ancement in the field of concrete
technolo&y$ No !ibration is necessary for SCC #hich can flo# around obstructions"
encapsulate the reinforcement and fill up the form#or( completely under its o#n self
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#ei&ht$ With re!olutionary de!elopment" the construction en&ineer is no# reli!ed of
t#o annoyin& problems*
1$ )he difficulty in ensurin& throu&h compaction employin& uns(illed labour$
2$ )he necessity deal #ith repairs and ma(in& &ood finish #or(
)he reduce man po#er re'uired for castin& and finishin& leads to increase in the
speed of construction$ SCC compacts by itself #ithout the need of !ibration$
Enhanced fillin& capacity of hi&hly con&ested structural members" impro!ed health
and safety at site" faster construction time" reduced form#or(" less manpo#er"
reduced e'uipment cost" li&hter and more slender structure and impro!ed durability
are the ad!anta&es of SCC$
9y the early 1HH0Ms".apan has de!eloped and used SCC that does not re'uire !ibration
to achie!e full compaction$ 9y the year 2000" the SCC has become popular in .apan
for prefabricated products and ready mixed concrete$
SCC can be classified in to three types*
1$ o#der type SCC
2$ :iscosity a&ent type SCC
$ Combination type SCC
1.4FRC FI5RE REINFORCED CONCRETE
%n con!ectional concrete" micro crac(s de!elop e!en before loadin& because of dryin&
shrin(a&e and other causes of !olume chan&e$ When the structure is loaded" the micro
crac(s open up and propa&ate$ )he de!elopment of such micro-crac(s is the main
reason of inelastic deformation in concrete$
)he #ea(ness can be remo!ed by inclusion of small" closely spaced and uniformly
dispersed fibres in concrete$ )he addition of fibres in concrete substantially impro!es
its static and dynamic properties$ )hese fibres offer increased resistance to crac(
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&ro#th" throu&h a crac( arrestin& mechanism and impro!e tensile stren&th and
ductility of concrete$
Fibre reinforced concrete FRC3 can be defined as a composite material consistin& of
concrete and discontinuous" discrete" uniform dispersed fine fibres$ )he continuous
meshes" #o!en fabrics and lon& #ires or rods are not considered to be discrete fibres$
)he inclusion of fibres in concrete and shotcrete &enerally impro!es material
properties li(e ductility" flexural" stren&th" tou&hness impact resistance and fati&ue
stren&th$ )here is little impro!ement in compressi!e stren&th$ )he type and amount of
impro!ement is dependent upon the fibre type" si>e" stren&th and confi&uration and
amount of fibre$
Se!eral different types of fibres ha!e been used to reinforce the cement- based
matrices$ )he choice of fibres !aries from synthetic or&anic materials such as
polypropylene or carbon" synthetic inor&anic such as steel or &lass" natural or&anic
such as cellulose or sisal to natural inor&anic asbestos$ Currently the commercial
products are reinforced #ith steel" &lass" polyester and polypropylene fibres$ )he
selection of the type of fibres is &uided by the properties of the fibres such as
diameter" specific &ra!ity" youn&Ms modulus" tensile stren&th etc$ and the extent these
fibres affect the properties of the cement matrix$
%n relation to the elastic modulus" fibres are di!ided into t#o types*
)hose #here the elastic modulus of fibres is less than the elastic modulus of the
matrix* i$e$ Cellulose fibre" polypropylene fibre" poly acrylonitrile fibre" etc$
)hose #here the elastic modulus of fibres is &reater than the elastic modulus of
the matrix* i$e$ lass fibre" steel fibre" carbon fibre" aramid fibre" asbestos fibres"
etc$ ;any of the current applications of fibre reinforced concrete in!ol!e the use
of fibres ran&in& around 1$0 per cent by !olume of concrete$
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Fi&$ 1$@ )ypical Stress-Strain Cur!es For Fibre-Reinforced Concrete 4116
1.4.1 A*-!"$!ge' of FRC
Reduction in shrin(a&e and crac(in&$
%mpro!ement in bond stren&th$
Enhancement of fati&ue stren&th and endurance limit$
9etter tou&hness$
Do#er permeability of concrete$
1.4.2 A((%i#!$io" of FRC
P!-ee"$ !"* F%oor', )he most extensi!e use of FRC has been for pa!ements"
floors and o!erlays to ta(e ad!anta&e of increased stren&th" reduced crac(in& and
thic(ness reduction$
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6!$er Re$!i"i"g S$r$&re,
resultin& in #ater ti&htness$ )he steel fibre concrete has been successfully used in
the repair of spillin& basin at )arbela ,am in a(istan$
5%!'$ Re'i'$!"$ S$r$&re, )he blast #a!e #ill cause complex stressin& of
structure in compression" tension and shear$ Fibres in con+unction #ith
con!entional reinforcement pro!ide the necessary stren&th to structure to resist
blast$
Pre#!'$ Pro*$', )he FRC can also be used for the fabrication of precast
products li(e pipes" boats" beams" #all panels" stair case steps" roof panels"
manhole co!ers etc$
6e!ri"g S&rf!#e $o E0i'$i"g 5ri*ge'?C&%-er$, FRC has been used as a #earin&
surface to existin& brid&es and cul!erts in areas especially troubled by de&radation
caused throu&h abrasion by studded tyres$
Re(!ir' !"* Reh!i%i$!$io" 6or+', FRC is cohesi!e and easy to #or( pro!ide
fibres are thorou&hly mixed in the cement matrix$ %t is an ideal material for repair
and rehabilitation #or(s$
1.7 TYPES OF FI5RES
Natural Fibre$
Steel Fibre$
lass Fibre$
Carbon Fibre$
Synthetic Fibre$
1.7.1 S$ee% Fire
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Steel fibres ha!e been used in concrete since the early 1H00s$ )he early fibres #ere
round and smooth and the #ire #as cut or chopped to the re'uired len&ths$ )he use of
strai&ht" smooth fibres has lar&ely disappeared and modern fibres ha!e either rou&h
surfaces" hoo(ed ends or are crimped or undulated throu&h their len&th$ ;odern
commercially a!ailable steel fibres are manufactured from dra#n steel #ire" from slit
sheet steel or by the melt-extraction process #hich produces fibres that ha!e a
