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Informal learning in the workplace: the example of a dictionary
compilation team
1. AbstractThis small-scale qualitative research project explores the notion of informal
learning in the workplace, its breadth and the factors that affect the learning
process. The participants in the investigation are researchers, namely the
members of a dictionary compilation team, who work in a Research Centre in
North Greece. The study is an exploratory one and generates data gathered
from interviews. The conclusions drawn are that all the respondents highlight
the importance of workplace learning, recognizing as factors that affect
learning: the formal training, the everyday practice, and the support they have
from the others. Yet, regarding the notion of informal learning, there is scope
for make it more distinguishable, as it is largely invisible and not recognized as
learning.
2. IntroductionInformal learning in the workplace: the example of a dictionary
compilation team is the title of the project I am undertaking, and, as it is
obvious from its title, it focuses on informal learning in the workplace, i.e. in
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the Research Centre where I work. The participants in this project are five
colleagues, the researchers-members of the compilation team of a Greek-
English dictionary to which I also belong. My colleagues are both researchers,
who work permanently in the Centre, as well as teachers of Greek and English
Language, who are selected by the Greek Ministry of Education to work as
researchers in the Research Centre, which strives to promote and disseminate
the Greek language worldwide through the teaching materials it produces.
Teachers selection is renewed every year, as some of them go back to their
school and are replaced by new ones. When I carried out the investigation, the
team consisted of eight members, two experienced researchers, i.e. me and the
coordinator of this working group, and six researchers (the teachers mentioned
above); five of them agreed to participate in the study, but the sixth one denied,
as she doubted the purpose of the research, assuming that it was guided by the
Research Centre we work in.
Although all the teachers have professional knowledge on the Greek and /
or English literature, they have no previous experience of the work required in
order to compile a dictionary. The learning that occurs on this work is both
formal and informal. Yet, although formal learning can be easily recognized,
informal learning may not be distinguishable and may take place
unconsciously; for this reason I decided to explore its notion, its breadth and the
factors that affect the learning process.
The research questions addressed in this framework are the following: 1)
How much learning occurs on the job?; 2) What counts as informal learning
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in the workplace?; 3) What factors affect both formal and informal learning at
work?; and 4) How these factors affect the learning process?. The initial form
of the third question was: What factors affect informal learning at work?. Yet,
after my tutors feedback-question (regarding TMA03): Is all learning on the
job informal learning?, I modified it, in order to examine the factors that affect
both formal and informal learning at work.
Undertaking the project presented above, I decided to draw on the following
ideas in the literature of lifelong learning: a) situated learning; b) learning in the
workplace, both formal as well as informal learning; c) human capital; and d)
social capital.
The teachers-researchers, qualified with a Master Degree in Greek and / or
English literature and being competent on ICT technology, constitute the
human capital of the Centre who work in a system themselves with all of their
knowledge, experience and capacity to grow and innovate (Marsick and
Watkins, 2002). But, as soon as they are integrated into the compilation team of
our Research Centre, they have to couple this knowledge and experience, with
new learning, as they will be engaged in a new work project. Since this learning
is acquired in a social context from the relations with their colleagues, the
researchers become part of the social capital (Schuller and Field, 2002).
As factors that facilitate this learning process could be mentioned not only
the formal training of the researchers, but also their engagement in the everyday
practice and their relationships with the other researchers: the more skilled and
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knowledgeable ones, who act as experts in the whole procedure, as well as the
fellow-researchers who do the same job.
In the case of learning from the more knowledgeable researchers, critical is
a form of organized learning support, as Eraut et al. (2002) point out, with the
skilled researchers being the experts. Yet, simultaneously, all the researchers
in the certain working group, according to Eraut et al. (ibid.) term, learn
through mutual consultation and support, when they ask each other for an
advice or when they try to solve a problem (ibid.).
What is obvious from the above is that learning that occurs in the Research
Centre is largely situated and dependent on social relationships within the
workplace (Study Guide, p. 40).
