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WorkingpaperNo3(2007)
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EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnolo ies
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WorkingPaperNo3(2007) EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies
2007TheAppliedResearchInstituteforProspectiveTechnologies1
Contents
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2007TheAppliedResearchInstituteforProspectiveTechnologies2
Introduction
Energy consumption in Europe is expected to grow by 20% between now and 2020, leading to a 14%
increaseincarbondioxide(CO2)emissions.Renewableenergy(hydroelectricity,solar,wind,bioenergyand
geothermalpower)hasan importantroletoplay inreducingemissionsofgreenhousegases(suchasCO2)and also canmake important contributions to improving the security of energy supplies in the EU by
reducingtheCommunity'sgrowingdependenceonimportedenergysources.Renewableenergysourcesare
expected tobeeconomicallycompetitivewithconventionalenergy sources in themedium to long term.
Increasingtheshareofrenewableenergyintheenergybalancealsoenhancessustainability.
EUlegislationsandcommitmentstaken1,2,3,4setsacleargoaltoattain,by2010,aminimumpenetrationof
12%(from6%)ofrenewableenergysourcesintheEUalsoaddressingtheKyotoProtocol5requirementsfor
reduction of 8% of greenhouse gas emissions. Lithuania also committed to achieve the 12% share of
renewableenergy in the totalenergybalanceuntil theyear20106and toachieve that7%of consumed
electricitywouldbegeneratedfromrenewablesources
7
.
Many initiatives and industry led efforts have already started across the EU to assess the bestmix of
research and market development supports for acceleration of photovoltaic8 (PV) development. That
predictsthatwithareasonablesetof incentivesthephotovoltaicmarket intheEUcouldgrowmorethan
30%peryearoverthenext20years,from344MWofinstalledcapacityto9600MW.
Although, a number of scientific/technical, institutional and market barriers still stand in the way of
reachingthepreferredgoalsinPVindustryandthelevelofenergymarketpenetration.
Despite of large PVmarket expansion andmany research achievementsmade over the last couple of
decades, theircostsarepresently still themainobstacle foraworldwide increasedutilisationofelectric
powerprovidedbythiscleanandrenewabletechnology.ThepriceofPVsystemsisstilltoohigh,compared
withcompetingelectricitygenerationanddistributionmethods.
Inorder tobecomecompetitivewith theconventionalenergy sources,new improved solarcellconcepts
andcosteffectiveformsofapplicationsand installationsofPVmoduleshavetobedevelopedtofacilitate
furthergrowthofthesector.Theindustryislookingtodrivemodulepricesdownfrom5.75/Wp9,to3/Wp
in2010and1.51/Wpin2030.
1Energyforthefuture:renewablessourcesofenergy(WhitePaper),CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities,1997.2ProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilonthepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesources.23.01.2008
COM(2008)final3Energyforthefuture:renewablesourcesofenergy WhitePaperforaCommunityStrategyandActionPlan,EuropeanCommission,19974AEuropeanstrategicenergytechnologyplan(SETPLAN):'Towardsalowcarbonfuture'.Communicationfromthecommissiontothecouncil,the
EuropeanParliament,TheEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheregions.{SEC(2007)1508},{SEC(2007)1509},
{SEC(2007)1510},{SEC(2007)1511}.22.11.2007COM(2007)723final5KyotoProtocoltotheUNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.1997,3rdConferenceofthePartiestotheUNFCCC.6LietuvosRespublikosSeimo2002m.spalio10d.nutarimasNr.IX1130,,Dlnacionalinsenergetikosstrategijospatvirtinimo.7LietuvosRespublikosSeimo2006m.gegus11d.nutarimasNr.443,,DlNacionalinsenergijosvartojimoefektyvumodidinimo20062010met
programospatvirtinimo.8Photovoltaiccomprisesthetechnologytoconvertsunlightdirectlyintoelectricity.Thetermphotomeanslightandvoltaic,electricity.A
photovoltaiccell,alsoknownassolarcell,isasemiconductordevicethatgenerateselectricitywhenlightfallsonit.9Wp,orWattpeak,isthecommontermforwhataPVsystemiscapableofproducingunderidealcircumstances.