crescent-shaped cross section$ )ypically steel fibres ha!e e'ui!alent diameters based
on cross sectional area3 of from 0"1 mm to 2 mm and len&ths from A to A mm$
/spect ratios &enerally ran&e from 20 to 100$ /spect ratio is defined as the ratio
bet#een fibre len&th and its e'ui!alent diameter" #hich is the diameter of a circle
#ith an area e'ual to the cross-sectional area of the fibre3$
Steel Fibre )echnolo&y is #idely recommended in Shotcretin& of )unnels" Slope
Stabili>ation" ;ine Roof Support" re Cast for )unnel Dinin&s" Foundation Slabs"
Roads" 9rid&es" Run#ays" )axi#ays" Factory Floorin&" re Cast #alls" Concrete
ipes" ;anhole Co!ers" and !arious other concrete applications$
Fi&$ 1$A ,ifferent )ypes of Steel Fibre
A*-!"$!ge' of S$ee% Fire
Steel Fibres result in more homo&enous mix in concrete$
Flexural strain capacity is enhanced
/dds ductility to concrete
Controls crac(s
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.oint stability
Narro# +oint #idth
Shear load transfer
Fati&ue and impact resistance
ost crac( ductility
Reduces material consumption and sa!es cost
Don&er ser!ice life
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1.7.2 G%!'' Fire
%n the form first used" &lass fibres #ere found to be al(ali reacti!e and products in#hich they #ere used deteriorated rapidly$ /l(ali-resistant &lass containin& 1@G
>irconia #as successfully formulated in the 1H@0s and by 1HA1 #as in commercial
production in the =T$
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Fi&$1$I ,ifferent )ypes of lass Fibres
1.7.3 S/"$he$i# Fire
A variety of synthetic fibre materials have been developed since
1960s for use in fibre Reinforced concrete (FRC)s !hese include
fibres such as polypropylene" nylon" carbon" aramid" polyethylene"
acrylic and polyester #n current commercial and industrial concrete
applications synthetic fibres are typically added to concrete at very
lo$ dosa%e rates" typically in the ran%e of 006 to 0&' by volume
ynthetic fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) has found its lar%est
commercial use to date in slabs on %rade" floor slabs and stay*in*
place forms in multi*storey buildin% +Concrete #nstitute of Australia
&00,-
Fi%19.ifferent !ypes of ynthetic Fibres
1.7.4 N!$&r!% Fire
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Fi& 1$10 Classifications of Natural Fibres
Natural reinforcin& materials can be obtained at lo# cost and lo# le!els of ener&y
usin& local manpo#er and technolo&y$ =tili>ation of natural fibres as a form of
concrete reinforcement is of particular interest to less de!eloped re&ions #here
con!entional construction materials are not readily a!ailable or are too expensi!e$
Sisal-fibre reinforced concrete has been used for ma(in& roof tiles" corru&ated sheets"
pipes" silos and tan(s$
Elephant-&rass-reinforced mortar has been used for lo#-cost housin& pro+ects$ Wood-
cellulose fibre reinforced cement has commercial applications in the manufacture of
flat and corru&ated sheet and non-pressure pipes$
Natural fibres can be either =nprocessed or rocessed$
1. U"(ro#e''e* Fire
roducts made #ith unprocessed natural fibres such as coconut coir" sisal" su&arcane
ba&asse" bamboo" +ute" #ood and !e&etable fibres ha!e been tested in a number of
countries$ roblems ha!e been reported #ith the lon&-term durability of some of the
products$
)he properties of concrete made usin& unprocessed natural fibres depend on a number
of factors includin& the type and len&th of fibre as #ell as the !olume fraction$ )o
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sho# some impro!ement in mechanical properties" the minimum fibre content is of
the order of G by !olume$
2. Pro#e''e* Fire
Wood cellulose is the most fre'uently used natural fibre$ %t is most commonly
obtained usin& the Traft process$ )his process in!ol!es coo(in& #ood chips in a
solution of sodium hydroxide" sodium carbonate and sodium sulphide$ ,ifferent
&rades of #ood-cellulose fibre containin& more or less of the three main constituents"
cellulose" hemi cellulose and li&na can be obtained by bleachin&$
Wood-cellulose fibre has relati!ely &ood mechanical properties compared #ith many
man-made fibres such as polypropylene" polyethylene" polyester and acrylic$
,eli&nified cellulose fibre can be produced #ith tensile stren&ths up to approximately
2"0a from selected &rades of #ood" and usin& suitable pulpin& processes$ Fibre
tensile stren&ths of 00;a can be routinely obtained usin& a chemical pulpin&
process and the more common" less expensi!e" &rades of #ood$
Ce%%&%o'e N!$&r!% Fire
Wood cellulose is the most fre'uently used natural fibre$ %t is most commonly
obtained usin& the Traft process$ )his process in!ol!es coo(in& #ood chips in a
solution of sodium hydroxide" sodium carbonate and sodium sulphide$ ,ifferent
&rades of #ood-cellulose fibre containin& more or less of the three main constituents"
cellulose" hemicellulose and li&na can be obtained by bleachin&$
Wood-cellulose fibre has relati!ely &ood mechanical properties compared #ith manyman-made fibres such as polypropylene" polyethylene" polyester and acrylic$
,eli&nified cellulose fibre can be produced #ith tensile stren&ths up to approximately
2$0pa from selected &rades of #ood" and usin& suitable pulpin& processes$ Fibre
tensile stren&ths of 00;a can be routinely obtained usin& a chemical pulpin&
process and the more common" less expensi!e" &rades of #ood$
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Reduced #ear of toolin&" healthier #or(in& condition" and no s(in irritation$
)hermal recyclin& is possible #hile &lass causes problem in combustion furnaces$
ood thermal and acoustic insulatin& properties$
1.8 T/(e' of S&((%ee"$!r/ Cee"$i$io&' )!$eri!%'
)he most commonly used supplementin& cementitious materials?mineral admixtures
for achie!in& C are*
1$ Silica Fume
2$ 9FS round ranulated 9last Furnace Sla&3
$ R/ Rise us( /sh3
5$ Fly /sh
1.8.1 Si%i#! F&e
Silica fume also referred as micro silica or condensed silica fume is another material
