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IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction 11111

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IIIIINTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTION

With the tropical climate and unstable landforms, coupledwith high population density, poverty, illiteracy and lack ofadequate infrastructure, India is one of the most vulnerabledeveloping countries to suffer very often from various naturaldisasters, namely drought, flood, cyclone, earth quake, landslide,forest fire, hail storm, locust, volcanic eruption, etc. Whichstrike causing a devastating impact on human life, economyand environment. Though it is almost impossible to fully recoupthe damage caused by the disasters, it is possible to:

(i) minimize the potential risks by developing early warningstrategies,

(ii) prepare and implement developmental plans to provideresilience to such disasters,

(iii) mobilize resources including communication andtelemedicinal services, and

(iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reconstruction.

Space technology plays a crucial role in efficient mitigationof disasters. While communication satellites help in disasterwarning, relief mobilization and tele-medicinal support, earthobservation satellites provide required database for pre-disasterpreparedness programmes, disaster response, monitoringactivities and post-disaster damage assessment, andreconstruction, and rehabilitation. The article describes therole of space technology in evolving a suitable strategy fordisaster preparedness and operational framework for theirmonitoring, assessment and mitigation, identifies gap areas

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction22222 33333

and recommends appropriate strategies for disaster mitigationvis-à-vis likely developments in space and ground segments.

Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcaniceruptions, fires, flood and cyclones are natural hazards that killthousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitatand property each year.

The rapid growth of the world's population and its increasedconcentration often in hazardous environment has escalatedboth the frequency and severity of natural disasters. With thetropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled withdeforestation, unplanned growth proliferation non-engineeredconstructions which make the disaster-prone areas merevulnerable, tardy communication, poor or no budgetaryallocation for disaster prevention, developing countries suffermore or less chronically by natural disasters.

Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disaster.Among various natural hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floodsand cyclones are the major disasters adversely affecting verylarge areas and population in the Indian sub-continent. Thesenatural disasters are of (i) geophysical origin such asearthquakes, volcanic eruptions, land slides and (ii) climaticorigin such as drought, flood, cyclone, locust, forest fire.

Though it may not be feasible to control nature and to stopthe development of natural phenomena but the efforts couldbe made to avoid disasters and alleviate their effects on humanlives, infrastructure and property. Rising frequency, amplitudeand number of natural disasters and attendant problem coupledwith loss of human lives prompted the General Assembly of theUnited Nations to proclaim 1990s as the International Decadefor Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) through a resolution44/236 of December 22, 1989 to focus on all issues related tonatural disaster reduction. In spite of IDNDR, there had beena string of major disaster throughout the decade.

Nevertheless, by establishing the rich disaster managementrelated traditions and by spreading public awareness the IDNDRprovided required stimulus for disaster reduction. It is almostimpossible to prevent the occurrence of natural disasters and

their damages. However it is possible to reduce the impact ofdisasters by adopting suitable disaster mitigation strategies.

The disaster mitigation works mainly address the following:

(i) minimise the potential risks by developing disaster earlywarning strategies,

(ii) prepare and implement developmental plans to provideresilience to such disasters,

(iii) mobilise resources including communication and tele-medicinal services and

(iv) to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction.

Disaster management on the other hand involves:

(i) pre-disaster planning, preparedness, monitoringincluding relief management capability.

(ii) prediction and early warning.

(iii) damage assessment and relief management.

Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involveswith different regions, different professions and differentscientific fields, and has become an important measure forhuman, society and nature sustainable development.

ROLE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGYROLE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGYROLE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGYROLE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGYROLE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY

Space systems from their vantage position haveunambiguously demonstrated their capability in providing vitalinformation and services for disaster management.

The Earth Observation satellites provide comprehensive,synoptic and multi temporal coverage of large areas in realtime and at frequent intervals and 'thus'-have become valuablefor continuous monitoring of atmospheric as well as surfaceparameters related to natural disasters. Geo-stationary satellitesprovide continuous and synoptic observations over large areason weather including cyclone-monitoring. Polar orbitingsatellites have the advantage of providing much higherresolution imageries, even though at low temporal frequency,which could be used for detailed monitoring, damage assessmentand long-term relief management.


The vast capabilities of communication satellites areavailable for timely dissemination of early warning and real-time coordination of relief operations.

The advent of Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) andUltra Small Aperture Terminals (USAT) and phased-arrayantennae have enhanced the capability further by offering lowcost, viable technological solutions towards management andmitigation of disasters.

Satellite communication capabilities-fixed and mobile arevital for effective communication, especially in data collection,distress alerting, position location and co-ordinating reliefoperations in the field. In addition, Search and Rescue satellitesprovide capabilities such as position determination facilitiesonboard which could be useful in a variety of land, sea and airdistress situations.

Table : Applications of space remote sensing inTable : Applications of space remote sensing inTable : Applications of space remote sensing inTable : Applications of space remote sensing inTable : Applications of space remote sensing indisaster managementdisaster managementdisaster managementdisaster managementdisaster management

Disaster Prevent ion Preparedness (Warning) Relief

Ea rthquakes Mapping geologica l lineaments land use

Geodynamic measurements ofst ra in accumula t ion

Locate stricken areas, m apdam age

Volcan ic erupt ions

Topographi and land use maps

Dete ction /m easu re m en t of gase ou s e miss ions

Mapping lava flows, ashfalls and laha rs,m ap dam age

Landslides Topographic and land use maps

Rainfa ll,s lope s tability Mapping slide area

F lash floods Land use maps Local ra in fa ll me asurem e nts Map flood dam age

Ma jor floods F lood pla in maps; land use maps

Regional ra infa ll;evapot ranspira t ion

Map exten t of floods

Storm surge Land use and land cover maps

Sea sta te;ocean sur face wind velocit ies

Map extent of dam age

Hurr icanes Synoptic w e ath er fore casts Map extent of dam age

Tornadoes Nowcasts; loca l wea ther Local weather observa t ions

Map am ount, exten t of dam age

Drought Long ranged c lim ate m ode ls Monitor ing vegeta t ive biomass;

Normal -Opera t ional or needs very lit t le research

Under lined -Research and development required

Bold -Requires improved observa t ion capability

Italics -Requires improved spa tia l or temporal resolu t ion

DROUGHTDROUGHTDROUGHTDROUGHTDROUGHT

Drought is the single most important weather-relatednatural disaster often aggravated by human action. Drought'sbeginning is subtle, its progress is insidious and its effects canbe devastating. Drought may start any time, last indefinitelyand attain many degrees of severity. Since it affects very largeareas for months and years it has a serious impact on economy,destruction of ecological resources, food shortages and starvationof millions of people. During 1967-1991, droughts have affected50 percent of the 2.8 billion people who suffered from all naturaldisasters and killed 35 percent of the 3.5 million people wholost their lives due to natural disasters. Owing to abnormalitiesin the monsoon precipitation, in terms of spatial and temporalvariation especially on the late on set of monsoon, prolongedbreak and early withdrawal of monsoon, drought is a frequentphenomenon over many parts of India. In India, thirty threepercent of the area receives less than 750mm rainfall and ischronically drought-prone, and thirty five percent of the areawith 750-1125mm rainfall is also subject to drought once infour to five years. Thus, 68 percent of the total sown areacovering about 142 million hectares are vulnerable to droughtconditions. India has faced three major droughts in this century-1904-1905,1965-66 and 1986-87. The 1987 drought had a lastingimpact on one-third of the country. The role of space technologyin drought mitigation is enumerated hereunder:

Drought PreparednessDrought PreparednessDrought PreparednessDrought PreparednessDrought Preparedness

Drought mitigation involves three phases, namely,preparedness phase, prevention phase and relief phase. In caseof drought preparedness, identification of drought prone areasinformation on land use and land cover, waste lands, forestcover and soils is a pre-requisite. Space-borne multi spectralmeasurements hold a great promise in providing suchinformation.

Drought PredictionDrought PredictionDrought PredictionDrought PredictionDrought Prediction

Remote sensing data provide major input to all the threetypes rainfall predictions; namely such as long-term seasonal


predictions, medium range predictions and short-termpredictions. Global and regional atmospheric, land and oceanparameters (temperature, pressure, wind, snow, El-Nino, etc.)required for long-term prediction, could be generated fromobservations made by geo-stationary and polar orbiting weathersatellites such as INSAT and NOAA.