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There are twomain driving forces proposed by industry10 for decreasing themanufacturing costs: by
productionvolumeandbyinnovations(Figure1).
Figure1:Manufacturingcostsdrivenbyproductionvolumeandinnovations
Thevolume isneeded to stimulatemarketpartners to lowercostand to takeadvantageofeconomyof
scale.Consistentwiththetimeneededforanymajorchangeintheenergyinfrastructure,another20to30
yearsofsustainedandaggressivegrowthwillberequiredforphotovoltaicstosubstituteasignificantshare
of theconventionalenergysources.Thisgrowthwillbeonlypossible iftheprice is reducedconsiderably
(Figure2).
103rdPVIndustryForumNewStrategiesfortheBoomingPVMarket,2006
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Figure2:Projectedcostdevelopmentuntil2040PVcompetitiveness
Though themodule price decreased throughout the last decade, the price reductionwas slower than
expected.Certainlyinthelastyearsthedemandwasveryhighandtheconstructionofmanynewfacilities,
whichwill leadtoabettereconomyofscale infuture, isnotreflectedina lowerpriceyet.Inadditionthe
introductionofnewtechnologiesisnecessarytoreallyfulfilthepromiseoflowcostsolarenergyaswellas
sound fundamental research and improvements of the process and manufacturing technologies. New
developments with respect to material use, device design and new concepts to increase the overall
efficiencyareneeded.Themodulepriceisthekeyelementinthetotalpriceofaninstalledsolarsystemas
itcostrepresentsaround5060%ofthetotalinstalledcostofaPVsystem.
Therefore,thecompetitivenessofPVsystemscouldbeachievedby:
Eitherincreasingtheefficiencyofthesolarcells(i.e.increasingtheWp/m2ofcells);
Orbydecreasingthemanufacturingcost(i.e.reducingthe/Wp).
Obviously, the increase of solar cell efficiency is an important factor for the decrease of cell costs (per
generatedWp), because it reduces the costs for feedstock, crystallization andwafering by reducing the
material consumption. Although, the increment of the efficiency of the solar cells requires new
technologicalapproachesandinputfromresearch.
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GenerationsofPVCells
Firstgenerationphotovoltaics
First generation photovoltaic modules are based oncrystal silicon solar cells and demonstrate efficiencies
from 13 to 16 % (in production), with theoretical
maximum30%.Waferbasedcrystalline(monocrystalline
or polycrystalline) silicon is the dominant technology11
(Figure 3) because of wide availability and proven
reliability. This technology is well understood as it is
founded on the knowledge and technology originally
developedfortheelectronicsindustry.Yetmanufacturing
isenergy intensive,needsnumerousprocessingsteps (=
highmanufacturing costs) and highmaterials costs (for
mSi).
Secondgenerationphotovoltaics
Inanefforttoreducemanufacturingcosts,photovoltaiccellsbasedonthinfilmtechnologycalledsecond
generation solar cellswere developed. Thinfilmmodules aremade by coating and patterning entire
sheets of substrate with micronthin layers of conducting and semiconductor materials followed by
encapsulation.This leads toaprocessthatcanbehighlyefficient inmaterialsutilisation,whilethestable
efficienciesofthesemodulesareintherangeof5to15%.Themajortechnicalobstacleshamperingmarket
penetration by this technology on largescale are as follows: (i) growing of large area thin films of
homogeneousparametersatlowcostsand(ii)poorstability.
For solar cellsofbothgenerationseffortsaremademainly in improvingperformancemostnotably in
efficiency inordertoreducemodulemanufacturingcostsperWp,whichwill leadto lowersystemcosts.Thefirstgenerationproductisnearingitsoptimumprice/efficiencyincostperdeliveredWhr.However,the
predictedmoduleefficiency increment(uptothe3050%range)after2030 it isexpectedtobearesultof
successfulimplementationofthesocalledthirdornextgenerationconcepts,allowingveryefficientuseof
availablearea.
