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EVALUATION OF PERMANENT DEFORMATIONCHARACTERISTICS OF BITUMINOUS MIXES
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur 721302, India
By
I. Srinivasa Reddy
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Major distresses in bituminous pavements - fatigue cracking,
rutting, thermal cracking, bleeding and moisture susceptibility
Rutting - likely to be a failure that would occur in the earlystages of pavements life
Fatigue & Thermal Cracking failures old pavements thatbecome Brittle
According to the National Cooperative Highway ResearchProgram (Witczak, 1998):
Permanent deformation - selected as the most serious
problem for highways and runways in the United Statesamong all the distresses in asphalt pavements.
Fatigue cracking-rated the second most serious problem,followed by thermal cracking
Distresses in Bituminous Pavements
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Fatigue cracking
Source: Witczak (1998)
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In India, recently constructed National Highways - premature
rutting at high temperature ( long period) when subjected to
heavy axle loading along with other factors of the mix
(Reddy, 2007 ; Raoet al.
2007)
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Bituminous mixes - typically been designed with empirical
laboratory design procedures
Field experience - required to determine if the laboratory
analysis correlates with pavement performance
A common concern regarding the current mix design
practice
- whether the specifications have sufficient basis to ensure
that distresses like bleeding/flushing, rutting along wheelpaths, top-down cracking and fatigue cracking do not occur
Bituminous Mix Design
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Most transportation agencies wants to know thesuitability of bituminous mixes before it is used forconstruction
If the bituminous mix passes a rut-resistance test, itcan be used on a road (Romero and Stuart, 1998)
Bituminous Mix Design (Contd)
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Marshall Mix Design Method
In India, bituminous mixes are designed to satisfy theMarshall Mix Design criteria (MoSRT&H, 2001)
Marshall method of mix design
- Developed in 1940s
- Still the most popular and common method for design of
bituminous mixes in India
Widely felt that Marshall method is inadequate to address
the current in-service performance problems as does notindicate any performance parameters of the mix directly
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Compaction blows 75 blows on each face
Stability (N) 9000
Percent air voids (VIM) 3 -6
Per cent voids in mineralaggregate (VMA) 12 (VIM=3), 13(VIM=4),14(VIM=5)
Per cent voids filled with
bitumen (VFB)
65 75
Flow (mm) 2 4
Loss of stability on immersionin water at 600C (ASTM D 1075)
Min. 75 per cent retainedstrength
Marshall Mix Design Requirements for BC
(MoSRT&H, 2001)
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Rutting or Permanent Deformation Rutting - permanent deformation - defined as the bowl-
shaped depression in the wheel paths due to
accumulation of small amounts of unrecoverable strains
under the channelized repeated wheel loads
Fig: Bituminous pavement rutting in the wheel path
Source: Smith (2004)
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Causes of Rutting
Loading conditions Magnitude of wheel load
Tire pressure
Traffic volume
Environmental conditions Temperature
Moisture
Mix properties - Aggregate characteristics
(shape, texture and structure)
Binder type & content
Mix design
Others - structural designs to carry loads
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Heavy axle loads and higher pavement temperatures
contributes greatly towards rutting
Source: www.malvern.com
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Effect of Wheel Loading Repetitions on Permanent Deformation
Profile (Eisenmann and Hilmer 1987)
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Description
Single Axle Weight (t)
Surat-Manor Road (NH-8) Delhi-Gurgaon Road
(NH-8)
Barwa Adda-Barakar
Road (NH-2)
Ahmedabad-
Mumbai
Mumbai-
Ahmedabad
Delhi-
Gurgaon
Gurgaon-
Delhi
Dhanbad-
Kolkata
Kolkata-
Dhanbad
Average (simple) 7.31 6.35 8.09 8.55 8.57 7.92
Average
(weighted)
7.80 6.86 9.10 9.57 9.68 8.77
Maximum 20.72 16.76 21.20 20.90 21.52 22.0
Proportion(% of
total axles) of
SAW >8T
37.37 25.98 44.33 44.32 42.37 35.68
Proportion(% of
total axles) of
SAW >10T
22.36 8.39 34.58 40.11 38.61 32.74
Table: SAW Distribution for 2 Axle Truck (Koul and Chakrabarti, 1998)
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Table: Max. and Min. Pavement Temperatures in India
Place LatitudePavement Temperature (C)
Minimum Maximum
Bangalore 12058'N 11.5 58.9
Thrivandrum 8028'N 18.7 56.7
Hyderabad 17027'N 9.3 64.4
Chennai 13004'N 17.3 63.7Mumbai 18054'N 15.4 59.7
Bhopal 23017'N 4.8 66.0
Ahmedabad 23004'N 6.4 67.2
Amritsar 31055'N -0.5 66.5Delhi 28050'N 1.8 66.6
Guwahati 26006'N 6.5 59.5
Shillong 25034'N 1.5 51.3
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Rutting from weak Bituminous mix
The type of rutting most concern to bituminous mixdesigners deformation in the bituminous layers (Plasticflow or Instability rutting)
Rutting results from the bituminous mix without enough
shear strength to resist repeated heavy loads
A weak mix will accumulate small, but permanentdeformations with each vehicle pass, eventually forming a rutcharacterized by a downward and lateral movement of the
mix
Rutting of a weak mix typically occurs during the summer
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Figure: Plastic flow or Instability Rutting