In the medium range weather prediction, the NationalCentre Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) usessatellite-based sea surface temperature, normalised differencevegetation index, snow covered area and depth, surfacetemperature, altitude, roughness, soil moisture at surface leveland vertical sounding and radio sonde data on water vapor,pressure and temperature, and vertical profile data in the T86/NMC model. In the short-range rainfall prediction also INSAT-based visible and thermal data are being used.

Drought MonitoringDrought MonitoringDrought MonitoringDrought MonitoringDrought Monitoring

Drought monitoring mechanisms exists in most of thecountries using ground-based information on drought-relatedparameters such as rainfall, weather, crops condition and wateravailability, etc. Conventional methods of drought monitoringin the various States in India suffer from limitations withregard to timeliness, objectivity, reliability and adequacy(Jeyaseelan and Thiruvengadachari, 1986). Further, theassessment is generally, influenced by local compulsions. Inorder to overcome the above limitations,-sponsored a projecttitled 'National Agricultural Drought Assessment andMonitoring System (NADAMS)' and sponsored by the Dept. ofAgriculture and Cooperation and Dept. of Space Dept. of Space(DOS) was taken up by the National Remote Sensing Agencyin collaboration with the India Meteorological Department(IMD), Central Water Commission (CWC) and concerned StateGovernment agencies.

The focus has been on the assessment of agricultural droughtconditions in terms of prevalence, relative severity level andpersistence through the season. Satellite-derived VegetationIndex (VI) which is sensitive to vegetation stress is being usedas a surrogate measure to continuously monitor the drought

conditions on a real-time basis. Such an exercise helps thedecision makers in initiating strategies for recovery by changingcropping patterns and practices. Initially, NDVI derived fromNOAA-AVHRR data was used for drought monitoring biweeklydrought bulletins have been issued between 1989 to 1991, andreports on monthly detailed crop and seasonal condition duringkharif season (June to October) have been brought out since1992 at district level.

The project covers eleven agriculturally important anddrought-vulnerable States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.

With the availability of Indian Remote Sensing satellite(IRS) WiFS data with 188m spatial resolution, the methodologyis being updated to provide quantitative information on sowings,surface water spread, and taluk / mandal /block level cropcondition assessment along with spatial variation in terms ofmaps. The IRS WiFS-based detailed monitoring has beenopertionalised for Andhra Pradesh State in 1998, andsubsequently extended to Orissa and Karnataka.

Drought ReliefDrought ReliefDrought ReliefDrought ReliefDrought Relief

The State Governments are primarily responsible for bothshort-term and long-term relief management. The NADAMSprovide detailed assessment of drought conditions for providingshort-term relief.

Long-term ManagementLong-term ManagementLong-term ManagementLong-term ManagementLong-term Management

Several chronically drought-affected districts in Indiaexperience acute shortage of drinking and irrigation water. Toaddress this issue, a nationwide project titled 'Integrated Missionfor Sustainable Development (IMSD)' was taken up incollaboration with other DOS centres and State Remote SensingApplications Centres. The project essentially aims at generatinglocale-specific action plan for development of land and waterresources on a micro watershed basis in drought-prone areasof the country using IRS data. In the first phase, 175 districtscovering 84 million ha has been covered (Rao,1998).


For providing safe drinking water to rural masses, anationwide project titled "National Drinking Water TechnologyMission", was launched by Department of Space (DOS) incollaboration with other State Remote Sensing ApplicationsCentres, and Central Ground Water Board and State Groundwater Departments. Ground water potential maps showingground water prospect at 1:250,000 scale have been preparedfor entire country. The success rate achieved by drilling wellsthrough the use of remote sensing data has been found to bemuch better than those achieved by conventional means.Furthermore, as a follow-up large scale (1:50,000) mapping ofground water prospects for Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, AndhraPradesh, Karnataka and Kerela under Rajiv Gandhi NationalDrinking Water Mission is in progress.

CYCLONECYCLONECYCLONECYCLONECYCLONE

The intense tropical storms are known in different part ofthe world by different names. In the Pacific ocean, they arecalled 'typhoons', in the Indian ocean they are called 'cyclones'and over North Atlantic, they are called 'hurricane'. Amongvarious natural calamaties, tropical cyclones are known toclaim a higher share of deaths and distruction world over.Records show that about 80 tropical cyclones form over theglobe every year.

India has a vast coast line which is frequently affected bytropical cyclones causing heavy loss of human lives and property.Cyclones occurs usually between April and May (called pre-monsoon cyclonic storms) and between October and December(called post-monsoon cyclonic storms). While cyclonic stormscan't be prevented, the loss of lives and damage to the propertiescan be mitigated if prompt action is taken after receiving timelywarnings.

Cyclone WarningCyclone WarningCyclone WarningCyclone WarningCyclone Warning

Meteorologists have been using satellite images formonitoring storms for about thirty years. One of the mostimportant applications in this endeavour is to determine thestrength and intensity of a storm. In the late 1960's,

meteorologists began observing tropical cyclones at morefrequent intervals. The infrared sensors aboard polar orbitingsatellites began providing day-and-night observations whilegeo-stationary satellite provided the continuous coverage duringdaytime. There exists a very efficient cyclone warning systemin India which is comparable to the best known in the world.The approach essentially involves the prediction of the trackand intensity of the cyclone using conventional as well assatellite and radar-based techniques (Kellar, 1997).

A network of 10-cyclone detection radar covering entireEast and West Coasts is being used for cyclone warning eachwith a range of 400 km. When cyclone is beyond the range ofcoastal radar, its intensity and movement is monitored withthe help of INSAT, and NOAA series of satellites. The INSATprovides every three-hourly cloud pictures over the Indiansubcontinent. For precise location, every half-an-hour picturesare used. Warnings are issued by the Area Cyclone WarningCenters (ACWS) located at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay; andCyclone Warning Centers (CWC) located at Bhubaneswar,Visakhapatnam and Ahmedabad. Around 100 disaster warningsystems have been installed in cyclone-prone villages of AndhraPradesh and Tamilnadu. It is planned to expand such facilitywith another 100 DWS in Orissa and West Bengal on the Eastcoast. The DWC disseminates warning of impending event tovillage administration, District Collector, State Governmentofficials, etc. The most memorable use of DWS system has beenduring the cyclone that hit the Andhra Pradesh coast on may9, 1990, in evacuating over 1,70,000 people. The informationhelped saving thousands of lives and livestock in this area.Additional DWS units are being established to cover the entirecoastal areas of the country.

Cyclone ManagementCyclone ManagementCyclone ManagementCyclone ManagementCyclone Management

The most striking advantage of the earth observationsatellite data has been demonstrated during the recent Orissasuper-cyclone event. A severe cyclonic storm with a wind speedabout 260 kmph hit the Orissa coast at Paradip on 29-oct-99causing extensive damage to human life, property, live stock


and public utilities. The National Remote Sensing Agency actedpromptly and provided spatial extent of inundated areas usingpre-cyclone IRS LISS-III data collected on 11th October, 1999and Radarsat Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) data of 2ndNovember, 1999 since cloud-free optical sensor data over thecyclone-hit area were not available.

The map showing inundated area as on 2nd Nov, 1999 wasdrapped over topographical map, and was delivered to theOrissa Government on 3rd Nov,1999. Information, thusgenerated, was effectively used by various departments of OrissaGovernment involved in relief operations. Subsequently, therecession of inundated areas was also studied using Radarsatand IRS data of 5th,8th,11th,13th and 14th November, 1999.An estimated 3.75 lakh ha in Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara,Bhadrak, Balasore, Jajpur, besides Cuttack, Khurda and Puridistricts had been found to be inundated. In addition, the cropdamage assessment was also made and maps along with block-wise statistics derived using pre-and post-cyclone NDVI imagefrom IRS WiFS data were also provided to Orissa Government.

FLOODSFLOODSFLOODSFLOODSFLOODS

India is the worst flood-affected country in the world afterBangladesh and accounts for one-fifth of the global death countdue to floods. About 40 million hectares or nearly 1/8th ofIndia's geographical area is flood-prone. An estimated 8 millionhectares of land are affected annually. The cropped area affectedannually ranges from 3.5 million ha during normal floods to10 million ha during worst flood. Flood control measures consistsmainly of construction of new embankments, drainage channelsand afforestation to save 546 towns and 4700 villages. Opticaland microwave data from IRS, Landsat ERS and Radarsatseries of satellites have been used to map and monitor floodevents in near real-time and operational mode. Information oninundation and damage due to floods is furnished to concerneddepartments so as to enable them organising necessary reliefmeasures and to make a reliable assessment of flood damage.Owing to large swath and high repetivity, WiFS data from IRS-1C and-1D hold great promise in floods monitoring.