that is used as an artificial po>>olanic admixture$ %t is a product resultin& from
reduction of hi&h purity 'uart> #ith coal in an electric arc furnace in the manufacture
of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy$ When 'uart> are sub+ected to 20000C reduction ta(es
place and Si< !apours &et into fuels$ %n the course of exit" oxidation ta(es place and
the product is condensed in lo# temperature >ones$ %n the course of exit" Silica fume
rises as an oxidised !apour" oxidation ta(es place and the product is condensed in lo#
temperature >ones$ When the silica is condensed" it attains non-crystalline state #ith
ultra-fine particle si>e$ )he super fine particles are collected throu&h the filters$ %t
cools" condenses and is collected in ba&s$ %t is further processed to remo!e impurities
and to control particle si>e$ Condensed silica fume is essential silicon dioxide Si
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Fi&$ 1$1 roduction of Silica Fume
Fi&ure 1$1 sho#s a smelter in the days before silica fume #as bein& captured for use
in concrete and other applications$ )he Jsmo(eK lea!in& the plant is actually silica
fume$ )oday in the =nited States" no silica fume is allo#ed to escape to the
atmosphere$ / schematic of silica fume production is sho#n in Fi&ure 1$15 and a
schematic of a smelter is sho#n in Fi&ure 1$15$ )he silica fume is collected in !ery
lar&e filters in the ba& house and then made a!ailable for use in concrete directly or
after additional processin&
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Fi& 1$15 roduction lant of Silica Fume
)able 1 Chemical Composition of Silica Fume in G
Si
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A*-!"$!ge' of Si%i#! F&e
i&h stren&th concrete made #ith silica fume pro!ides hi&h
abrasion?corrosion resistance$
Silica fume influences the rheolo&ical properties of fresh concrete" the
stren&th" porosity and durability of hardened mass$
Silica fume concrete #ith lo# #ater content is hi&hly resistant to penetration
of chloride ions$
)he extreme fineness of silica fume allo#s it to fill or pac( the microscopic
!oids bet#een cement particle and especially in the !oids at the surface of the
a&&re&ate particles #here the cement particles cannot fully co!er the surface
of the a&&re&ate and fill the a!ailable space$
Silica fume can also be proportioned as a #ater reducer #ith the reduction in
#ater cementitious material ratio" so it is hydrophilic in nature" thus super
plastici>er demand for additional #ater can be minimised$
Silica fume reduces bleedin& se&re&ation of fresh concrete si&nificantly$ )his
effect is caused due to hi&h surface area$
i&hly durable concrete can be obtained by impro!in& the electrical
resisti!ity of concrete by the addition of silica fume$
1.8.2 GG5S Gro&"* Gr!"&%!$e* 5%!'$ F&r"!#e S%!g
roundranulated9lastfurnacesla&9S3isa by-productformanufactureofpi&ironand obtainedthrou&hrapidcoolin&by #ateror 'uenchin&molten sla&$erethemolten
sla& is
produced#hichisinstantaneouslytappedand'uenchedby#ater$)hisrapid'uenchin&
ofmolten sla& facilitatesformationofJranulatedsla&K$ roundranulated9lastfurnace
Sla& 9S3 is processedfrom ranulated sla&$
)hereplacementofcement#ith9S#illreducetheunit#atercontent necessary
toobtainthe
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sameslump$)hisreductionof#atercontentismorepronounced#ithincreaseinsla&
contentand
alsoonthefinenessofsla&$)hisisbecauseofthesurfaceconfi&urationandparticle shape
ofsla& bein&differentthancementparticle$Surfacehydrationofsla&issli&htly
slo#erthanthatof cement$Reductionofbleedin& isnotsi&nificant#ithsla&
of5000cm2?&finenessbutsi&nificant #hen sla&fineness of @000 cm2?&andabo!e$
round&ranulatedblastfurnacesla&no#adaymostlyusedin%ndia$Recentlyformarine out
fall#or(at9andra";umbai$%thasusedto replace cementtoaboutA0G$Soithasbecome
more popularno# aday$
Fi&$ 1$1roundranulated 9last Furnace Sla& 9S3
1.8.2 RHA Ri'e H&'+ A'h
Rice hus( ash is obtained by burnin& rice hus( in controlled manner #ithout causin&
en!ironmental pollution$ When it is properly brunt it has hi&h Si>olanic
characteristics and contributes to hi&h stren&th and hi&h impermeability of concrete$
Rice hus( ash essential consists of amorphous or non-crystalline silica #ith about I-
H0G cellular particle" G carbon and 2G T2
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po>>olanic material to &i!e almost the same properties as that of micro silica$ it
&reatly enhances the #or(ability and impermeability of concrete$
Fi
&$ 1$15 R/ Rise us(/sh3
1.8.4 F%/ A'h
Fly ash is the residue from the combustion of pul!eri>ed coal collected by the
mechanical or electrostatic precipitator from the flue &ases of thermal po#er plants$
%t consists mainly of spherical &lassy particles ran&in& from 1 to 10 micron in
diameter of #hich the bul( passes throu&h a A micron %S sie!e$ )he fly ash obtained
from electrostatic precipitators may ha!e a specific surface of about 00 to 000
cm2?&m$ %n =$T$ the fly ash is referred as pul!erised fuel ash F/3$ Fly ash is the
most #idely use po>>olanic material all o!er the #orld$
)he fly ash contains silicon oxide" aluminium oxide" unburnt carbon but the amount
of calcium oxide is cPrsiderably less$ )he carbon content in fly ash should be as lo#
as possible #hereas the silica content should be as hi&h as possible$
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Fi&$ 1$1 Fly ash
Ch!($er 2
RE9IE6 OF LITERATURE
2.1 EARLIER RESEARCHES
Some of the early research #or(s are completed to de!elop concrete by usin&
different types of po>>olonic materials li(e Fly /sh" R/" Silica Fume etc$ #ith the
replacement of cement usin& super plastici>er$ ;any fibres ha!e been used for
concrete reinforcement and some are #idely a!ailable for commercial application$
)hey include steel" &lass"natural cellulose" carbon" nylon" and polypropylene" amon&
others #hich are addin& #ith po>>olonic material to de!elop concrete$ )he literature
bein& re!ie#ed is &i!en under$
2.2 LIST OF LITERATURE TA5LE
Sr.