Emerginggenerationphotovoltaics
EmerginggenerationphotovoltaicsavarietyofotherPV technologiesandconversion conceptsare the
subjectof research in Europe andworldwide. They are all aimed at amodulepriceof 0.5/Wp, resp.
systempriceof1/Wp in2030,atsuperhighefficiencies(efficienciesabove25%under1sunhavetobe
demonstratedonlablevelbefore2015)atsuperhighefficienciesoratnewapplicationpossibilities.
Thisrequiresfundamentalresearch,becausereachingthetargetsrequiresathoroughunderstandingofthe
underlyingchemistry,physics,andmaterialsproperties.Hence,thenewtechnologiesareatvariousstages
ofdevelopment: fromproofofprinciple topilotproduction.Akey factor in thedecreaseof the costsof
modules isrelatedwiththemanufacturingprocessesused.Inthiscontextthere isconsiderable interest in
11 A Vision for PV Technology for 2030 and Beyond. Preliminary Report. Photovoltaic Technology Research Advisory Council (PV-TRAC). 2004
Figure3:
Production
by
technologies
in
2003
20
40
60
80
mono c-Si multi c-Si thin film other
Marketshare(%)
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replacingsinglecrystallineorpolycrystallinesemiconductor layersbynanostructured layers,onthesame
time searching for methods and experience in different research sectors to find cheap technological
solutions.Emerginggenerationcellswillbebasedonavarietyofnewconversionconceptsandprinciples,
andcurrentlycanbeconsideredtobeatthefundamentalresearchstage(Table1).Table1:Thecharacteristicsofemerginggenerationsolarcells
Parameters
TypeofSolarCell DescriptionandmaintechnicallimitationsEfficiencyin
production(%)
Lifetime
(Years)
Bandgap
(eV)
Multi
junction
Higherefficienciescouldbeachievedbyusingstacksof
semiconductorswithdifferentbandgaps(forinstance
GaAs,InP,GaInP2/GaAs,GaAs(Sisubstrate),
GaInP2/GaAs, InGaP/InGaAs/Ge).Thesearereferredtoas"multijunction"cells(alsocalled"cascade"or
"tandem"cells).Thistechnologymakesbetteruseofthe
incominglightwherebytheconversionefficiencyis
improved.Itisthemostpromising(highefficiencies
couldbeachieved)andthemostexpensivetechnology.
Figure4:Amultijunctiondeviceisastackofindividual
singlejunctioncellsindescendingorderofbandgap(Eg).
Thetopcellcapturesthehighenergyphotonsandpasses
therestofthephotonsontobeabsorbedbylower
bandgapcells
2136 0.73.4
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Dye
sensitised
photochemic
alsolarcells
(DSC)12.
Themainmaterialforsolarcellusedislowcost
nanocrystallinetitaniumdioxidewithalargeeffective
areaandorganicdyesimmersedinanelectrolyte.The
advantageofdyecellsisthattheycanbeproducedfrom
potentiallyinexpensivematerialsandbysimple
productiontechnology.Themajorchallengeistodevelop
cellsandmodulesforpowerapplications,asthatposes
forthistypeofcellsseveretemperatureconditions.
Thoughthestabilityincreasedsignificantly,itstilldoes
notmeetthestandardsofothersolarmodules.
Figure5:Dyesensitizedorganicinorganicsolarcell13
11(0.25cm2)
and8onreal
devices
Low
Variable
(depends
onmaterial
used)
Conductive
organic
polymercells
Thesedevicesarebasedonthepropertyofsomeorganic
materialstobeconductive:conjugatedpolymers.
Amongtheconductivepolymersinvestigated,themost
promisingonesarethestructurescontainingfullerene
(C60)astheacceptormaterial.Evidentadvantagesof
thistechnologyaretheexpectedlowcostmanufacturing
andthepossibilitytomakesolarcellsbytailoringthe
requiredpropertiesbymodificationsoftheorganic
molecules.Challengesaretoincreasesmallareacell
efficienciesandstabilityunderoutdoorconditions.
