Verbs (1) Function Function: Verbs can be main verbs or
Auxiliaries (helping verbs); Main verbs always function as the main
element of a verb phrase. They can stand on their own as a verb
phrase, or they can follow other verbs called auxiliaries??:
Because the verb phrase is the pivotal element of a clause, and
every verb phrase contains a main verb. Therefore, it is good to
start analyzing a sentence by looking for the (main) verb
first.
Slide 3
Test: Consider this example: Which word is the main verb? One
morning the little girl was hurrying along the street.
Slide 4
Verbs (2) Form, inflections Verb forms ( inflections ) Regular
vs. Irregular Plain form S-formed-forming-formen-form
RegularAskAsksAskedAskingAsked
IrregularWriteWritesWroteWritingWritten
Slide 5
Verbs (2) Form Some verbs, have derivational suffixes like ise,
ize (realize/realize) and ify (clarify), but these are not terribly
important. Each verb has up to five different inflectional forms,
(plain form, s-form, ed-form, ing-form and en-form) most verbs
behave regularly, and have forms like those of ask. For irregular
verbs (about 200 in English), ed-form and en-form can vary in
different ways (e.g. we call the en- forms 'en-forms' because they
sometimes have the distinctive suffix en (e.g. eaten, written),
instead of ed. The plain form of a verb is the form without any
suffix.
Slide 6
Verbs (3) Meaning Verbs can express: actions, events, states,
etc. Such 'goings on' can be physical (e.g. eat) mental (e.g.
think), perceptual (e.g. see), social (e.g. buy), and so on. An
easy test for a verb is: Can the word vary its form from present
tense to past tense? The plain form and the s- form are used for
the present tense, while the ed-form is used for the regular past
tense. E.g. happen is a verb because we can contrast Nothing
happens (present tense) with Nothing happened (past tense).
Slide 7
Adverbs Adverbs Adverbs are a particularly vague class of words
to define. We can distinguish three major types of adverb: but
there is considerable overlap between them. Most adverbs add some
kind of circumstantial information (of time, place, manner, etc.)
to the state of affairs expressed in the main part of the clause:
E.g. [(We) (sold) (the car) (hurriedly) (yesterday)]
Slide 8
Adverbs Some adverbs modify adjectives and other adverbs in
terms of degree (e.g. fairly new, very hurriedly). Sentence
adverbs, which apply semantically to the whole clause or sentence,
express an attitude to it, or a connection between it and another
clause or sentence: E.g. [(so) (the whole thing) (was) (frankly)
(too awful for words)]. All three types can be illustrated with the
same adverb, seriously, which is a circumstantial adverb. Compare:
1.They listened to her complaints seriously. ('in a serious
manner') 2.This cake is seriously scrumptious. (to a serious
degree) 3.Seriously, do you mean that? ('I'm asking you
seriously')
Slide 9
Adverbs (1) Function the primary function of an adverb is to be
head (or main word) of an adverb phrase. It can stand alone as a
minimal adverb phrase, or it can be preceded and/or followed by
another word, which is often itself an adverb. E.g. 1. [She spoke
(softly)]. 2. [She spoke (very softly indeed)]. 3. [She spoke (too
softly for me)]. These examples show us a second function: an
adverb can act as modifier in an adjective phrase (e.g., very,
rather, quite and somewhat) or in an adverb phrase (e.g., very,
indeed and too)
Slide 10
Adverbs (2) Form Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to an
adjective. a few adverbs resemble adjectives, in having comparative
and superlative forms: E.g. soon, sooner, soonest; well, better,
best. there is a major group of adverbs that have no suffix and do
not resemble adjectives. Among these adverbs are some of the most
common: E.g. now, then, so, too, etc.
Slide 11
Adverbs (3) Meaning Adverbs can express many different types of
meaning, especially as adjuncts in the clause. We can only give
some important categories; Test: to distinguish them, it is useful
to use a question test; e.g. Where...? Where did Stefan go? He went
home.
Slide 12
Some types of adverbs Types of Adverb Eliciting Question
Examples?? Adverb type How? Manner adverb Where to? Place adverb
Where to? Direction adverb Where from/to? Time-when adverb When?
Frequency adverb How often? Degree adverb To what degree? Sentence
adverbs (e.g. fortunately, probably, actually, and however) can be
divided to: 1. Attitude or stance adverbs: (e.g. fortunately,
perhaps, actually, surely) -- [(fortunately) (elephants) (cant
fly)]. 2. Connecting adverbs: (e.g. so, moreover, however,
therefore, though) -- [(some of them) (can run) (pretty fast),
(however)]
Slide 13
Function word' classes There are seven function word classes.
Unlike 'content word' classes they have relatively few members, so
it is possible to identify each of them by listing their members.
But as the term 'function word' implies, it is their functional
role that is most important, and on which we will focus.
Slide 14
Determiners Determiners begin noun phrases, and are sometimes
obligatory. If the head of a noun phrase is a singular count noun,
then some determiner has to be added. SO *[(Dog) (bit) (man)]. Vs.
[(The dog) (bit) (a man)] The, a, an are the most common
determiners, and are important they are called respectively, the
definite article and the indefinite article. Common determiners:
the, a/an, this, that, these, all, some, any, no, every, each,
many, which, what, his, our.
Slide 15
Pronouns Pronouns are words which are in a sense 'dummy' nouns
or noun phrases, because they have a generalized or unspecific
meaning. E.g. the pronoun she can refer to any female person,
because they usually stand alone in noun phrases, we consider
pronouns to be the head of such phrases, though they are limited as
to what words can be added to them. (e.g. we cannot say *a strange
it or *the old everybody. Some common pronouns: me, mine, myself,
we, he, she, it, they, this, that, these, everything; some, many,
who, which, what.
Slide 16
Compare: Is there an overlap between determiners and pronouns??
Consider the following sentences: [(this juice) (is) (much too
sweet)] Vs. [(this) (is) (an excellent drink)]
Slide 17
Numerals Numerals include: Cardinal numbers (e.g. one, two,
three,... ten,... 29) Ordinal numbers (first, second, third,...
tenth,... 134th). they are exceptional as a function word class: as
there is an infinite number of numerals. However, the vast majority
of the numerals are compounds made up from a few basic number
words. E.g. two hundred and twenty (or 220) is composed of the
basic numerals two, hundred and twenty. Some basic numerals: one,
two, three, four, five, ten, eleven, twenty, eighty, hundred,
thousand, million first, second, third, fourth, fifth, tenth,
eleventh, twentieth, hundredth, thousandth
Slide 18
Prepositions Prepositions introduce prepositional phrases, and
express relations of possession, place, time, and many other
meanings: (of the world), (by it), (on the coldest night of the
year). Some common prepositions: (in order of frequency) I of, In,
to, for, with, on, by, at, from, as, into, about, like, after,
between, through, over There is large overlap between prepositions
and adverbs, particularly adverbs of place or direction: Compare:
[(I) (looked) (up the chimney)]. Vs. [(I) (looked) (up)].
Slide 19
Conjunctions Conjunctions, like prepositions, are introductory
linking words; but they often introduce clauses rather than
phrases. They subdivide into two different classes: Subordinating
conjunctions (e.g. in order of frequency that, as, if, when, than,
because, while, where, although, whether, before, since, so)
Coordinating conjunctions (e.g. in order of frequency and, but, or,
nor)