3. Literature reviewReflecting on the literature, which could be relevant to my own
investigation, I found out that, above all, Eraut et al. (2002) shaped my thinking
on the theoretical background to my project. Firstly, the conclusion they
reached from their findings that while people learn at work from formal
sources, learning from people is considered to be more important (ibid.)
influenced me to investigate the blurred to me issue of informal learning in the
workplace.
Furthermore, the questions: a) What is being learned?, b) How it is being
learned?, and c) What factors affect the level and directions of learning
effort?, they had constructed as their research program was progressing, helped
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me shaping my research questions: a) How much learning occurs on the job?;
b) What counts as informal learning in the workplace?; c) What factors affect
both formal and informal learning at work?; and d) How these factors affect
the learning process?.
Eraut et al. (ibid.) view learning as situated and dependent on social
relationships within the workplace. The evidence they present, drawn from a
range of workplaces, is consistent with their sound argument for the importance
of the informal learning gained through social relations with their colleagues in
every level within the workplace.
The findings of Eraut et al.s (ibid.) interviews are that learning from formal
education and training is considered to be of secondary importance, whereas
learning from other people - in the form of organized learning support and
mutual consultation and support - and the challenge of work seem to be
prevalent dimensions of learning. These findings lead them to suggest that the
dominant assumption that learning in The Learning Society is a harvest of
formal provision needs to be balanced by a more thorough understanding of the
importance of informal learning on-the-job and of the factors that affect it
(ibid.). Regarding my own investigation, I found crucial their above mentioned
argument for elaborating the factors that facilitate learning in my own
workplace.
But, learning in the workplace still remained a complex issue for me. So, a
problem I had to overcome, which I realized after my tutors remark regarding
the TMA03, was to distinguish in my mind informal learning from not-
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structured formal learning and then to make these notions discernible to my
colleagues. Thus, I decided to explore the notion of informal learning as this is
presented in the researchers: Livingstone (2002), Eraut (2004), and Marsick and
Watkins (1990), whose articles I had access to.
After reviewing these articles, I found that their definitions of informal
learning are not only critical for shaping my thinking on the theoretical
framework of this sort of learning, but also useful for the analysis for my
project. In particular, helpful are: a) Livingstones (2002) definition that
informal learning is all these individual and collective learning activities that
we do beyond the authority and requirements of any educational institution; b)
Erauts (2004) conclusions that implicit informal learning occurs unconsciously
and new knowledge and skills are acquired without being recognized explicitly
and that deliberative informal learning refers to the engagement in deliberative
activities for which there is a clear work-based goal with learning as a probable
by-product (ibid.); and c) Marsick and Watkins (1990) remark that incidental
learning, a subcategory of informal learning, is an unconsciously occurring by-
product of some other activity, such as task accomplishment or formal learning.
According to Marsick and Watkins (ibid.), when people learn incidentally,
their learning may be taken for granted, tacit, or unconscious.
The definitions of informal and incidental learning provided both by
Marsick and Watkins (1990) as well as by Eraut (2004) have some common
elements, because they present these types of learning as being by-products of
work activities, which may occur in an unconscious way (in the case of Erauts
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implicit learning and Marsick and Watkins incidental learning) or deliberately
encouraged (in the case of Erauts deliberative learning and Marsick and
Watkins informal learning).
Livingstones (2002) definition of informal learning as individual and
collective learning activities coincides with Erauts (2004) assertion that
informal learning recognizes the social significance of learning from other
people, but implies greater scope for individual agency than socialization.
Furthermore, Erauts deliberative learning, reminds us of Livingstones
statement about the deliberate efforts to acquire new understanding, knowledge
or skill in a discernible amount of time in the framework of an informal
learning project.
Human capital and social capital are two other crucial ideas, which I draw
on in undertaking my project. To be more specific, when the qualified teachers-
researchers come to work in the Research Centre, exploiting their already
acquired knowledge, experience and capacity to grow and innovate (Marsick
and Watkins, 2002), constitute the human capital of the Centre. But, when they
are integrated into the dictionary compilation team, they have to combine their
previous knowledge and experience with the new learning, which will be
acquired in a social context through the relationships with the other researchers.
By this time, they become part of the social capital (Schuller and Field, 2002).