>5 Low
Variable
(depends
onmaterial
used)
12PVNET,EuropeanRoadmapforPVR&D,2004.
13http://www.oechemicals.com/dictionaryMZ.html
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Figure6:Anorganicsolarcellmadeupofseveral
layers
Quantum
solarcells
Thesecellsusequantumconfinementtomodifythe
electronicstructureinordertodecouplecurrentand
voltageandthusincreasingefficiency.Theeffectis
demonstratedusingIII/Vsolarcellshavinglayerswithathicknessinthenanoscalerange.Thechallengeistofind
lowcostsystemsthatcanusethesameprinciple.
Figure7:
Electron
transport
through
astructure
of
nanoparticles(left)andmoreorderednanotubes
(center)isshown.Atright,differentwavelengthsof
lightcanbeabsorbedbydifferentsizedquantumdots
layeredinarainbowsolarcell.Imagecredit:
Kongkanand,etal.2008ACS
>5%
Variable
(depends
onmaterial
used)
Nonanomaterialsarepresentlycommerciallyusedintheapplicationfieldofphotovoltaics.14Thematerials
arestillinafundamentalresearch,proofofprincipleandtestphases.Themainchallengesforthe
applicationofnanomaterialsintheenergysectoraretheimprovementofefficiencyandreductionofcosts
aswellasreliability,safetyandlifetime.Obviously,theincreaseofsolarcellefficiencyisanimportantfactor
forthedecreaseofcellcosts(pergeneratedWp),becauseitreducesthecostsforfeedstockand
manufacturingbyreducingthematerialconsumption.Theincrementoftheefficiencyofthesolarcells
14SWOTAnalysisConcerningtheUseofNanomaterialsintheEnergySector.PreparedunderFP6SSAprojectNanoroadSME:Developmentof
AdvancedTechnologyRoadmapsinNanomaterialSciencesandIndustrialAdaptationtoSmallandMediumsizedEnterprises(ContractnoNMP4CT
2004505857)
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requiresnewtechnologicalapproachesandtheinputfromresearch(basedonprinciplesofdevicephysics,
efficienciesashighas5060%arepredicted15,16).
Newtechnologiescanbecategorisedas:17
Optionsprimarilyaimedatverylowcost(whileoptimisingefficiency):
- Advancedinorganicthinfilmtechnologies(e.g.polysiliconthinfilm,spheralCISapproaches);
- Organicsolarcells(e.g.Graetzelcell,bulkdonoracceptorheterojunctionsolarcells);
- Thermophotovoltaicsolarthermalconcentrationsystemsorcogenerationsystems.
Optionsprimarilyaimedatveryhighefficiency(whileoptimisingcost):
- Tailoring the solar spectrum with the active semiconductor layer relying on up and down
conversion layers and plasmonic effects. Surface plasmons generated upon interaction between
lightandmetallicnanoparticleshavebeenproposedasamean to increase thephotoconversion
efficiencyinsolarcellsbyshiftingenergyintheincomingspectrumtowardsthewavelengthregion
wherethecollectionefficiency ismaximalorby increasingtheabsorbancebyenhancingthe local
fieldintensity.Theapplicationofsucheffectsinphotovoltaicsisdefinitelystillinaveryearlystage.
- Novelactivelayerswithreduceddimensionality(quantumwellsquantumwiresquantumdots).
Byintroducingquantumwellsorquantumdotsconsistingofalowbandgapsemiconductorwithina
hostsemiconductorwithwiderbandgap, thecurrentmightbe increasedwhile retaining (partof)
the higheroutput voltageof thehost semiconductor. Thisapproach aims atusing the quantum
confinementeffecttoobtainamaterialwithahigherbandgap.