Figure: Consolidation Rutting
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Viscoelastoplastic behavior of Bituminous mix
Adequate and accurate characterization of bituminous mixbehavior is necessary in order to predict the pavementperformance realistically
Bituminous mix - Time, temperature and stress dependentmaterial
Bituminous Mix behavior varies from elastic and linear visco-elastic at low temperatures and/or fast loading rates tononlinear visco-elastic, visco-plastic and plastic at high
temperatures and/or slow loading rates
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Total Strain In the Mix
Total strain of Hot Mix Asphalt = recoverable and irrecoverablestrains, some of which are time-dependent and others are time-independent (Perl et al. 1983; Sides et al. 1985; Quintus, 1994)
The total strain - four components
total
= e
+ p
+ ve
+ vp
(1)
Where
total is the total strain
e is the elastic strain, which is recoverable and time independent
ve is the visco-elastic strain, which is recoverable and time dependent
p is the plastic strain, which is irrecoverable and time independent
vp is the visco-plastic strain, which is irrecoverable and time dependent
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Schematic Representation of the various strain components in
viscoelastoplastic Material in load/unload cycle
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Test Methods for Evaluating Rutting in Bituminous Mixes
Number of procedures and equipment are being used to
evaluate the rutting potential of HMA and on these areclassified into three groups as listed below (Zhang et al.2002):
Fundamental Tests:
1. Uniaxial and triaxial tests: unconfined (uniaxial) and
confined (triaxial) cylindrical specimens in creep,repeated loading, and strength tests
2. Shear tests:
Superpave Shear Tester - Shear Dynamic Modulus
Quasi-Direct Shear (Field Shear Test)
Superpave Shear Tester - Repeated Shear at Constant
Height Direct Shear Test
3. Diametral tests: cylindrical specimens for creep orrepeated loading test, strength test
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Empirical Tests
1. Marshall Test
2. Hveem Test
3. Corps of Engineering Gyratory Testing Machine4. Lateral Pressure Indicator
Simulative Tests
1. Full-scale/ Accelerated Pavement Tests
2. Laboratory Wheel-Tracking Tests
Test Methods for Evaluating Rutting in
Bituminous Mixes (Contd )
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Ideally, laboratory tests should simulate the field conditionsand correlate well with the observed field performance.
- However in practice this is not always the case
Stress conditions in a pavement - difficult to replicate theactual loading conditions of bituminous mix in thelaboratory using fundamental tests like static creep andtriaxial tests
Specificallystress reversal on the aggregate structure as avehicle wheel passes over it are extremely complex and
cannot be precisely calculated nor replicated in alaboratory test on a sample of bituminous mix
Test Methods for Evaluating Rutting in
Bituminous Mixes (Contd)
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Response of a flexible
pavement during trafficking by
uniform load P; successive
wheel positions A and B depictcyclic loading that results in
Tensile and compressive
strains in pavement
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The currently available wheel tracking devices are
imported, very expensive and difficult (costly) to
maintain
Transportation engineering section of Civil EngineeringDepartment, IIT, Kharagpur
Indigenously developed wheel tracking device
IIT KGP Rut Tester
Design and Fabrication of
IIT KGP Rut Tester
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IIT KGP Rut Tester
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It is a multi-functional wheel tracking device useful forevaluating rutting and stripping of bituminous mixes
The wheel load is measured by load cell and can be
applied up to 500 kg
Capable of varying the temperature from ambient to 70 C
Arrangement for inducing water for evaluating stripping
and moisture susceptibility of bituminous mixes.
Facility to test beam or cylindrical samples (laboratory
prepared samples using Superpave gyratory and Marshall
compacted specimens as well as field cores)
Salient Features of IIT KGP Rut Tester
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Salient Features of IIT KGP Rut Tester (Contd)
The conventional flexible pavement can be simulated
Facility to test the specimens in dry or wet conditions
Facility to test the specimens up to 20,000 wheel load
repetitions
Data acquisition using data acquisition software and
personal computer
Facility to operate both in manual and automated modes
Easy to operate and maintain
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Control panel
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Loaded wheel moving back andforth over the Marshall Specimen
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Rut developed on the Marshall
specimen during testing
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Output display in the Computer
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Finite Element Simulation Analysis of
Rutting Test in IIT KGP Rut Tester
In this study, commercially available three dimensional finiteelement software ANSYS 8.0 (ANSYS, 2003) is used
Features of the finite element model include:
Element type
Geometry model
Material model
Boundary conditions
Load model
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Element Type
Bituminous mix - modeled using SOLID 185 elementavailable in ANSYS element library.