No.A&$hor N!e Ye!r Ti$%e of Re'e!r#h P!(er
1$ Qo&endran et al$ 1HIAEffect of silica fume and admixtures on
properties of concrete$
2$ room 1HH.ournal of materials in ci!il
en&ineerin&?No!ember 2000
$ amous and El-a#ary 1HH5.ournal of materials in ci!il
en&ineerin&?No!ember 2000
5$ /uchey and ,utta [email protected] of materials in ci!il
en&ineerin&?No!ember 2000U
$ Naaman et al$ [email protected] of materials in ci!il
en&ineerin&?No! 2000
@$ Shanna& 20009eha!iour study of natural po>>olana
and silica fume$
A$
aulo 9$ Cachim a"V"
.oa'uim /$ Fi&ueiras b"
aulo /$/$ ereira c
2001Fati&ue beha!iour of fibre-reinforced
concrete in compression
I$;oe ;oe)h#ea and Tin
Diaob2002
,urability of bamboo &lass fibre
reinforced polymer matrix hybrid
composites$
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22$ $ :inaya&am 2012
Experimental %n!esti&ation on i&h
erformance Concrete usin& Silica
Fume and Super plastici>er$
2.3 LITERATURE RE9IE6
Co"#re$e Rei"for#ee"$ i$h Re#/#%e* Fire' / H!o&' !"* E%:
H!!r/1;;4 456
)hey studied the use of chic(en feathers from poultry processin& as fibres in concrete$
)hey conducted flexural" splittin&" and compressi!e tests on a ortland cement
concrete mix #ith a #ater-to-cement ratio of 0$@ and fibre !olume fractions of 1" 2"
and G$ Do# #or(ability of fresh concrete #as obser!ed so a pro&ressi!ely lar&er
amount of super plastici>er had to be added #ith the increase of Vf$ / moderate
increase in the flexural stren&th #as obser!ed for the 1G Vfreinforcement at 15 and
2I days" and a decrease in the stren&th for the 2 and G reinforcements$ %n the
compressi!e and splittin& tensile tests" the stren&ths decreased sharply as the fibre
dosa&e rate increased$ )he authors attributed the ad!erse effect to the se!ere decay of
the feather fibres in concrete$
Effe#$ o" Si%i#! F&e !"* )e$!+!o%i" Coi"!$io" o" Co"#re$e /
9i+!' Sri-!'$!-!1< R!+e'h =&!r2< Ag!r!% 9.C312
4106
)hey carried out experimental research on Effect of Silica Fume and ;eta(aolin
combination on concrete$ 9y addition of some po>>olanic materials" the !arious
properties of concrerte!i>" #or(ability" durability" stren&th" resistance to crac(s and
permeability can be impro!ed$ Silica fume is (no#n to impro!e both the mechanical
characteristics and durability of concrete$ )he principle physical effect of silica fume
in concrete is that of filler" #hich because of its fineness can fit into space bet#een
cement &rains in the same #ay that sand fills the space bet#een particles of coarse
a&&re&ates and cement &rains fill the space bet#een sand &rains$ /s for chemical
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reaction of silica fume" because of hi&h surface area and hi&h content of amorphous
silica in silica fume" this hi&hly acti!e po>>olana reacts more 'uic(ly than ordinary
po>>olana$ ;eta(aolin is also one of such #aste? non - con!entional material #hich
can be utili>ed beneficially in the construction industry$ )his paper presents the
results of an experimental in!esti&ations carried out to find the suitability of silica
fume and meta(aolin combination in production of concrete$ )he optimum doses of
silica fume and meta(aolin in combination #ere found to be @G and 1G by #ei&ht3
respecti!ely" #hen used as part replacement of ordinary portland cement$
)hey conclude that the optimum dose of Silica fume and ;eta(aolin in combination
is found to be @G and 1G by #ei&ht3 respecti!ely at both A and 2I day compressi!e
stren&th$
)he slump is found to decreases #ith increase in ;eta(aolin content at all the Silica
fume contents considerably
Fire Rei"for#e* Co"#re$e &'i"g *oe'$i# !'$e (%!'$i# !' Fire' /
R. =!"*!'!/1!"* R. )&r&ge'!"24H6
Fibre Reinforced Concrete FRC3 is a composite material consistin& of cement based
matrix #ith an ordered or random distribution of fibre #hich can be steel" nylon"
polythene etc$ )he addition of steel fibre increases the properties of concrete" !i>$"
flexural stren&th" impact stren&th and shrin(a&e properties to name a fe#$ / number
of papers ha!e already been published on the use of steel fibres in concrete and a
considerable amount of research has been directed to#ards studyin& the !arious