- The collectionofexcited carriersbefore they thermalize to thebottomof the concernedenergy
band (e.g.hot carrier cells).The reduceddimensionalityof theQDmaterial tends to reduce the
allowable phonon modes by which this thermalization process takes place and increases the
probabilityofharvestingthefullenergyoftheexcitedcarrier.For most of emerging approaches the present emphasis is on basic material development, advanced
morphological and optoelectrical characterization and modelling as to predict the behaviour and
performanceunderillumination.
Nanomaterials with potential for exploitation in active layers with reduced dimensionality are
nanocomposites, consisting either of: (i) a nonnanocrystallinematrix of onematerial filledwith either
nanoparticlesornanofibersofanothermaterial;or(ii)nanonanocompositeswiththesizeofallconstituent
materials grains in thenanometer range (e.g.quantumdots, core shellnanoparticles, carbonnanotube
polymer nanonanocomposites, metalceramic nanonanocomposites, oth.). Synthesis and assembly
strategiesofnanomaterialsaccommodateprecursors from liquid,solid,orgasphase.18
Theyemploybothchemical and physical deposition approaches and similarly rely on either chemical reactivity or physical
15M.C.Beard,K.P.Knutsen,P.Yu,J.M.Luther,Q.Song,W.K.Metzger,R.J.Ellingson,A.J.Nozik.MultipleExcitonGenerationinColloidalSilicon
Nanocrystals.NANOLETTERS.ReceivedJune22,2007.16NCPVandSolarProgramReviewMeetingProceedings,2003,USA
17AStrategicResearchAgendaforPhotovoltaicSolarEnergyTechnologyResearchanddevelopmentinsupportofrealizingtheVisionfor
PhotovoltaicTechnology.PreparedbyWorkingGroup3Science,TechnologyandApplicationsoftheEUPVTechnologyPlatform.March200718JiaGraceLu,PaichunChang,ZhiyongFan.QuasionedimensionalmetaloxidematerialsSynthesis,propertiesandapplications.Availableonline
23May2006
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compaction to integrate nanostructure building blockswithin the finalmaterial structure. Themethods
employed to produce nanostructured materials are numerous (main production processes in use are
Chemical Synthesis (solgel, thermaldecomposition areused,oth.),Coating techniques (PhysicalVapour
DepositionorChemicalVapourDeposition),andPatterning(ElectronBeamLithography;XrayLithography,
ScanningProbeMicroscopy),witheachmethodhavingadvantagesanddisadvantagesdependingon the
desired properties or application.The product quality and application characteristics of nanostructured
materialsdependstronglyon thesizedistribution,morphologyandstateofaggregation, i.e. thesizeand
number of primary particles defining the degree of aggregation. Fundamental research by process
simulation is needed to provide the understanding of the particle and nanostructure formation
mechanisms. Combinedwith detailed analysis of particle size andmorphology and their impact on the
function at hand, it is possible to customise nanostructured products, providing distinct performance
advantagesforspecificapplications.
StrategicR&DtopicsforemergingPVtechnologies
ThemainissuesforemergingPVtechnologiesare:17
Poorstabilitynotmeetingthestandardsofothersolarmodules;
Thepresent35%(exceptmultijunctions)isonlyasteppingstoneformuchhigherefficiencies;
Poorunderstandingof the separationofgeneratedchargedcarriers, transportprocessesand the
relation between structure and function. This requires better processes andmaterials based on
fundamentalchemicalandphysicalknowledgeandnewdesigns;
Thetolerancetoimpuritiesisnotknownyet(thecostrisesexponentiallywithpurityrequirements),
therefore,onecannotasureifsuchsolarcellbemadeinastandardenvironment.