Defined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom ateach node: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions.
Element - plasticity, hyperelasticity, stress stiffening, creep,large deflection, and large strain capabilities.
Mixed formulation capability for simulating deformations ofnearly incompressible elastoplastic materials, and fullyincompressible hyperelastic materials.
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Figure: SOLID185 Geometry
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In order to simulate the BPA test conditions, a three-
dimensional finite element mesh is generated to represent the
beam specimen of bituminous mix
Model consists of 300 mm long, 125 mm wide and 75 mm thick
Superpave gyratory compacted specimens, Marshall
Specimens and field cores also can be tested in the BPA
Finest mesh - used on the wheel path to capture more detailedinformation
Model geometry
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3-D finite element model consists of 1210 elements with 1584
nodes representing the symmetric part of the beam specimen
Model geometry(Contd)
Directions followed:
X-axis: along the width of mold (Transverse)Y-axis: along the depth of mold (Vertical)
Z-axis: along the length of mold (Longitudinal)
Sign Convention for Strains:
+ve: Tension-ve: compression
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3-D Finite Element Mesh representing
Symmetric Part of the Beam Specimen
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Creep model (time hardening form) used in this study can bewritten in the form of creep strain rate is
cr= C1C2tC3 (2)
Wherecr= creep strain rate
= uniaxial equivalent stress
t = total time
C1, C2 and C3 = parameters related to material
properties
Each bituminous mix will have unique set of these parameters
Material model (Contd)
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Material model (Contd)
Parameter C1 changes the intercept of the creep curvewithout changing the slope on log-log scale
Parameter C2 is associated with the contact pressure,
defines the stress function in the power law equation
Parameter C3 in the creep model defines the slope of thecreep curve on log-log scale
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Specimen mold - very stiff compared to the bituminous mix,
the mold is treated as rigid and the movement of nodes
along the perimeter of beam is restricted
Degree-of-freedom perpendicular to the perimeter is
restrained while the other two degrees of freedom are
considered free
Nodes located at the bottom are assumed fixed
Boundary conditions
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Loading Model
Step load function - Multiple loading steps are used to simulatethe moving wheel load
Duration of loading time - Calculated by dividing the length ofthe wheel print by wheel speed
Initially the load step - applied at the first set of elements andmoved longitudinally to the next set of elements in the wheelpath
When the load step - applied to the last set of elements, asingle wheel pass is complete
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Loading Model (Contd)
Loading step - reversed starting from the last set ofelements and moved toward the first set of elements
This completes one load cycle, which simulates themovement of loaded wheel back and forth over the testspecimen in the BPA
Load cycle can be repeated to achieve the desired numberof repetitions
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10 Load Repetitions
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AASHTO (1989), Report of the AASHTO Joint Task Force on Rutting, published by theAmerican Association of State Highway and Transport Officials, Washington, D.C.
ANSYS, 8.0 (2003), UsersManual, ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. Bennert, T., Maher, A. and Marukic, I. (2003), Characterization of NJ HMA Part I, Report
No: FHWA-NJ-2002-027, New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton, NJ 08625. Bennert, T., Maher, A. and Walker III, L. (2001), Evaluation of a Rutting /Fatigue Cracking
Device, Report No: FHWA-NJ-2001-031, New Jersey Department of Transportation, CN600, Trenton, NJ 08625
Bonaquist, R., Sherwood, J. and Stuart, K. (1988), Accelerated Pavement Testing at theFederal Highway Administration Pavement Testing Facility, Proceedings, Association ofAsphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 67, pp: 690-716.
Brown, E. R., Kandhal, P.S. and Zhang, J. (2001), Performance Testing For Hot MixAsphalt, NCAT Report: 01-05, National Centre for Asphalt Technology, AuburnUniversity,277 Technology Parkway, Auburn, AL 36830.
Chen, J.S., Shiah, M.S. and Chen, H.J. (2001), Quantification of Coarse Aggregate Shapeand Its Effect on Engineering Properties of Hot-Mix Asphalt Mixtures, Journal of Testingand Evaluation, JTEVA, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 513519.
Cooley, A.L. Jr., Kandhal, P.S., Buchanan, S.M., Frank, F. and Epps, A. (2000), LoadedWheel Testers in the United States: State of the Practice, Transportation Research E-
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Asphalt Concrete Pavements in Lethbridge, Alberta ,Canada, Proceedings, TheAssociation of Asphalt Paving Technologies, Vol: 59, pp: 481-508.
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