Based on satellite data acquired during pre-flood, flood andpost-flood along with ground information, flood damageassessment is being carried out by integrating the topographical,hydrological and flood plain land use/land cover information ina GIS environment. In addition, spaceborne multispectral datahave been used for studying the post-flood river configuration,and existing flood control structures, and identification of bankerosion-prone areas and drainage congestion, and identificationof flood risk zones.

Flood Disaster Impact MinimizationFlood Disaster Impact MinimizationFlood Disaster Impact MinimizationFlood Disaster Impact MinimizationFlood Disaster Impact Minimization

Flood forecasts are issued currently by Central WaterCommission using conventional rainfall runoff models with anaccuracy of around 65% to 70% with a warning time of six totwelve hours. The poor performance is attributed to the highspatial variability of rainfall not captured by groundmeasurements and lack of spatial information on the catchmentcharacteristics of the basin such as current hydrological landuse / land cover, spatial variability of soils, etc.

Incorporation of remote sensing inputs such as satellite-derived rainfall estimates, current hydrological land use / landcover, soil information, etc. in rainfall-runoff model subsequentlyimproves the flood forecast. Improvements in flood forecastingwas tested in lower Godavari basin in a pilot study titled"Spatial Flood Warning System". Under this project, acomprehensive database including Digital Elevation Model(DEM) generated using Differential Global Positioning System(DGPS), hydraulic/hydrologic modeling capabilities and aDecision Support System (DSS) for appropriate relief responsehas been addressed in collaboration with concerned departmentsof Andhra Pradesh Government. Initial results have been quiteencouraging. The deviation in the flood forecast from actualriver flood has been within 15%.

EARTHQUAKEEARTHQUAKEEARTHQUAKEEARTHQUAKEEARTHQUAKE

Earthquakes are caused by the abrupt release of strain thathas built up in the earth's crust. Most zones of maximumearthquake intensity and frequency occur at the boundaries


between the moving plates that form the crust of the earth.Major earthquakes also occur within the interior of crustalplates such as those in China, Russia and the south-east UnitedStates. A considerable research has been carried out to predictearthquakes using conventional technologies, but the resultsto date are inconclusive. Seismic risk analysis based on historicearthquakes and the presence of active faults is an establishedmethod for locating and designing dams, power plants andother projects in seismically active areas.

Landsat-TM and SPOT images, and Radar interferogramshave been used to detect the active faults (Merifield and Lamer1975; Yeats et al.1996; Massonnet et al. 1993). Areas rockedby Landers earthquake (South California) of magnitude 7.3were studied using ERS-1 SAR interferometry which matchedextremely well with a model of the earth's motion as well asthe local measurements (Masonnet and Advagna 1993). Activefaults on the seafloor could also be detected by side-scan sonarsystem (Prior et al, 1979).

The earthquake prediction is still at experimental stage.Successful prediction of minor earthquake have, however, beenreported. Among the major earthquakes, Chinese scientistspredicted an earthquake 1-2 days ahead in 1975 (Vogel, 1980).Information on earthquake is,generally, obtained from a networkof seismographic stations. However, very recently the spacegeodetic techniques and high resolution aerial and satellitedata have been used for earthquake prediction. Space geodetictechnique with Global Positioning System (GPS) provides anaccuracy of a centimetre over 1000 km and, thus, helps inmeasuring the surface deformations and monitoring acceleratedcrystal deformations prior to earth quakes with requiredaccuracy.

Earthquake risk assessment involves identification ofseismic zones through collection of geological / structural,geophysical (primarily seismological) and geomorphologic dataand mapping of known seismic phenomena in the region, (mainlyepicenters with magnitudes). Such an effort calls for considerableamount of extrapolation and interpolation on the basis ofavailable data. There is also a tendency for earthquake to occur

in "gaps" which are in places along an earthquake belt wherestrong earthquake had not previously been observed.

The knowledge of trends in time or in space helps in definingthe source regions of future shocks (Karnik and Algermissen,1978). Satellite imagery could be used in delineating geotectonicstructures and to clarify seismological conditions in earthquakerisk zones. Accurate mapping of geomorphologic featuresadjoining lineaments reveals active movement or recent tectonicactivity along faults.

The relationship between major lineaments and the seismicactivity has been observed in Latur area of Maharastra, India.Space techniques have overcome the limitations of groundgeodetic surveys/measurements and have become an essentialtool to assess the movement/displacements along faults/plateboundaries to even millimetre level accuracy.

Using Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), it hasbeen possible to record accurately the plate movement of theorder of centimetre along baseline of hundreds of kilometre.Similarly, satellite-based Global Positioning system (GPS) hasemerged as a powerful geodetic tool for monitoring (geological)changes over time which is the key for understanding the long-term geo-dynamical phenomena.

GPS has been particularly useful in measuring the morecomplex deformation patterns across plate boundaries wherelarge and regional scale strain builds up. Plate movements,slips along faults etc. have been measured using differentialGPS to an accuracy of sub-centimetres.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONVOLCANIC ERUPTIONVOLCANIC ERUPTIONVOLCANIC ERUPTIONVOLCANIC ERUPTION

Many times precursors of volcanic eruptions have beenobserved in various areas of volcanic activity. Grounddeformations, changes in the compositions of gases emittingfrom volcanic vents, changes in the temperatures of fumaroles,hot springs and crater lakes as well as earth tremors arepreceding volcanic eruptions. Thermal infrared remote sensinghas been applied for volcanic hazard assessment. However,deficiencies of equipment and coverage suggest that thermal


infrared has not been adequately evaluated for surveillance ofvolcanoes. The National Remote Sensing Agency hasdemonstrated the potential of multi-temporal Landsat-TMthermal band data in the surveillance of active volcanoes overBarren island volcano which erupted during March 1991 toSeptember 1991 (Bhatacharya et al. 1992). In the last threedecades, aircraft and satellite-based thermal infrared (TIR)data have been used extensively to detect and monitor manyof the active volcanoes around the world.

Repetitive coverage, regional scale, and low cost of thermalinfrared images from satellites make it an alternative tool formonitoring volcanoes. Although the spatial resolution of NOAAenvironment satellite is too coarse to record details of surfacethermal patterns, the plumes of smoke and ash from volcanoescould be detected which is useful in planning the rehabilitationof affected areas. Studies have shown that the upward migrationof magma from the earth's crust just before eruption inflatesthe volcanic cone. Such premonitory signs can easily and quicklybe detected with the aid of differential SAR interferometry.Extensive calibrations in a variety of test areas have shownthat by using this technique, changes on the earth's surface canbe detected to a centimetre accuracy.

LANDSLIDESLANDSLIDESLANDSLIDESLANDSLIDESLANDSLIDES

Aerial photographs and large-scale satellite images havebeen used to locate the areas with the incidence of landslide.Higher spatial resolution and stereo imaging capability of IRS-IC and-1D enable further refining the location and monitoringof landslides.

A number of studies have been carried out in India usingsatellite data and aerial photographs to develop appropriatemethodologies for terrain classification and preparation of mapsshowing landslide hazards in the Garhwal Himalayan region,Nilagiri hills in south India and in Sikkim forest area.

Such studies have been carried out using mostly aerialphotographs because of their high resolution enabling contourmapping with intervals of better than 2m in height. The

availability of 1m resolution data from the future IRS missionmay help generating contour maps at 2m intervals makingthereby space remote sensing a highly cost effective tool inlandslide zonation.

CROP PEST AND DISEASESCROP PEST AND DISEASESCROP PEST AND DISEASESCROP PEST AND DISEASESCROP PEST AND DISEASES

One of the successful programmes where space technologyhas been used in risk assessment from crop pests/diseases isthe Desert Locust Satellite Applications project of the UN/FAOfor the International Desert Locust Commission. Temporal andspatial distribution of desert vegetation and rainfall derivedfrom NOAA-AVHRR data have been used to identify thepotential Locust breeding grounds.

In India, the desert locust is epidemic over 2 lakhs sq.kmspread over Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana states. Improveddesert locust forecasting system is being tried with the help ofsatellite data by the locust warning organizations by narrowingdown the potential breeding areas to undertake aerial sprayingfor arresting further growth of locust.

FOREST FIREFOREST FIREFOREST FIREFOREST FIREFOREST FIRE

Several thousands of hectares of forests are burnt annuallydue to manmade forest fires causing extensive damage to forestwealth. The behaviour of forest fire depends upon threeparameters: fuel, weather, and topography. Each parameterhas several characteristic parameters.