Insummaryitcanbestatedthatwithintheperiod20072013,fortheemergingPVtechnologies19(Table2),
issues like efficiency improvement, stability and encapsulation and the development of firstgeneration
modulemanufacturingtechnologywillbedominant.Forthenoveltechnologies20(Table3)theemphasisin
the coming yearswill be rather on nanotechnologyrelated items (nanoparticles, growth and synthesis
methods)andthefirstdemonstrationofconceptsbasedontheuseofsuchmaterialswithinfunctionalsolar
cells.IthastobeemphasizedthatforpartoftheemergingaswellasforallthenovelPVtechnologiesthese
developmentsrequiretheoreticalandexperimentaltoolsallowingtheunderstanding,themanufactureand
thecharacterizationofthemorphologicalandoptoelectricalpropertiesonnanoscale.Forthesubsequent
timeperiods20142020andbeyond2020themostpromisingconceptsaretobeselectedandimplemented
19ThecategoryEmergingisusedforthosetechnologieswhichhavepassedtheproofofconceptphaseorcanbeconsideredaslongerterm
optionsforthetwoestablishedsolarcelltechnologiescrystallineSiandthinfilmsolarcellsforwhichclearlydefineddisruptivedevelopmentsare
stilltobemade.20ThetermNovelisusedfordevelopmentsandideaswhichcanleadtopotentiallydisruptivetechnologies,butwherethereisnotyetclarityon
practicallyachievableconversionefficienciesorcoststructure.
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withanincreasedemphasisonaspectslikecost,upscaling,manufacturingandsustainabilitywhenmoving
toverylarge>10GWp/yearproductionscenarios.
Table2:
R&D
issues
for
emerging
technologies
Basiccategory Technology Aspects 20072013 2014202020202030and
beyond
Material Deposition
technology
Device Parallel
interconnection
Performance 14%
SpheralCIS
solarcell
Cost N/A
Industrial
implementation
>12%on
industriallevel
=0.50.8/Wp
Material ImprovingpolySi
electronicquality,
depositionup
scalingPerformance 14%/monolithic
moduleprocess
Advancedinorganic
thinfilmtechnologies
Thinfilm
polycrystalline
Sisolarcells
Cost N/A
Industrial
implementation
>1214%on
industriallevel=0.50.8/Wp
Implementation
ofadvanced
conceptsofsolar
spectrum
tailoringinultra
thinsolarcellsto
reach
15years
Performance 15%
Dyesolarcells
Cost N/A
Industrial
implementation
>10%on
industriallevel=
0.50.8/Wp
Material Improvedandstablepolymers,
stabilizationof
nanomorphology
for5years
Lowcostencapsulation
materialsto
guarantee
stability>15
years
Device Printing
technology
Organic
multijunctions
Organic
multijunctions
Performance 15% >10%on
industriallevel
Organicsolarcells
Bulkheterojunction
Cost N/A =0.50.8/Wp
Implementation
ofadvanced
conceptsofsolar
spectrum
tailoringtoreach
8%
Electrical
efficiency>8%
Thermophotovoltaics
Cost N/A
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Table3:R&Dissuesfornoveltechnologies
Basiccategory Technology Aspects 20072013 20142020 20202030and
beyond
Material Deposition
technology
Nanoparticle
synthesis
Metallic
intermediate
bandbulk
materials
Morphological
and
optoelectronic
characterization
Idem
Device Firstfunctional
cellsunder1sun
orconcentration
Labtypecell
Selection
Performance N/A >30%
Novelactivelayers Quantumwells
Quantumwires
Quantumdots
Nanoparticle
inclusionin
host
semiconductor
Cost N/A N/A
Upscalingof
mostpromising
approaches
requiringlow
costapproaches
fordeposition
technology,
synthesis,cell
andmodule
technology
compatiblewith
modulecosts10%
improvementrelativeto
baseline
Updown
converters
Cost N/A N/A
Material Metallic
nanoparticle
synthesiswith
controloversize,
geometryand
functionalization
Stabilityof
boostinglayer
materials
Device First
demonstrationon
existingsolarcell
typesunder1sun
orconcentration
Labtypecell
Selectionof
mostpromising
approaches
Performance N/A >10%
improvement
relativeto
baseline
Boostingstructuresat
theperipheryofthe
devise
Exploitationof
plasmonic
effects
Cost N/A N/A
Upscalingof
mostpromising
approaches
requiringlow
costapproaches
forsynthesisof
required
materials.
Depositionor
applicationtechnologyof
peripherallayers
withmodule
costs
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