Coleman, as cited by Schuller and Field (2002), observes that human capital
is created by changes in persons that acquire skills and capabilities, which make
them able to act in new ways. Thus, human capital theory provides a rationale
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for investing in peoples skills, in order for them to increase their productivity
and their earnings, and in so doing to increase the productivity and wealth of
the societies they live in (Schuller, 2000). So, the notion of human capital
considers society as a collection of autonomous individuals.
But, Schuller and Field (2002) critique notions of this theory, with its
economic emphasis on the development of lifelong learning policy, and use the
idea of social capital to refer to the powerful role played by social context in
influencing what and how people learn. Based on their argument that social
capital can explain patterns of participation in Northern Ireland and on the
evidence they present, they assume that high levels of social capital lead, in
general, to higher-than-average levels of informal and non-formal learning.
Indeed, the evidence available from the example of Northern Ireland is
consistent with their view, but more empirical research projects are needed to
identify examples of communities that have comparatively low social capital in
relation to lifelong learning, in order to be possible to generalize and extend
their approach to larger, than Northern Ireland, social systems.
What could be summarized from the arguments mentioned above about
human capital and social capital theories, which is crucial for my analysis, is
Schullers (2000) assertion about the relationship between human capital and
social capital in terms of input / measure: while human capital is measured
primarily by levels of qualification achieved, social capital gives prominence to
informal modes of learning, and the skills acquired through learning-by-doing.
Moreover, Coleman (in Schuller and Field, 2002) claims that, in the context of
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work, social capital is maintained by colleagues supplying each other with ideas
and information.
4. MethodologyBeing one of the two experienced researchers in a dictionary compilation
team within the Research Centre I work, I decided to explore learning, both
formal and informal, that occurs on the work activity of compiling a dictionary.
Yet, due to the fact that formal learning can be easily recognized in the
workplace, I preferred to focus on the more blurred notion of informal learning,
its extent and the factors that affect informal as well as formal learning. Another
reason for choosing to explore informal learning at work is that the research
literature on this theme is very thin, so, as Eraut et al. (2002) stress, it must be
given more attention. Hence, in order to balance the dominant assumption that
learning in The Learning Society comes only from recognized formal provision,
there is a need to present more empirical evidence about informal learning at
work and to contribute, in this way, to the body of relevant literature.
A small-scale qualitative exploratory approach was employed, since its aim
was to investigate a little understood phenomenon, i.e. the informal learning in
the workplace, and discover the important factors that affect the learning
process (Research Methods in Education handbook, p. 145). Research
involved the collection of primary data using information from others
(Research Methods in Education handbook, p. 116), i.e. the method of face-
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to-face individual interviewing of the five participants, namely the researchers
who are the members of the dictionary compilation team.
Initially, I was intending to use one more method to collect data, this of the
participant observation, and more specifically of the observation of one meeting
of our working group. Moreover, I was planning to couple this method with
additional interviews of the participants, in order to validate the findings of my
observation and to avoid bias, as I would observe people known to me, my
colleagues. Yet, undertaking the investigation, I realized that the initial
schedule of my project work was too ambitious, a fact that my tutor also
underpinned in his feedback in respect of TMA03. Thus, after having read
Bells (2005) advise that it might be unwise to undertake participant
observation unless you are already experienced, have the time and are very
familiar with the techniques involved, I decided to conduct only the main
interviews and to set aside the observation and the additional interviews.
I thought of using the method of interviews instead of this of questionnaires,
because the former is characterized by adaptability, a feature that the latter does
not have. Thus, the interviewer can investigate motives and feelings from the
tone of voice or the facial expression, and ask the interviewee to develop and
clarify his response (Bell, 2005). Before conducting the interviews, I prepared
the topics and I wrote questions on cards, for being easier to decide the order of
questioning during each interview. To establish the validity and the reliability
of the data I was intending to collect, I told to the coordinator of our team what
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I was trying to find out and I asked her whether the questions I had devised
were appropriate to do the job (Bell, 2005).