The most important task in the preparedness phase is toassess the risk. For risk assessment variables such as land use/land cover, demography, infrastructure and urban interfaceare considered. Effective mitigation of forest fire involves fuel(land cover, weather, terrain, vegetation type and moisturelevel) mapping, identification of fire risk areas, rapid detection,local and global fire monitoring and assessment of burnt areas.

The analysis of near-real time low spatial resolution (1km)and high repetivity data from NOAA and high spatial resolutiondata with low repetivity from earth resources satellites couldprovide the information on areas under fire. The IRS satellite

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data have been used for monitoring forest fires over NagarholeWild Life Sanctuary of Southern India.

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

Apart from loss of human lives, natural disasters inflictsevere damage to ecology and economy of a region. Spacetechnology has made significant contribution in all the threephases, i.e. preparedness, prevention and relief of disastermanagement. With a constellation of both INSAT and IRSseries of satellites, India has developed an operationalmechanism for disaster warning especially cyclone and drought,and their monitoring and mitigation. However, prediction ofcertain events likes earthquake, volcanic eruption and flood isstill at experimental level. Developments in space-based earthobservation and weather watch capabilities in future may helprefining existing models/approaches for prediction of such eventsand their management.

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DDDDDISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER R R R R RISKISKISKISKISK M M M M MANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT P P P P PROGRAMMEROGRAMMEROGRAMMEROGRAMMEROGRAMME

Through Participation of Communities and Local SelfGovernments Summary of the Programme: UNDP has beensupporting various initiatives of the central and stateGovernments to strengthen disaster management capacitiesfor nearly a decade. UNDP proposes to accelerate capacitybuilding in disaster reduction and recovery activities at thenational level and in some of the most-vulnerable regions inthe country through community-based and gender sensitiveapproaches with two sub-national Networking Hubs. It isdesigned to assist the states in the country, which are mostprone to natural disasters such as Gujarat, Orissa, Bihar, TamilNadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,Uttaranchal, Assam, Meghalaya and Sikkim. The thematicfocus will be on awareness generation and education, trainingand capacity development for mitigation and betterpreparedness in-terms of disaster risk management and recoveryat community, district and state levels, and strengthening ofstate and district disaster management information centers foraccurate and timely dissemination of warning. Specializedsupport to Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) would be providedto enable them to set up the institutional and administrativesystem for disaster risk management.

The overall goal of the programme is "S ustainable Reductionin Disaster Risk in some of the most hazard-prone districts inthe selected States of India".

Eastern and Western India have been suggested as thepreferred locations of the two Networking Hubs for disaster

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risk management as they are strategically located in terms oflessons learnt from the disasters they have experienced in thepast. They have all the features of 'disaster-prone' areas giventheir high degree of vulnerability. These two networking hubswill also facilitate better liasioning with state counterparts andwould contribute to UNDP's national efforts in strengtheningcapacities for disaster risk management. This programme wouldalso dovetail all national programmes supported by UNDP,especially pro-poor initiatives, uncertainty reduction, andvulnerability adaptation and assessment under the UNFramework for Convention on Climatic Change. To achieve theprogramme results, resources required for the DRM programmein 125 most-hazard prone districts of 12 States would beapproximately US$ 27 million over a period of six years.

This programme forms the nucleus of a much largerprogramme for which resources would be mobilized under amulti-donor framework constituted by Govt of India to achievethe overall goal of the programme.

Govt of India-UNDP have earlier approved US$ 2 millionfrom CCF-I to initiate the programme in 28 districts of Orissa,Bihar and Gujarat along with national level capacity buildingsupport to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).

The Community based approach that was envisaged in theprogramme has been well-received by communities, PanchayatiRaj Institutions (PRIs) and State Governments in the 3 pilotstates in Phase I, where successful partnerships have beenestablished with Governments, civil society, as well as privatesector. A group of international and national experts evaluatedthe approach and process under this programme, and rated itas an effective and sustainable initiative. The team also notedthat the approach and scale make it a pioneering initiative.Following the successful initiation of activities in Phase I, TheGovernment of India has formulated The National DisasterManagement Framework and Roadmap for the country withUNDP support, making this programme a platform for futureNational initiatives in disaster risk management. TheGovernment of India has taken initiative in mobilising resourcesfor this programme from bilateral and other funding partners.

It is now proposed to utilize additional US $ 5 million for(1) National and state level vulnerability reduction strategies(2) development of risk and vulnerability reduction indices (3)multi-hazard preparedness and mitigation plans in 45 districtsin ten most-disaster prone states of India.

Need for creativity, flexibility and multiple partnerships inimplementation of this Programme are crucial factors and thus,MHA would execute the programme under National Execution(NEX) guidelines with UNDP Country Office Support for theresources from Country Cooperation Framework.

SITUATION ANALYSISSITUATION ANALYSISSITUATION ANALYSISSITUATION ANALYSISSITUATION ANALYSIS

The Indian sub continent is highly prone to natural disasters.Floods, droughts, cyclones and earthquakes are a recurrentphenomenon in India. Susceptibility to disasters is compoundedby frequent occurrences of manmade disasters such as fire,epidemics etc. Between 1988 and 1997, disasters killed 5,116people and affected 24.79 million every year. The changingtopography due to environmental degradation has also increasedthe vulnerability of the country. In 1988, 11.2 % of total landarea was flood prone, but in 1998 floods inundated 37%geographical area. Two major disasters that India hasexperienced in the recent past are the Super cyclone in Orissa(1999) and the Earthquake in Gujarat (2001).

Frequent disasters lead to erosion of development gainsand restricted options for the disaster victims. Physical safety-especially that of the vulnerable groups-is routinely threatenedby hazards. These two major disasters have very clearlyillustrated that we need multi-hazard prevention, responseand recovery plans for natural hazards so that threat to humanlife and property is minimized.

Disaster risk management is essentially a developmentproblem and thus any preparedness and mitigation planningwill have to be taken up in tandem with environmental concernsthat the country is facing today. The Government of India hasset up a National Committee on Disaster Management (NCDM)under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister. The


recommendations of this National Committee would form thebasis of national disaster risk management programme andstrengthening the natural disaster management and responsemechanisms. The High Powered Committee [HPC] on DisasterManagement was earlier constituted in August 1999. Themandate of the HPC was to prepare Disaster ManagementPlans at National, State and District level and also suggeststrengthening of existing arrangements. The recommendationsof the HPC relating to the distribution of relief and humanresource development that primarily concerns the States havebeen communicated to the States for appropriate action. TheMinistry of Home Affairs in the National Government is thenew nodal ministry for disaster management.

Disaster management is deemed to be a 'state subject' anddifferent states have initiated efforts to strengthen their agenciesresponsible for disaster management. Orissa State DisasterMitigation Authority (OSDMA) and Gujarat State DisasterManagement Authority (GSDMA) were constituted after twomajor disasters that the respective states experienced. Theyare autonomous agencies of the respective state governments,and UNDP has been working closely with both these agencies.

UNDP's partnerships with the national and stateinstitutions have been based on the links that natural disastershave with scarcity, inequality and vulnerability.

This Programme essentially aims at strengtheningcommunity, local self-governments and district administrations'response, preparedness and mitigation measures in some of themost vulnerable districts [ref: Vulnerability Atlas, GoI] alongwith states' and national response.

The key element of this programme is establishing linkagesbetween the Government and civil society response plans andcapacity building of Government institutions and the local self-governments in disaster mitigation, preparedness and recovery.Panchayati Raj and Urban Planning Institutions at all levelsin the selected districts would be directly involved in theplanning process to ensure sustainability of these initiatives.A wide representation of women is envisaged in this project

during the planning process. Self-help groups of women in theprogramme areas would be directly involved in the disasterrisk management programme. This project will work closelyrelevant Government departments and institutions at thenational and State levels. Learnings from this programme willfeed into the national capacity building programmes of theGovt of India, and the global knowledge base on disaster riskmanagement.

PROGRAMME STRATEGYPROGRAMME STRATEGYPROGRAMME STRATEGYPROGRAMME STRATEGYPROGRAMME STRATEGY

UNDP intends to support national and state efforts indisaster management with emphasis on the most multi-hazardprone districts by strengthening the capacities of thecommunities, local-self governments and districts to deal withfuture disasters. This programme design is based on UNDPsupport to the states of Orissa and Gujarat after the twodisasters these states experienced. There is a need for capacitybuilding at each level: community, and local self-governmentsin both urban and rural areas, district and state administrationand national institutions.