properties of concrete as #ell as reinforced concrete due to the addition of steel fibres$
ence" an attempt has been made in the present in!esti&ations to study the influence
of addition of polythene fibres domestic #aste plastics3 at a dosa&e of 0$G by
#ei&ht of cement$ )he properties studied include compressi!e stren&th and flexural
stren&th$ )he studies #ere conducted on a ;20 mix and tests ha!e been carried out as
per recommended procedures of rele!ant codes$ )he results are compared and
conclusions are made$
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Fi& 2$2 Comparison of 2I days cube left3 and cylinder ri&ht3 compressi!e stren&th
test results$
Effe#$ of Si%i#! F&e o" Co"#re$e / Pree$i P. P!$e%< E%i?!e!$h
George< Dee(! A. Si"h!2>>@ 4I6
)he stren&th of concrete at early a&es is a considerable si&nificance in recent years
due to se!eral specific re'uirements of the modern construction techni'ues$o#e!er"
silica fume concrete are (no#n to ha!e early a&e stren&th and there ha!e been many
efforts to predict to impro!e this in recent years$)he #or( #as carried out for t#o
&rades ;20 and ;0 of concrete$ For the &rades of concrete the cement content"
sand" &rit" coarse a&&re&ate and #?c ratio is (ept constant$
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Fi& 2$ :ariation of Compressi!e Stren&th left3 and Flexural Stren&th ri&ht3 #ith
Silica Fume ercenta&e$
S$&*/ o" eh!-io&r o" N!$&r!% Fire Co"#re$e Co(o'i$e' &'i"g
)e#h!"i#!% S$re"g$h )i#ro'$r$&re Pro(er$ie' /
).Shi-r!B!
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/t all the curin& a&es" both the natural fibres such as coir and su&arcane fibres
enhance all the three mechanical stren&th properties such as compressi!e stren&th"
splittensile stren&th" modulus of rupture and flexural erformance$
)hou&h the natural fibres enhance the stren&th properties at earlier curin& a&es" the
rate of increments are lo#er than con!entional concrete specimen at later curin&
a&es$
SE; and E,S analyses confirmed that the boundary of fibrematrix transition
>one ha!e excellent adhesion$ )he impre&nation of calcium content on the fibre
#alls sho#ed better stren&th enhancement$
9oth the natural fibre reinforced concretes #ere less susceptible a&ainst sulphate
attac( in terms of mass loss and compressi!e stren&th deterioration$ Since the
difference obser!ed #as lar&e" application of natural fibre reinforced concrete
#ould be limited in marine areas$
Co"#re$e Rei"for#ee"$ i$h Re#/#%e* Fire' / Ahe/ !"*
D&$$!1;;8416
Conducted a study on the use of recycled ,E fibres in concrete under extreme
free>e-tha# conditions$ ,E is a plastic material often used for ma(in& containers
for food and household chemicals$ )he fibres used in the study #ere cut from mil(
containers #ith a typical dimension of 1HI-mm lon&" 1$@-mm #ide" and 1-mm
thic("and their tensile stren&th #as 5;a$ / 2I;a compressi!e stren&th concrete
mix #as used and the fibres added #ere at 0$1" 0$2" and 0$5G by !olume$ /t 2I days
after castin&" the cylinder specimens #ere sub+ected to the free>e-tha# cycles of
repeated 1-h coolin& at 220AC follo#ed by a 1-h tha#in& at 20AC$ )he dynamic
modulus of elasticity of the specimens #as monitored to indicate the internal dama&e$
)he authors found that it #as feasible to use recycled ,E fibres as a secondary
reinforcement for temperature and shrin(a&e influences in concrete structures
sub+ected to extreme free>e-tha# conditions$ )he recycled ,E fibre reinforced
specimens pro!ided an e'ual or hi&her resistance to free>e-tha# than the control
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indicated that the addition of silica fume impro!es the properties of concrete &i!in&
hi&h compressi!e stren&th" hi&h stress and strain" stresses carried by the concrete
increased by 5@$"@I$I"@$1"A$3G also the strain increased by I$"HA$I"2$I"223G
for silica fume percenta&es "10"1"203G$ for monotonic loadin&" and stresses
increased by 55$5"@I$"@$A"@$3G and strain increased by 5$I"@I$5"1$"2@$3G
for the same percenta&es under repeated loads$ Compressi!e stren&th" dissipated
ener&y" and modulus of elasticity also increased #ith increasin& silica fume
percenta&e$
Co"#re$e Rei"for#ee"$ i$h Re#/#%e* Fire' / N!!!" e$ !%.