What is obvious from the above is that the method of interview has several
disadvantages, which I had to bear in mind. The following are representative of
the pitfalls associated with this approach: a) it is a time-consuming method,
both in terms of conducting the interviews as well as of analyzing the
responses; and b) it is a subjective technique and there is always the danger to
fall into the bias trap (Bell, 2005). Since I had to interview only five
colleagues, I could manage the time required for the interviews. But, I had to be
aware of the time needed for the transcription and analysis of the data, so I
scheduled a three-week period for these procedures. Regarding the problem of
bias I tried for being vigilant and critical of my interpretation of the data.
Being an inside researcher, I tried to exploit the advantages of this status,
like the intimate knowledge of the context of the research and of the
micropolitics of the institution, and the best method for approaching my
colleagues (Bell, 2005). Yet, at the same time, I took care of any problems that
may arise from acting as an insider, such as the lack of objectivity due to the
close contact with the institution and colleagues (ibid.), or the difficulty of
guaranteeing anonymity and confidentiality (Research Methods in
Education handbook, p. 167), by discussing my interpretation of the data with
them, in order to cross-check my understanding of the situation with theirs
(ibid.).
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Before starting to collect data, I obtained the consent (Appendix 1) of those
I was going to interview, i.e. my colleagues consent (Bell, 2005), making a
very general statement about the focus of the research (Research Methods in
Education handbook, p. 167)
For addressing the research questions of my project, tape-recorded, semi-
structured interviews, based on s schedule of eight open-ended questions
(Appendix 2) were used to collect data. I selected to use open-ended questions
for the several advantages they have: people respond as they wish, they give as
much detail as they feel is appropriate, they ask for clarification of the questions
(Research Methods in Education handbook, p. 171). Furthermore, I preferred
tape recording, because it allows the interviewer to keep eye contact with the
interviewee and it guarantees the accuracy of what he writes (Bell, 2005). Yet,
as one participant did not agree for the interview to be recorded, the method of
shorthand was used, but when the interview was over, I wrote up as much as I
remembered.
All interviews were conducted over a two-week period and lasted between
fifteen and twenty-five minutes. They were carried out privately in an office of
the Research Centre at a time when the respondent and the interviewer had
mutually agreed to. Each respondent was reminded of the focus of the study at
the outset of the interview. Where was a need for clarification, the scheduled
eight questions (Appendix 2) were elucidated from the interviewer by means of
additional questions. Besides, respondents were free to talk about each topic
and give their views, which would ensure the validity of the data collected
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(Research Methods in Education handbook, p. 171). Interview recordings
were transcribed and, after being refined, extracts of them were used to develop
specific themes, which were closely related to the aims of the project. Tapes
containing the interviews were stored securely on Research Centre premises,
where they will be kept until after the report has been examined. All other
researchers of the Centre were denied access to this data.
5. Data presentation and analysisAnalysis of the findings of the research leads to the development of the
following themes: a) workplace learning; b) support from the experts; c)
working group; d) formal learning; e) assumptions about informal learning. The
data reflecting these themes are provided below, but all the names of the
participants have been substituted to ensure confidentiality. For ease of
comprehension of what follows clarifying terms are included in brackets. Yet,
due to the fact that the data presented here have been translated from Greek to
English, they may not convey well the responses of the participants.
Workplace learning
This theme relates to what participants believe they learn at work drawing
on their personal experience. All of them stress that the context of work gives
them opportunities to learn, to acquire new skills and knowledge, to have new
learning experiences:
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I learn enough, in terms of acquiring new skills I have not ever
expected. I learn to work more efficiently, more fast.
(George)
I am informed about dictionaries I had no idea they existed. I learn to
use quite different software I am forced to widen my knowledge.
(Catherine)
I was considered competent when I came to work in the Centre, but
what I learn here, the experiences I could not imagine I would acquire
these experiences.
(Julie)
Support from the experts
This theme addresses the form of support being provided to the new
researchers (participants in the investigation) from the more knowledgeable and
experienced researchers. They argue for the favorable response, for the
expertise and the intimate knowledge of the experienced researchers:
They give us direct and valid answers. Thus, we can compare what we
have learned in the particular stage of work. We are sure that we have
done a good job.