On the basis of the Vulnerability Atlas prepared by BuildingMaterials Promotion and Technology Council (BMPTC),Government of India, UNDP and Ministry of Home Affairshave identified 199 multi-hazard prone districts in the country.UNDP would focus on all multi-hazard prone districts in selectStates, which are extremely vulnerable to natural hazardssuch as Gujarat, Orissa, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Assam,Meghalaya and Sikkim for a comprehensive programme ondisaster risk management. In this programme, a multi-prongedstrategy would be adopted:

• Support to Ministry of Home Affairs for ensuringadministrative, institutional, financial and legalmechanisms for disaster risk management.

• Support National Government [MHA] efforts instrengthening its role in community and local self-governments' preparedness and response, including


support to National Civil Defense College [NCDC] &National Fire Service College [NFSC].

• Comprehensive disaster risk management programmein the selected 125 most vulnerable districts falling inGujarat, Orissa, Bihar, Tamilnadu, West Bengal,Maharashtra, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Assam,Meghalaya and Sikkim in two phases.

These states are exposed to various natural disastersand strengthening disaster prevention, response andrecovery in all multi-hazard prone districts wouldminimize disaster risk. The programme componentswould include the following:

— Development of state and district disastermanagement plans.

— Development of disaster risk management andresponse plans at Village/ Ward, Gram Panchayat,Block/Urban Local Body levels.

— Constitutions of Disaster Management Teams andCommittees at all levels with adequaterepresentation of women in all committees and team.(Village/ Ward, Gram Panchayat, Block/Urban localbody, District and State.)

— Capacity building of Disaster Management Teamsat all levels. Special training for women in first aid,shelter management, water and sanitation, rescueand evacuation, etc.

— Capacity building in cyclone and earthquakeresistant features for houses in disaster-pronedistricts, training in retrofitting, and constructionof technology demonstration units.

— Integration of disaster management plans withdevelopment plans of local self-governments.

The Super Cyclone (1999) and the floods of 2001 in Orissahave many lessons to offer in design of effective disastermanagement systems for cyclones and floods. Similarly, Gujarat

has many best practices to offer in earthquake response andrecovery. UNDP has been working very closely with the keystakeholders in these two states.

UNDP would support Governments, civil societyorganizations and institutions in the programme states, inreplicating and enhancing the successful initiatives incommunity based disaster reduction and recovery in Orissaand Gujarat in the 125 most hazard-prone districts. DisasterRisk Management can be addressed in three ways: structuralmeasures, non-structural measures and establishing failsafecommunication networks.

Structural measures would reduce the impact of disastersand non-structural measures would enhance the managementskills and improve capacities of the community, local self-governments, urban bodies and the State authorities to prepare,prevent & respond effectively to disasters. Non-structuralmeasures are of utmost importance, and include vulnerabilitymapping, risk assessment analysis, hazard zoning, inventoryof resources to meet the emergency, etc.

The project envisages the following:

• Appropriate specialized support to Ministry of HomeAffairs (MHA) for setting up the system and frameworkfor disaster risk management.

• Development of national/state database on vulnerability,disaster risk management and sustainable recovery.

• Strengthening National and State Governments throughsupport for hardware and software for disaster riskmanagement and capacity building of institutions.

• Awareness campaigns on disaster mitigation andpreparedness for each programme state.

• Support to include disaster management in schoolcurriculum and schedule to drills in disaster preventionand response for schools.

• Promoting partnerships with academic institutions andprivate sector in development of disaster riskmanagement plans.


• Development of training manuals in DisasterManagement for District, Block, Gram Panchayat,Villages/Wards for each State in vernacular languages.

• Capacity building activities for all stakeholders includingcivil society organizations in the rescue, relief andrestoration in disaster situations, and the use ofequipment involved.

• District multi-hazard preparedness and mitigation plansintergrating Block/ULB, Gram Panchayat, Village/Wardplans which would involve vulnerability mapping, riskassessment and analysis, hazard zoning, resourceinventory, response structure, etc

• Strengthening disaster management information centersin programme states and districts for accuratedissemination of early warning and flow of informationfor preparedness and quick recovery operations.

• Dissemination of cost effective alternate technologiesfor hazard resistant housing-including retrofitting/rooftop rainwater harvesting features as long-termmitigation measures.

• Developing Vulnerability and Risk Indices, and annualVulnerability and Risk Reduction Reports for creatingbenchmarks to measure disaster risk management. Theentire programme would be divided into two phases forsix years. In Phase-I [2002-2004], it is proposed to providesupport to Ministry of Home Affairs as National NodalAgency and intensive natural disaster risk managementactivities in 28 most vulnerable districts of Orissa,Gujarat and Bihar. 2 million USD would be availablefrom CCF I during this phase.

In Phase II [2003-2007], programme support would includesupport to the 97 districts in the remaining states of TamilNadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Delhi, Assam, Sikkim,Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and Meghalaya and few moredistricts of pilot states of CCF-I, initiating the Risk andVulnerability Indexing and reporting in all programme states,and institutional support to Ministry of Home Affairs. Resources

would be mobilized from donors to meet the shortfall in achievingthe programme objectives in all programme states and nationallevel capacity building initiatives.

Resource Mobilization StrategyResource Mobilization StrategyResource Mobilization StrategyResource Mobilization StrategyResource Mobilization Strategy

This programme would be initiated with US$ 2 millionfrom CCF-I and US $ 5 million from CCF-II and would formthe nucleus of a much larger Government of India initiative fordisaster risk reduction and sustainable recovery. MHA aims toaddress the disaster risk management needs of the most multi-hazard prone districts in 12 states of India through thisprogramme. The resources required for the programme wouldbe US$ 27 million approximately, over a period of six years.Multi-donor meetings would be held by Ministry of Home Affairswith UNDP support to mobilize funds for this programme.

GOALS AND OBJECTIVESGOALS AND OBJECTIVESGOALS AND OBJECTIVESGOALS AND OBJECTIVESGOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Goal: Goal: Goal: Goal: Goal: Sustainable Reduction in Disaster Risk in some ofthe most hazard prone Districts in selected States of India

Indicators: Indicators: Indicators: Indicators: Indicators: The indicators of achievement of this goalwould be:

• Risk reduction factored in rapid disaster recovery.

• Disaster mitigated and development gains protected.

• Disaster risk considerations mainstreamed intodevelopment.

• Gender equity in disaster preparedness.

PSO-IPSO-IPSO-IPSO-IPSO-I

National capacity building to institutionalize the systemfor natural disaster risk management in Ministry of HomeAffairs.

PSO-IIPSO-IIPSO-IIPSO-IIPSO-II

Environment building, education, awareness programmesand strengthening capacities at all levels in natural disasterrisk management and sustainable recovery. [ Development ofmanuals and training modules, information, education and


communication materials and their dissemination, awarenesscampaign strategy and implementation for disaster reductionand recovery.]

PSO-IIIPSO-IIIPSO-IIIPSO-IIIPSO-III

Multi-hazard preparedness, response and mitigation plansfor disaster risk management at state, district, block, villageand ward level in 125 most multi-hazard prone districts of 12selected states.

PSO-IVPSO-IVPSO-IVPSO-IVPSO-IV

Networking knowledge on effective approaches, methodsand tools for disaster risk management, developing andpromoting policy frameworks at State and National levels. Theactivities envisaged are as follows:

Activities under PSO I:Activities under PSO I:Activities under PSO I:Activities under PSO I:Activities under PSO I:

• Supporting the Ministry of Home Affairs forestablishment of institutional, administrative, financialand legal systems for disaster risk management, withbuilt-in mechanisms to ensure adequate representationof women at community level.

• Capacity building of functionaries at National level tosustain the programme.

• Support to NCDC and NFSC to strengthen them asresource centers for disaster management.

• Exposure visits to understand the best practices in thearea of disaster risk management and sustainablerecovery.

• Support for outlining the development of policyinitiatives for disaster risk management in the country,building on the work of High Powered Committee report,and with a conscious effort to mainstream gender (bygiving special thought to the needs of women anddisabled persons in policy, in preparedness, mitigationas well as response) and decentralization (by ensuringPRIs' ownership in disaster management activities andplans at community level) at all levels of disastermanagement.

Activities under PSO II:Activities under PSO II:Activities under PSO II:Activities under PSO II:Activities under PSO II:

• Consultations with National and State Governments,NGOs, training institutions, private sector etc., at state,district and sub-district levels for area specific disasterreduction and recovery strategies.

• Finalization of districts for the programme in the selectedStates.