1;;8 4A6
e in!esti&ated the effect of polypropylene fibre s from carpet #aste on the flexural
and compressi!e beha!iour of concrete and mortar$ )he fibres #ere obtained from
shredded carpet bac(in&$ )he fibre len&th ran&ed from near 0 po#der3 to about 2
mm" and about 50G of the fibre #ere shorter than mm$ Fi!e fibre !olume fractions
#ere used* 0$1" 1$0" 1$" 2$@" and $HG$ )he matrices included concrete #ith coarse
a&&re&ates" mortar #ith re&ular ri!er sand" and mortar #ith !ery fine silica sand$ )ype
% ortland cement #as used #ith a #ater-to-cement ratio of 0$@00$@$ )he study
re!ealed that the #aste polypropylene fibres #ere more efficient in matrices #ith finer
a&&re&ates$ )here #as a si&nificant impro!ement in the flexural properties #ith a
2$@G by !olume fibre reinforcement$ No si&nificant impro!ement in bendin& #as
obser!ed for Vfbelo# 1$G" and a sli&ht decrease in performance #as obser!ed #hen
Vfincreased from 2$@ to $HG$ )he compressi!e stress strain beha!iour of concrete
#as not impro!ed by the polypropylene fibres$
Cri$i#!% O'er-!$io" fro $he Li$er!$&re
Not properly defined the use of cellulose fibre #ith silica fume$
)he maximum G of silica fume to be used$
=se of silica fume #ith super plastici>er increases #or(ability and stren&th of
concrete$
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)able 2 one" that is Yone-%" Yone-%%" Yone-%%%" Yone-%:$ /lso in case of coarse a&&re&ate
maximum 20 mm coarse a&&re&ate is suitable for concrete #or($ 9ut #here there is
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no restriction 50 mm or lar&e si>e may be permitted$ %n case of close reinforcement
10mm si>e also used$
Fi& 5$1 Fine /&&re&ate and Coarse /&&re&ate
4.1.3 6!$er
Water fit for drin(in& is &enerally considered fit for ma(in& concrete$ Water should be
free from acids" oils" al(alis" !e&etables or other or&anic %mpurities$ Soft #aters also
produce #ea(er concrete$ Water has t#o functions in a concrete mix$ Firstly" it reacts
chemically #ith the cement to form a cement paste in #hich the inert a&&re&ates are
held in suspension until the cement paste has hardened$ Secondly" it ser!es as a
!ehicle or lubricant in the mixture of fine a&&re&ates and cement$
4.1.4 S&(er P%!'$i#i?er
)here are t#o types of admixtures i$e$ ;ineral admixtures and Chemical admixtures$
1 )i"er!% A*i0$&re'
Silica fume
round &ranulated blast furnace sla&
Rice hus( ash
Fly ash
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2 Chei#!% A*i0$&re
/cceleratin& admixture
Retardin& admixture
Water-reducin& admixture
/ir enterin& admixture
Super- plastici>in& admixture
Po%/#!ro0/%!$e S&(er P%!'$i#i?er
C-D is a hi&h performance" 100G poly carboxylate based polymer" specifically
de!eloped based polymer" specifically de!eloped as an effecti!e dispersant" fluid fire
and hi&h ran&e #ater reducin& a&ent for concrete and other mineral materials$ C-D is
a neutral concentrate &rade it is mainly used as a ra# material to produce differenttypes of hi&h performance #ater reducers for tar&eted industrial$ %t complies #ith
/S); C 5H5" )ype F specifications$
U'e'
C-D is a plant- added super plastici>er that is formulated to impart impro!ed
#or(ability to the concrete and to achie!e hi&h early compressi!e stren&th as
re'uired by precast industry$
C-D can be applied in #ide !ariety industry" such as the production of self-
consolidatin& concrete in precast industry" con!entional concrete production
industry e!en #ith lo# #?c ratios #hile maintainin& normal le!els of #or(ability
and so on$
A*-!"$!ge'
13 roduces concrete #ith hi&h le!els of #or(ability #ithout se&re&ation$
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23 ro!ides si&nificantly hi&her stren&ths and normal set time$
3 as excellent concrete rheolo&y and handlin& properties$
53 ro!ide impro!ed finish ability and surface finishes$
3 as superior air entrainment control$
@3 ro!ides standard #ater reduction at normal addition rates and si&nificant
#ater reduction at hi&her addition rates$
A3 as no chloride ions and non-corrosion to steel bar$
I3 %mpro!e the frost resistance and carbonation resistance of the concrete$ Do#er
dryin& shrin(a&e of the concrete by 20G or more compared to naphthalene-
based admixture$
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4.2 EPERI)ENTAL SET UP
4.2.1 Te'$ o" Fre'h Co"#re$e
ear" discussed the role of $ater and the uantity of $ater reuired
for chemical combination $ith cement and to occupy the %el pores
2e have seen that the theoretical $ater3cement ratioreuired for
these t$o purposes is about 0,4 but for hi%h performance concrete
this ration isdifferent 5se of $ater3cement ratio more than this" $ill
result in capillary cavities and less than this" $ill result in
incomplete hydration and also lac7 of space in the system for the
development of %el
4.2.2 )e!'&ree"$ of 6or+!i%i$/ / Te'$'
!he follo$in% tests are commonly employed to measure $or7ability
a) lump !est
b) Compactin% Factor !est
c) Flo$ !est
d) 8elly all !est
e) :ee ee Consistometer !est
Co(!#$i"g F!#$or Te'$
Compactin& factor of fresh concrete is done to determine the #or(ability of fresh
concrete by compactin& factor test as per %S* 11HH 1HH$ )he apparatus used is
Compactin& factor apparatus$
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)he compactin& factor test is defined as the ratio of the mass of the concrete
compacted in the compaction factor apparatus to the mass of the fully compacted