(Joanna)
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Most times the answers are direct and they show us that they are aware
of the problem and that they dont conceive it at that moment. And I
consider that always I take the best possible answer.
(George)
Some of them are moderate in their responses:
Necessarily, the experienced is the one who helps you more.
(Catherine)
If they could answer at that time, they answered. If no, they answered
later.
(Julie)
Beyond the support they have from the experts who belong to the dictionary
compilation team, one of them refers also to the support she has, to what she
learns from an experienced researcher outside the specific working group:
They answer (the experienced researchers) any query I have. They
clear up the problems. Yet, I learn from A.L. (experienced researcher)
many things that have no direct relevance to our work project.
(Helen)
Working group
This theme outlines the types of learning situation which would be
discerned during the work activity in the dictionary compilation team. All the
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participants speak about mutual consultation and support as well as about
collaborative teamwork:
One of the factors that influence learning is the collaboration.
However, there is also the interaction, namely, beyond the collaboration
with the experienced researchers, it should exist the collaboration
within the team.
(Catherine)
Whatever you (the experienced researcher) explain and I dont
understand, I consult the researchers of the working group, these ones
who do the same job with me.
(Helen)
When I am puzzled over something... at the same time I can ask another
researcher, I discuss with him and we find a solution in common.
(George)
Furthermore, it is quoted that learning occurs as a by-product of the
everyday task accomplishment within the working group:
The everyday discussion of the problems which each of us encounters,
the mutual support to continue our efforts, the development of new
approaches, which have already been adopted by another fellow-
researcher, to use the software.
(Joanna)
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Formal learning
This theme refers to the nature and the extent of learning that occurs as the
researchers are involved in formal education and trainings, which take place at
the outset of each stage of work. All of them, while they argue for the formal
trainings, they also mention everyday practice and / or collaboration. But, their
opinions differ in what they consider of major importance. So, two of them
underpin the prevalence of formal training:
The most important is the formal training and then the collaboration.
(Julie)
Trainings, manuals, references help you reflect. They give you a good
grounding. So, I think that they help you more than 50%. Yet, to reach
the desired aim, collaboration and the everyday practice are also
needed.
(Catherine)
One of them considers formal training and everyday practice of equal
significance:
First of all, the experienced researchers help me during the trainings,
because they teach me. And then, there is the everyday practice.
(George)
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The other two participants seem to value formal learning as subordinate to
the everyday practice and to the collaboration:
I think that, what I learn through the collaboration I have with the
others is what outweighs. I am not sure. I give 60% to the collaboration
and 40% to the formal training. But, I realized it after the formal
training. The training must precede to be able to compare them.
(Helen)
Formal training is of a fixed length, while all the time we learn by
experience. The trainings give me a great help, but there is a need of
everyday practice, of responses in everyday queries, in order to face and
overcome certain problems.
(Joanna)
Assumptions about informal learning
This theme incorporates what participants assume that informal leaning is,
as its notion is an issue blurred to them. Several respondents are not able to
distinguish informal learning and confuse it with structured or not-structured
formal learning:
(Informal learning is), I guess, the experiences you acquire while you
engage in formal learning; to enter, to check, to alter data in the
database.
(Julie)
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Informal (learning), I would say, that I practice to manipulate data in
the database, and, maybe, what I learn from my colleagues, the queries I
pose.
(Helen)
One of them equates informal learning with formal learning:
that in your workplace you are obliged to be trained for this work
activity, in order to cope with your job.
(George)
One of them manages to describe it more explicitly:
I would consider as informal learning the personal practice in all this
stuff that probably nobody has explained to you and that you discover
while working. Difficulties that you may encounter and you have to find
a solution by yourself or through collaboration with the fellow-
researchers.
(Catherine)
Regarding the future exploitation of what they learn informally in the
workplace, once again they are confused except the last participant mentioned
below:
I dont know if there will be a need to exploit them (the skills
acquired).
(Julie)
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We will see. It is obvious that (what I learn informally) it is necessary
for my work in the Centre.