• Sensitization of all stakeholders, including womenrepresentatives and PRIs on the need for disaster riskmanagement and mitigation.

• Formulation of state specific awareness campaigns andstrategies for implementation for disaster riskmanagement in the selected districts (hazard specificDo's and Don'ts, checklist for preventive measures, etc.)

• Awareness generation programmes at all levels includingall villages/wards in selected districts throughworkshops/seminars/training, posters/leaflets, wallpainting, and observation of disaster risk managementday/week. At the community level, women volunteers,village level functionaries and PRIs would be used toorganize the events.

• Development of school primers on disaster management,training of teachers in curricula, preparedness andresponse activities, mock drills in schools, etc.

• Development of manuals for District, Block, GramPanchayat, Community and Ward level for preparingdisaster risk management and response plans.

• Development of manuals for design and construction ofhazard-resistant houses in the selected districts.

• Development of user-friendly manuals for retrofitting,roof top rainwater harvesting features, etc.

• Training of all stakeholders on the process ofdevelopment of village/ward based disaster riskmanagement and response plans.

• Manuals for training and orientation of Disaster


Management Teams [DMT] at all levels in disseminationof accurate warning, search and rescue operations, firstaid, water & sanitation, shelter management, counselingand damage assessment for early response and recovery,proper utilization and better coordination of reliefmaterials during crisis time. All manuals would addressdisaster response and recovery needs of special groupssuch as disabled persons, children, elderly people,pregnant women, etc.

Activities under PSO III:Activities under PSO III:Activities under PSO III:Activities under PSO III:Activities under PSO III:

• Geographical Information System (GIS) based hazardand vulnerability mapping along with risk modeling ofthe 125 multi-hazard prone districts in the 12 programmestates.

• Identification and establishment of working networksof nodal agencies and partners at different levels forimplementation of the programme. Formations ofcommittees to look at gender mainstreaming.

• Formation of State, District, Block, Gram Panchayat,Village/Ward Disaster Management Committees [DMC],which would include all concerned GovernmentDepartments/functionaries, Senior Citizens, NationalCadet Corps (NCC), National Social Service (NSS),Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS), Zilla SainikBoard, elected members (PRIs), NGOs, CommunityBased Organizations (CBOs) and other civil societyresponse groups. Each DMC would have equalrepresentation of women, and at community level, wouldinclude schoolteachers, disabled persons, villagevolunteers and members of isolated hamlets.

• Vulnerability mapping and risk assessment in all themulti-hazard prone districts with special emphasis onvulnerability and risk of women, disabled persons andchildren, to help in formulating gender equitable andsustainable community plans for disaster preparedness.

• Development of disaster management plans at district,block, municipality, gram panchayat, village/ward levels.

Women and disabled persons, socially marginalisedsections, etc would be an integral part of the planpreparation activity.

• Development of Inventory of resources at all levels forspeedy response during emergencies-use of GIS to projectthe resources on the maps for immediate decision-making.

• Development of disaster response structure from village/ward to district level.

• Formation and training of Disaster Management Teams[DMT] at all levels. Each DMT would ensure adequaterepresentation of women. Members of DMTs at all levelswould be sensitised to response and recovery needs ofspecial groups.

• Identification aprons and emergency response kits forDMT members.

• Disaster Response Mock drills at all levels-National,State, Districts, Block, Gram Panchayat and village/ward levels.

• Installation of Information Technology (IT) based earlywarning systems in the National Control Room, StateControl Rooms and District Disaster ManagementInformation Centers (control rooms) for disseminationof accurate/user-friendly warnings.

• Enable citizen's access to disaster risk management anddevelopment related information at District DisasterManagement Information Centers.

• Support to Districts: emergency kits [e.g. mobile controlrooms, boats, tents, etc.]

• Training of masons and engineers to upgrade their skillsin the construction of cost effective disaster resistanthouses and in retrofitting features. Women constructionworkers would be encouraged to train as masons, andtraining sessions would ensure women's participation

• Model technology demonstration units showing


retrofitting initiatives and rooftop rainwater harvestingfeatures as mitigation measures in the selected districts.Participation of women would be encouraged. Activitiesunder PSO IV:

• National database on disaster risk management anddisaster response plans.

• Capability assessment and national training plan fornatural disaster risk management

• Capacity building of State Administrative TrainingInstitutions (ATIs) at National and State levels fordevelopment of disaster risk management plans.

• Research and documentation on disaster riskmanagement indices for each State.

• Development of Risk and Vulnerability Reduction Indicesand annual reports.

• Documentation and sharing of best practices in Indiain disaster risk management for wider circulation aspart of training curriculum.

• Development and use of a web-site linking DRMProgramme implementation partners (National andState Governments, UNDP, etc) to share activities,approaches, methods to mainstream disastermanagement, gender, decentralization etc. and exchangebest practices and lessons learnt between States..

• Consultations and studies in disaster risk managementand global climatic change linkages.

• Development of GIS based disaster vulnerabilitydatabase for States and its use to generate risk andvulnerability reports, to be used as policy instrumentsto direct national and state policy on disaster riskmanagement.

RESULT FRAMEWORKRESULT FRAMEWORKRESULT FRAMEWORKRESULT FRAMEWORKRESULT FRAMEWORK

The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the nodal agencyfor disaster risk management at national level, to ensure the

sustainability of the all activities. This programme proposes toprovide capacity building support to nodal ministry.

The interventions are aimed at reducing the risk andvulnerability of these states and districts towards differentnatural hazards by involving all stakeholders, including NGOs,Civil society organization and private sectors through properguidance from the nodal agency. The programme also aims atenhancing the capacity of the functionaries to respond properlyduring the time of emergencies. Expected results would behigher degree of awareness starting from village to district tostate levels. Research centers and training institutions wouldassist in developing a suitable strategy for each state andadvocacy for replication of the outcomes of the project in otherareas. It would also facilitate to establish networking amongall project states for sharing of information and helping eachother during the time of crisis. Simultaneously all control roomswould be strengthened with equipments and operationalmanuals to function as disaster management informationcenters. Information Technology (IT) centers set up at thedistrict level would enable the community to have easy accessto information on disaster risk management along with meetingother information needs of the community.

Following are the direct outcomes of the programme:

• Administrative and institutional framework developedfor Natural Disaster Risk Management Cell in Ministryof Home Affairs.

• Enhanced capacity in Ministry of Home Affairs fornatural disaster risk management

• Disaster risk management cell with scientific warningdissemination system at MHA able to provide adequateand timely support to the implementing agencies.

• Comprehensive disaster risk management frameworkand recovery strategies in 125 districts of 12 programmestates within proposed 6 years.

• Aware and informed community in 125 hazard-pronedistricts on disaster risk management and mitigation.


• 125 multi-hazard prone districts have multi-hazarddisaster risk management, response and mitigation plansbased on vulnerability and risk assessment of womenand children towards natural disasters.

• Greater participation of elected women representativesof local self-governments in 125 districts in the processof disaster preparedness and risk management.

• Enhanced capacity of the government functionaries ofthe nodal agency at the state level and in all selecteddistricts in developing and updating the riskmanagement and response plans for different hazardsfrom time to time.

• Enhanced capacity of women in First aid, Sheltermanagement, Water and Sanitation and RescueEvacuation.

• Well-equipped disaster risk management informationcenters at selected States and Districts.

• Emergency kit at all selected districts of 12 states.

• Manual, training module and awareness strategies areavailable for replication in other areas.

• Enhanced capacity of the training institutions fortraining in disaster risk management.

• Trained skilled masons and engineers for hazard-resistant housing.

• Models for dissemination of best practices in retrofittingin roof top rainwater harvesting.

• Knowledge network for better involvement ofstakeholders

• National and State database on natural disaster riskmanagement developed.

• Vulnerability and Risk Reduction Reports prepared forintegration of vulnerable reduction into developmentprogrammes to allocate resources more effectively tothe needy states.

The following are indirect outcomes of the programme:

• Reduction of expenditure on disaster relief & increasedinvestment in preparedness measures.

• Sharing of disaster relief cost by the community.

• Self-reliant village, Gram Panchayat, Blocks andDistricts for preparedness.

• Convergence of services & links to area developmentplans.

• People's awareness and participation increased.

• Access to information by the people.

• Cost reduction in housing construction.

MANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTSMANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTSMANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTSMANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTSMANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTS

Execution arrangementsExecution arrangementsExecution arrangementsExecution arrangementsExecution arrangements

Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India would execute thisprogramme under National Execution [NEX] guidelines.