concrete$ %t in!ol!es droppin& a !olume of concrete from one hooper to another and
measurin& the !olume of concrete in the final hooper to that a fully compacted
!olume$ )he results of the compaction factor test can be correlated to slump" throu&h
the relationship is not linear$ )his test is difficult to run in the field and is not practical
for lar&e a&&re&ates compared to the slump test" the apparatus is bul(y and a balance
is re'uired to perform$
S(e#ifi#!$io"
%t consists of t#o ri&id conical hoopers and a cylinder mounted on a ri&id metal frame$)he lo#er openin& of the hoopers are fitted #ith hin&ed trapdoors ha!in& a 'uic(
release catches$ / circular metal plate is pro!ided to co!er the top of the cylinder$
Supplied complete #ith one plasterMs tro#el and tampin& rod" 1@mmdiaZ @00mm
lon&" both end rounded$
Fi&$ 5$2 Compactin& Factor /pparatus rocedure
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%3 lace the concrete sample &ently in the upper hopper to its brim usin& the hand
scoop and le!el it$
%%3 Co!er the cylinder
%%%3
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1 Compressi!e test$(#*;16/ 19;9)
& )ensile stren&th test$(#*;16/ 19;9)
$ Flexural stren&th test$%S-I1@-1HHH3
5$2$$1 Co(re''i-e Te'$ %S 1@* 1HH3 416
Compression test is the most common test conducted on hardened
concrete" partly because itis an easy test to perform" and partly
because most of the desirable characteristic properties of concreteare ualitatively related to its compressive stren%th !he
compression test is carried out on specimens cubical or cylindrical in
shape e of )est Specimens\ )est specimens cubical in shape shall be 1Z 1Z 1 cm$ %f
the lar&est nominal si>e of the a&&re&ate does not exceed 2 cm" 10 cm cubes may be
used as an alternati!e$ Cylindrical test specimens shall ha!e a len&th e'ual to t#ice
the diameter$ )hey shall be 1 cm in diameter and 0 cm lon&$ Smaller test specimens
shall ha!e a ratio of diameter of specimen to maximum si>e of a&&re&ate of not less
than to 1" except that the diameter of the specimen shall be not less than A$ cm for
mixtures containin& a&&re&ate more than G of #hich is retained on %S Sie!e 5I0$
A((!r!$&'
)estin& ;achine \ )he testin& machine may be of any reliable type" of sufficient
capacity for the tests and capable of applyin& the load &radually$ )he permissible
error shall be not &reater than ] 2G of the maximum load$ )he testin& machine shall
be e'uipped #ith t#o steel bearin& platens #ith hardened faces$
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expressed to the nearest (& per s'$cm$ /!era&e of three !alues shall be ta(en as the
representati!e of the batch pro!ided the indi!idual !ariation is not more than ] 1G
of the a!era&e$
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appear at any section" not stron& enou&h to resist the stress #ithin the middle third"
#here the bendin& moment is maximum$ %t can be expected that the t#o point loadin&
#ill yield a lo#er !alue of the modulus of rupture than the centre point loadin&$ %$S$
1@-1HH" specifies t#o point loadin&$
A((!r!$&'
)he testin& machine may be of any reliable type of sufficient capacity for the tests and
capable of applyin& the load at the rate specified in belo#$ )he permissible errors
shall be not &reater than ] 0$G of the applied load #here a hi&h de&ree of accuracy is
re'uired and not &reater than ] 1$G of the applied load for commercial type of use$
)he bed of the testin& machine shall be pro!ided #ith t#o steel rollers" I mm indiameter" on #hich the specimen is to be supported" and these rollers shall be so
mounted that the distance from centre to centre is @0 cm for 1$0 cm specimens or 50
cm for 10$0 cm specimens$ )he load shall be applied throu&h t#o similar rollers
mounted at the third points of the supportin& span" that is" spaced at 20 or 1$ cm
centre to centre$ )he load shall be di!ided e'ually bet#een the t#o loadin& rollers"
and all rollers shall be mounted in such a manner that the load is applied axially and
#ithout sub+ectin& the specimen to any torsional stresses or restraints$
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approximately A (&?s' cm?min" that is" at a rate of loadin& of 500 (&?min for the 1$0
cm specimens and at a rate of 1I0 (&?min for the 10$0 cm specimens$ )he load shall
be increased until the specimen fails" and the maximum load applied to the specimen
durin& the test shall be recorded$ )he appearance of the fractured faces of concrete
and any unusual features in the type of failure shall be noted$
Fi&ure 5$5 Flexural )est /rran&ements
C!%#&%!$io"
)he flexural stren&th of the specimen shall be expressed as the modulus of rupture fb"
#hich" if LaM e'uals the distance bet#een the line of fracture and the nearer support"
measured on the centre line of the tensile side of the specimen" in cm" shall be
calculated to the nearest 0$ (&?s'$cm as follo#s*
fb7 p Vl? bd2
#hen LaM is &reater than 20$0 cm for 1$0 cm specimen" or &reater than 1$ cm for a
10$0 cm specimen" or
fb7 pVl? bd2
When LaM is less than 20$0 cm but &reater than 1A$0 cm for 1$0 cm specimen or less
than 1$ cm but &reater than 11$0 cm for a 10$0 cm specimen
Where"
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b 7 measured #idth in cm of the specimen"
d 7 measured depth in cm of the specimen at the point of failure"
l 7 len&th in cm of the span on #hich the specimen #as supported" and