(Helen)
Whatever I learn may be useful in the future, and the way I learn, to
learn informally is needed in whatever I do.
(Catherine)
The findings support my assumption that learning that occurs in the
Research Centre is largely situated and dependent on social relationships within
the context of work. Participants view the support they have from the experts
and the relationships with the other members of their team as factors that affect
learning at work. To be more specific, they stress the significance of learning
from other people within their group, as Eraut (2004) describes it, in the form
of: a) organized learning support, with the skilled researchers being the
experts, who could know everything and so could answer any query that a
learner might have, and b) mutual consultation and support, when they learn
mutually through the collaboration they have. A form of learning from others,
which a participant refers to, to my great surprise, was learning from people
outside the working group.
Besides, although they recognize that they constitute the human capital of
the Centre, as they insist on mentioning their already acquired knowledge and
experience, they stress that they became part of the social capital (Schuller and
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Field, 2002), as soon as they started to learn socially through the relations with
the other researchers in the context of their working group.
Regarding the issue of informal learning, although all of them refer
unconsciously to the types of implicit and deliberative informal learning, its
notion still remains difficult for them to understand, as they are not able to
make a distinction between formal and informal learning. Indeed, Eraut (2004)
arguing for the main problems that research projects, which focus on the
workplace learning, might have, assumes that: a) informal learning is largely
invisible and respondents are not aware of it, because much of it is either taken
for granted or not recognized as learning; b) the acquired knowledge is either
tacit or regarded as part of a persons general capability, but not at all as
something that has been learned; c) discourse about learning is dominated by
codified knowledge, so respondents cannot easily describe more complex
aspects of their work.
Although the approach I made use of to generate data helped me to address
the research questions, it is not without its difficulties. First of all, I studied only
five researchers, too small a sample to allow me to make generalizations to all
the researchers. Furthermore, this is a single workplace study and results may
not be applicable to other contexts. In terms of reliability, an important step I
omitted, when I designed the interview schedule, was a pilot study before
undertaking the interviews to test the interview schedule (Bell, 2005).
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Regarding the validity of the data, what I observed as I was conducting the
interviews, was that in the beginning of the interview many interviewees tried
to please me by giving acceptable rather than honest answers (Research
Methods in Education handbook, p. 145). I was able to realize this, because
being an inside researcher I have an intimate knowledge of the respondents.
Yet, by ensuring them anonymity and confidentiality (Bell, 2005) I managed to
overcome this problem and obtain valid information. Notwithstanding, if I were
to repeat the investigation, being then a more experienced researcher, I would
use one more method, beyond the interviews, to collect data, this of participant
observation, for having more valid reflections of peoples behaviour in
everyday contexts (Research Methods in Education handbook, p. 145).
6. ConclusionsThis small-scale qualitative study explores informal learning in the
workplace. One of the reasons of my initial selection of this theme was for
contributing to the relevant thin literature by presenting more empirical
evidence. But, the small sample of five researchers I studied in combination
with the fact that the context of a single workplace was used renders the
findings of the study insufficient for generalization. Nevertheless, the
conclusions I derive might have some implications for the Research Centre I
work, which supports lifelong learning by promoting and disseminating the
Greek language worldwide through the teaching materials it produces.
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To be more specific, this exploratory study leads me to draw the following
conclusions. First of all, learning that occurs in the working context, is
considered to be of great importance. The data shows that three factors affect
learning at work: a) the formal training; b) the everyday practice; and c) the
support from other people at work, either this support is of the form of
organized learning support from the experts, either of the form of mutual
consultation and support from colleagues who do the same job (Eraut et al.,
2002). So, it is acknowledged that in the context of work social capital is
maintained by colleagues who supply each other with ideas and information
(Coleman, as cited in Schuller and Field, 2002).
Besides, it is recognized that learning from formal training is of secondary
importance, a finding which is similar with that of Eraut et al.s (2002) project.
However, it is evident from the documentary evidence in this research that the
nature of informal learning remains blurred, because it is integrated with daily
routines, it is not highly conscious, it haphazard and influenced by chance
(Marsick and Volpe, as cited in Marsick and Watkins, 1990).