The programme involves partnerships at different levelsand with different stakeholders. It aims to reach most multi-hazard prone states and districts and thus it has a multi-statefocus. The programme seeks to establish close partnership withcommunities and civil society organizations. Programmedemands greater flexibility, creativity and innovativeapproaches for natural disaster risk management. In view ofthe complexities involved in the implementation.

Institutional ArrangementsInstitutional ArrangementsInstitutional ArrangementsInstitutional ArrangementsInstitutional Arrangements

• Coordination at the National Level: The Ministry ofHome Affairs, Government of India will be the nodalagency at central level for smooth execution of theprogramme supported out of Country CooperationFramework resources. There would be a ProgrammeManagement Board (PMB) headed by the Secretary,MHA to provide overall guidance to the programme.Programme Steering Committee (PSC) headed by theJoint Secretary [DM] in MHA would be constituted,


which will meet in every quarter to review the progressof the programme.

• Monitoring at the State Level: In each state, a StateSteering Committee (SSC) headed by Chief Secretarywill review the programme at periodic intervals. Thecommittee may consist of executing agencies,implementing agency and UNDP. A joint UNDP-Govtof India assessment would be carried out to examine theeffectiveness of the programme at the end of eachprogramme year.

• The financial arrangement and audit would as per theguidelines of Department of Economic Affairs, UNDPguidelines and procedures established for Country OfficeSupport agreements.

The UNDP Country Office, Delhi would liaise with centralgovernment for smooth implementation of the programme andprovide effective backstopping to the state offices for planning,implementation, resource mobilization and financialmanagement.

Implementation ArrangementsImplementation ArrangementsImplementation ArrangementsImplementation ArrangementsImplementation Arrangements

The programme would be implemented by UNDP inpartnership with the state nodal institutions and NGOs inProgramme states and districts.

The national nodal agency, Ministry of Home Affairs wouldbe provided support to develop national disaster riskmanagement framework, strengthen the institutional,administrative, techno-legal and legal systems for disaster riskmanagement. Nodal agencies in each of the twelve states wouldbe provided the support of one trained State Project Officerspecialist on Community Based Disaster Risk Management fordevelopment of disaster risk management plans. For smoothexecution and to ensure sustainability, State nodal agencieswill take support of the existing training institutions/ resourceunits in the state for up gradation of the disaster riskmanagement plan and the training capabilities of the differentstakeholders.

In addition to this an Engineer specialist on disasterresistant/ cost effective technology [National UN Volunteer]would be provided to each programme district to strengthenthe technology transfer in housing sector training of masonsand engineers for hazard-resistant housing programme, modelretrofitting initiates and rooftop rainwater harvesting features.Appropriate programme management system would be put inplace for effective implementation of the programme. The entireprogramme would be overseen and managed by a seniorprofessional of proven project management capabilities. Thestate offices would also facilitate in undertaking researchactivities and providing support to each programme state withtraining manual, guideline and development of database withother UNDP supported programmes such as strengthening ofregional resource centers for Panchayati Raj Institutions,support to ATIs under administrative reforms programme,programmes in the energy and environment sector and allcommunity-based pro-poor initiatives etc.

Village/ward based multi-hazard preparedness and responseplans would be prepared by the local institutions and linkageswith the existing developmental programme would beestablished to address the causes of vulnerabilities. Local-selfgovernments at all levels would be directly involved in theseexercises for sustainability of the programme in long term.Disaster Management Specialists and experienced projectmanagement professionals, who have expertise in disaster riskmanagement at the community levels in post-disaster situations,would work with state and district governments, civil societypartners and communities.

Implementation ProcessImplementation ProcessImplementation ProcessImplementation ProcessImplementation Process

The disaster management plan would start from the village/ward level and would be consolidated through similar planningat the Panchayat, Block, District and Urban Local Bodies levelsin the selected districts. A cadre of village volunteers would becreated to carry out the village based natural disaster riskmanagement programmes in the select programme districts.These Village Volunteers will be drawn from the community


with the help of civil society organizations such as NCC, NSS,NYKS, Scouts and Guides and Civil Defence etc. The planswould focus on the disaster risk prevention and early recoverythrough community-based preparedness and response plans,skill development for construction of hazard-resistant housingand enhanced access to information as per the need of thecommunity. Information Technology Specialists would beresponsible for development of disaster database at state anddistrict levels for emergency response.

28 districts will be covered under the massive village baseddisaster preparedness programme including development ofvillage contingency plan, Gram Panchayat, Block and districtdisaster management plans and formation of DisasterManagement Committees and DMTs in the year of 2002-2004and remaining districts will be covered by the end of 2007 inphases. Under Phase-I, three states namely Orissa, Gujaratand Bihar will be covered all vulnerable villages in the selected28 districts for development of contingency plans.

Phase I: Phase I: Phase I: Phase I: Phase I: The programme will strengthen the disaster riskreduction initiatives of the Ministry of Home Affairs [Govt ofIndia], the states of Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar and 28 districtsfrom these three states in first two years under CCF-I.Environment building and initiation of the natural disasterrisk management programme will be also part of the programmeand initiated in all levels simultaneously in these three statesalong with national and state consultation for strategydevelopment for sustainable recovery and massive awarenesscampaign, transformation of technology, database etc. Some ofthe activities will be taken up in the third year of the programmeimplementation depending on the availability of resources.

Phase II: Phase II: Phase II: Phase II: Phase II: Remaining 97 most vulnerable districts in ninestates of India would be covered in Phase II depending on theavailability of resources under CCF II and resources mobilizedfrom donors for disaster risk management programme. TheState offices would provide required specialized programmeimplementation support to strengthen the state nodal agenciesand civil society partners in the Programme states forimplementation of this programme. National Institute of

Industrial Security, Hyderabad [CISF]/ State AdministrativeTraining Institutes would be entrusted to train the Stategovernment functionaries, Civil Society response groups andstate taskforce on disaster management. Research centers andacademic institutions in different states would be engaged tocarry out studies of existing system for disaster response andrecovery in the state along with traditional coping mechanismin the communities for development of appropriate strategiesand would be followed by field-testing.

The State Nodal Authorities, Panchayati Raj Departments/ Urban Bodies and national organizations such as NYKS andNSS would play major role in the implementation of theprogramme.

The following activities will carried on in partnership withstate nodal agencies and civil society response groups.

Awareness Campaign StrategyAwareness Campaign StrategyAwareness Campaign StrategyAwareness Campaign StrategyAwareness Campaign Strategy

An effective disaster risk management campaign strategywill be developed in consultation with all stakeholders of theselected states for public education to take preventive measuresin the wake of natural hazards to minimize the loss. The statenodal agency with the help of civil society response groupswould take up a massive awareness campaign through out theselected districts for preparedness through rallies, mass meeting,different competitions like essay, debate, drawing etc. amongschool students, posters, leaflets. Similarly wall paintings willbe done in each village explaining Dos and Don'ts of variousdisasters, showing the safe shelters and safe routes forevacuation etc.

Gender equity in disaster preparedness and mitigation:

Special groups such as women, disabled persons,children, etc. are more vulnerable in an emergencysituation and hence require special attention. Theprogramme will aim at strengthening capacities ofthese groups to respond to disasters. Vulnerabilityand risk assessment in all the multi-hazard pronedistricts would have special emphasis on women and


children. Adequate representation of women inDisaster Management Committees and Teams shallensure their participation in decision making in allstages of the disaster continuum. This would resultin formulation of gender equitable and sustainablecommunity plans for disaster preparedness.

Special training shall be provided to women for enhancementof their capacities to carry out the activities effectively. Capacitybuilding of women groups will include skill upgradation in useof the latest know-how for effective response and sustainablerecovery in disaster situations.

Manuals and Standard Operating GuidelinesManuals and Standard Operating GuidelinesManuals and Standard Operating GuidelinesManuals and Standard Operating GuidelinesManuals and Standard Operating Guidelines

Based on the experiences of Orissa and Gujarat disasterpreparedness programmes, the state nodal agencies andresearch units will develop training manuals for Village, GramPanchayat, Block, District and State disaster management team,manuals for development of contingency plans for differenthazards and Standard Operating Procedures [SOPs] for alllevels. The manuals would be printed in vernacular languagesafter field-testing. Training will be provided to the stakeholdersto use the manuals and widely circulated for replication of theprogramme. In all manuals special column shall be there forcoping mechanism of women in disaster situations.