p 7 maximum load in (& applied to the specimen$
%f LaM is less than 1A$0 cm for a 1$0 cm specimen" or less than 11$0 cm for a 10$0 cm
Specimen" the results of the test shall be discarded$
5$2$$ S(%i$$i"g Te"'i%e S$re"g$h%S I1@-1HHH3
)he concrete cylinder specimen may be tested for A days and 2I days and shall be
immerse in #ater for at least 25 hours before test$ / concrete cylinder si>e 10mm
diameter and 00mm hei&ht is sub+ected to action of compressi!e force alon& t#o
opposite ed&es$ )he cylinder is placed #ith its axis hori>ontal bet#een the platens of a
testin& machine" and the load is increased until failure by splittin& alon& the !ertical
diameter ta(es place$ 9y applyin& the force in this manner" the cylinder is sub+ected to
compression near the loaded re&ion and the lar&er portion correspondin& to depth is
sub+ected to a uniform tensile stress actin& hori>ontally$ %t is estimated that the
compressi!e stress is actin& for 1?@ depth and the remainin& ?@ depth is sub+ected to
tension$
Fi&ure 5$Splittin& )ensile Stren&th )estin& on Cylinders$
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4.2.3.4 Sor($i-i$/ Te'$
)he Sorpti!ity of concrete is a 'uantity that measures the unsaturated flo#
of fluids into the concrete 4all" 1HIH6$ Sorpti!ity is a measure of the
capillary forces exerted by the pore structure causin& fluids to be dra#n in
to the body of the material$ While theoretically possible to consider the
flo# in any &eometry" it is too mathematically complex to be of any
practical use except #here there are one dimensional flo# conditions$
For one dimensional flo#" it can be stated that 4all" 1HIH6*
%7 St1?2
Where i is the cumulati!e #ater absorption per unit area of inflo# surface"
S is the Sorpti!ity and t is the elapsed time$ %n a lab situation #here the
concrete sample can be dried consistently and the flo# conditions can be
#ell defined" is it relati!ely easy to &et a &ood fit line usin& least s'uares
re&ression #hen plottin& i !s$ the s'uare root of time$ / field Sorpti!ity
test has also been de!eloped 4,eSou>a" et al$" 1HH6$
,eterminin& the Sorpti!ity of a sample in the lab is a simple" lo#
technolo&y techni'ue illustrated in Fi&ure 10$ /ccordin& to the /S);
draft standard all that is re'uired is a scale" a stop#atch and a shallo# pan
of #ater$ )he sample is preconditioned to a certain moisture condition"
either by dryin& the sample for A days in a 0^C o!en or by dryin& for four
days at 0^C and then allo#ed to cool in a sealed container for three days$
)he sides of the concrete sample are sealed" typically #ith electricianMs
tape$ )he initial mass of the sample is ta(en and at time 0 is immersed to a
depth of -10 mm in the #ater$ /t selected times typically 1" 2" " 5" " H"
12" 1@" 20 and 2 minutes3 the sample is remo!ed from the #ater" the
stop#atch stopped" excess #ater blotted off #ith a damp paper to#el and
the sample #ei&hed$ %t is then replaced in the #ater and the stop#atch
started a&ain$ )he &ain in mass per unit area o!er the density of #ater is
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plotted !ersus the s'uare root of the elapsed time$ )he slope of the line of
best fit of these points i&norin& the ori&in3 is reported as the Sorpti!ity$
4.3EPERI)ENTAL PROGRA))E
)ETHEODOLOGY
)able$;2radeExperimentalro&ramme
rade of
Concrete
G of
Silica
Fume
=se
Gof
Cellulose
Fibre
=se
No$ of
Cubes
for
Comp$
)est
No$ of
9eams
for
Flexural
)est
No$ of
Cylinders
for Split
)ensile
)est
)otal
Specimen
for A
days )est
)otal
Specimen
for 2I
days
)est
)otal
Specimen
for @
days
)est
)27
AG 0$G H H H
AG 1$0G H H H
HG 0$G H H H
HG 1$0G H H H
12G 0$G H H H
12G 1$0G H H H
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)able$5;0radeExperimentalro&ramme
rade of
Concrete
G of
Silica
Fume
=se
Gof
Cellulose
Fibre =se
No$ of
Cubes
for
Comp$
)est
No$ of
9eams
for
Flexural
)est
No$ of
Cylinders
for Split
)ensile
)est
)otal
Specimen
for A
days )est
)otal
Specimen
for 2I
days
)est
)otal
Specimen
for @
days
)est
)3>
AG 0$G H H H
AG 1$0G H H H
HG 0$G H H H
HG 1$0G H H H
12G 0$G H H H
12G 1$0G H H H
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CHAPTER 7
6OR= PLAN
7.1 6OR= PLAN
Fi& $1 Wor( lan
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TOPICSEARCH
SELECTION OFTOPIC&LITRATURE
COLLECTION
LITERATUREREVIEW
SCPOEOFWORK&OBJECTIVES
MATERIALORDER&DESIN MI!
STARTIN OFE!PERIMENTS
TESTINE!P"WO
COMPLE#TIONOFE!P"WORK
RESULTANAL$SIS ANDCOMPARISION
PRESEN#TATION
SUBMISSION&DISSERT
ATIONDEFENCE
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CHAPTER 8
REFERANCES
8.1 REFERANCES
P!(er'
416 /uchey and ,utta1HH@3 JConcrete reinforcement #ith recycled fibresK by
Qou+ian& Wan&"1 $ C$ Wu"2 and :ictor C$ Di in .
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4A6 Naamanet$el 1HH@3 JConcrete reinforcement #ith recycled fibresK by Qou+ian&
Wan&"1 $ C$ Wu"2 and :ictor C$ Di in .
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S$!"*!r*' IS Co*e'
/C% Report Committee 55" J;ethods of )est for %mpact Stren&th"K /C%"
/merica$
%ndian Standard ,esi&nation %S 1@-1HH" J;ethods of )est for Stren&th of
Concrete"K 9%S"Ne# ,elhi" 2002$
%S I* 1HA0" JSpecification for Coarse a&&re&ate and Fine a&&re&ate from
Natural Sources for ConcreteK" 9ureau of %ndian Standard" Ne# ,elhi
%S I1@* 1HHH" JSplittin& )ensile Stren&th of Concrete ;ethod of )estK" 9ureau
of %ndian Standard" Ne# ,elhi
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