Thus, there is a need for the clarification of the notion of informal learning.
What has to be clear to the participants of the study as well as to all the
researchers of the Centre is that informal learning takes place wherever people
have the need, motivation, and opportunity for learning (Marsick and Watkins,
1990). This recognition might result in the increase of amount of learning at
work, in order for the Research Centre to become a Learning Organization, by
moving from systems and cultures that support individual learning towards high
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levels of collective learning, through a range of measures it will propose (Keep
and Rainbird, 2002).
Indeed, if the Research Centre, I work in, gives emphasis to a systemic
approach to learning within itself (ibid.), it might become efficient, flexible and
entrepreneurial in the current competitive and globalized world and make
available worldwide its products, i.e. the dictionary we compile, the other books
it publishes, and its website - a portal for the Greek language.
Word count: 5278
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Consent Form
(The original version of the following Consent Form is in Greek. Yet, for ease
of comprehension it is cited here in English.)
You are being asked to participate in the research study titled Informal
learning in the workplace: the example of a dictionary compilation team. The
purpose of this research study is to explore the notion of informal learning, its
breadth and the factors that affect the learning process at work. Six people are
expected to participate in this research study by their involvement in privately
conducted interviews.
The nature and the purpose of the above research study have been
explained to me; I have agreed to participate in the research study. I will
receive a signed copy of this Consent Form.
Signature of Person obtaining Consent Date
Signature of Participant Date
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Appendix 2Interviews scheduled questions
1. Could you describe your work giving some details about your everydaypractice?
2. What types of knowledge and / or skills are they needed to do your work?3. In what way and how much do formal trainings that take place at the outset
of each stage of work help you to learn your work activity?
4. In what way and how much are you helped learning your work activity fromyour engagement in the everyday practice?
5. Do the other members of the team, both experts and fellow-researchers, helpyou learn while you are doing your work activity? If yes, how does this
happen?
6. Can you conceive the difference between formal and informal learning inthe workplace? From your point of view, what counts as informal learning
in your workplace?
7. How much learning, both formal and informal, do you believe that occurs asyou engage in this work project?
8. Do you realize that, while you engage in this work project, you acquire newskills, which would help you during this work activity as well as in other
contexts?
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References
Bell, J. (2005, 4th edition) Doing your Research Project: a guide for first-time
researchers in education, health and social science, Glasgow, The Open
University Press
Eraut, M. (2004) Informal learning in the workplace, Studies in Continuing
Education, 26:2, 247-273 [online]. Available from
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Eraut, M., Alderton, J., Cole, G. and Senker, P. (2002) Learning from other
people at work in Harrison, R., Reeve, F., Hanson, A. and Clarke, J. (eds)
Supporting Lifelong Learning: Volume 1 Perspectives on learning, London,
Routledge Falmer in association with The Open University
Keep, E. and Rainbird, H. (2002) Towards the learning organization? in
Reeve, F., Cartwright, M. and Edwards, R. (eds) Supporting Lifelong
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Livingstone, D. W. (2002) Lifelong learning and underemployment in the
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N., Small, N. and Tait, A. (eds) Supporting Lifelong Learning: Volume 3
Making Policy Work, London, Routledge Falmer in association with The
Open University
Marsick, V. and Watkins, K. (1990) Informal and Incidental Learning in the
Workplace,London and New York, Routledge
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Marsick, V. and Watkins, K. (2002) Envisioning new organisations for
learning in Reeve, F., Cartwright, M. and Edwards, R. (eds) Supporting
Lifelong Learning: Volume 2 Organizing learning, London, Routledge
Falmer in association with The Open University
Schuller, T. (July 2000) 'Thinking about Social Capital', Working Papers of the
Global Colloquium on Supporting Lifelong Learning [online], Milton
Keynes, UK: Open University. Available from
http://www.open.ac.uk/lifelong-learning (accessed 15 June 2008)
Schuller, T. and Field, J. (2002) Social Capital, Human Capital and the
Learning Society in Edwards, R., Miller, N., Small, N. and Tait, A. (eds)
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