Formation of Disaster Management Team/CommitteesFormation of Disaster Management Team/CommitteesFormation of Disaster Management Team/CommitteesFormation of Disaster Management Team/CommitteesFormation of Disaster Management Team/Committees

Disaster Management Teams (DMT) would be formed atdifferent levels to carry out the activities during emergency forsustainable recovery from disaster such as State, District,Municipality, Block, Gram Panchayat, Community and Ward.DMT at village/ward level would comprise of a group of 10-12people in task-based groups such as Early Warning (EW), Searchand Rescue Operation (SRO), First Aid & Water & Sanitation(FAWA), Shelter Management (SM), Trauma Counseling (TC)and Damage Assessment (DA) groups. Similarly, DMT at GramPanchayat, Municipal and Block level may be formed with theinvolvement of people' representatives, members from localadministrative system like local police, Medical Officer, Junior

Engineer from Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, VeterinaryAssistance Surgeon / Inspectors, Revenue Inspector, BlockDevelopment Officers (BDO) etc. BDO would be the convenerof the team at the Block level.

At the District level, the team may include District Collector(DC/DM), Superintendent of Police (SP), Chief of District FireServices, Chief District Medical Officer (CDMO), District PublicRelation Officer (DPRO), Executive Engineers of Irrigation,Roads and Buildings, District Civil Supply Officer,representative of the NGOs/CBOs, Civil Defence and others.The team will work under the direct supervision of DistrictCollector.

At the State level, the Chief Secretary will head the DMT.The team may comprise of Relief Commissioner/ RevenueSecretary, Secretary Home Depts, State Police Chief (IG), StateChief of Metrological Department (IMD), State Chief of FireServices, Health Secretary, Secretary/Director (AnimalHusbandry), State Civil Supply Officer, Secretary commerceand transportation, Director (NYKS/NCC/NSS), Chief Engineersof Irrigation, Roads and Building, representatives from civilsociety organizations and others.

In addition, there will be an Advisory Committee at eachlevels to facilitate the preparedness programme and developthe natural disaster risk management and emergency responseplans and providing timely support to the DMTs.

Training/ Capacity BuildingTraining/ Capacity BuildingTraining/ Capacity BuildingTraining/ Capacity BuildingTraining/ Capacity Building

State nodal agency and UNDP will organize the Trainingof trainers (ToT) at state, district and block levels to enhancethe capacity of disaster management committees and preparea core team to trainers and training. Training would be acontinuous process on disaster risk management programme.The trained cadre will facilitate the process of contingency plandevelopment at different levels.

Selected village volunteers will be provided with threemodular training programmes to develop the village contingencyplans. One or two volunteers will be selected by the PRIs/


CBOs/NGOs from their own locality, based on their pastexperiences on relief and rehabilitation activities for facilitatingthe process at village and GP levels. More emphasis will begiven to women volunteers in development of village disastermanagement activities.

Specialized training will be organized at different levels forthe disaster management team members for enhancement ofskills to effectively carry out their responsibilities such aswarning dissemination, search and rescue operation, sheltermanagement, fist aid, trauma counseling and damageassessment etc. The DMT members will be provided a specifictype of apron or jacket for easy identification after the training.Adequate training will be provided to the women DMTs tocarry out activities during emergency situation. Exposure visitof the Government Officials, PRIs and DMTs will be arrangedto the best practice areas in sustainable recovery andpreparedness on disaster risk management for capacity building.

Regular studies, research and workshops will be conductedat state and national levels on the vulnerability analysis, existingcoping mechanism, revision and modification of the existingadministrative, legal, techno-legal and institutional systems,as per the suitability of different localities and need of theareas.

Training manuals, standard operating procedures anddocumentation of the best practices are important componentsof disaster preparedness programmes and will be developed fordifferent levels for easy adoption, replication and sharing.

Development of Disaster Risk Management PlanDevelopment of Disaster Risk Management PlanDevelopment of Disaster Risk Management PlanDevelopment of Disaster Risk Management PlanDevelopment of Disaster Risk Management Plan

The trained volunteers, government functionaries, CBOs/NGOs and PRIs will facilitate the process of development ofContingency Plan [CCP] based on the vulnerability of the areasand available resources and form the DMT as per the need atvillage/ ward, Gram Panchayat and Blocks disaster riskmanagement plan respectively. Palli Sabha, Gram Sabha andPanchayat Samitis will approve all the plans respectively tomake it as a part of the ongoing programme.

The District Disaster Management Committees will developdistrict multi-hazard risk management plan with support fromthe UNDP District Project Officer and prepare response plansto meet the emergency needs after undertaking resourcemapping and vulnerability analysis. The plan will be based onthe compilation of all 'Block/Taluka disaster management plans'and it will be approved by the Zillah Parishad. Based on thedisaster preparedness and response plan there will be mockdrills before disaster seasons to find out the feasibility of theplan and to ensure greater role clarity of the key players. Itwill also ensure the availability and functional condition ofequipments and resources.

Demonstration UnitDemonstration UnitDemonstration UnitDemonstration UnitDemonstration Unit

Construction of demonstration unit on disaster resistantand cost effective technology in housing sector would be donethrough trained masons and engineers for wider disseminationand adoption of the technology in selected districts, whichenable the communities to adopt disaster-resistant and cost-effective technologies. Training and skill up-gradation ofengineers and masons in construction of multi-hazard resistanthouses would lead to safer habitat for the community. Modelretrofitting and roof top rainwater harvesting initiatives insome multi-hazard prone programme districts will facilitate indissemination of structural mitigation measures.

Emergency Rescue KitsEmergency Rescue KitsEmergency Rescue KitsEmergency Rescue KitsEmergency Rescue Kits

Support will be provided to the district administration forhaving an emergency kit with some essential equipments likea boat, portable power generator set, early warning equipments,tents, power saw etc. to meet the emergency need at the timeof natural disasters like cyclones or flood or earthquakes. Eachselected district will be provided the equipment kit as per theirneed. Equipments will procure in consultation with state anddistrict administration and the maintenance will be theresponsibility of the district administration.

Resource Inventory Data BaseResource Inventory Data BaseResource Inventory Data BaseResource Inventory Data BaseResource Inventory Data Base

Support will be provided to each state to have a web enabledresource inventory for mobilization of resources and volunteers


for emergency. IT facilitators will support the state governmentfor development of a resource database, which will updatedregularly by the nodal agency to know the status of the resourceavailability. Similarly, each state will have a list of volunteerswith specific skill set-those who can be utilized by the statenodal agencies during emergencies.

Strengthening State and District Disaster ManagementStrengthening State and District Disaster ManagementStrengthening State and District Disaster ManagementStrengthening State and District Disaster ManagementStrengthening State and District Disaster ManagementInformation CentersInformation CentersInformation CentersInformation CentersInformation Centers

Necessary support will be provided in terms of equipmentslike advance communication equipments such as computer withinternet facilities, HAM equipments, FAX etc to the districtcontrol room and state control room and training to thefunctionaries to handle the equipments during emergency. Thusthere will be well-equipped control room at state and districtlevels to disseminate accurate warning for advance action.These control rooms will also provide platform for thecoordination during and post emergencies.

Vulnerability and Risk Indexing and ReportVulnerability and Risk Indexing and ReportVulnerability and Risk Indexing and ReportVulnerability and Risk Indexing and ReportVulnerability and Risk Indexing and Report

Benchmarking of vulnerability and risk would be attemptedthrough national level research on the subject. Vulnerabilityand Risk Index would evolve through a consultative process.A national database would also be developed for assessment ofpreparedness and Risk Vulnerability Reports.

SustainabilitySustainabilitySustainabilitySustainabilitySustainability

Village disaster preparedness and response plans will beapproved by the Palli Sabha/ Village meeting /assembly tomake it a public document. It will establish linkages with theexisting development programmes to reduce the vulnerabilityof the areas. Similarly, the Gram Panchayat disastermanagement plans will be the compilation of all village plans,which will be approved by the Gram Sabha, and Panchayat willendeavor to support mitigation plans under the annualdevelopment plans.

The Gram Panchayat mitigation plan will be reflected inthe Panchayat Samiti plan and Panchayat Samiti plan in theZillah Parishad plan. This will be an ongoing process at all

levels and district mitigation plan would be a sub-set of districtannual development plan. Disaster preparedness and mitigationplanning will be an integral part of all developmental planningprocess.

Specifically, the following will be the measurable indicatorsof success of the programme:

• Preparedness, response and mitigation planning becomesan integral part of Annual Development Planning processat all levels

• Disaster Management Committees and DisasterManagement Teams conduct regular mock drills toenhance preparedness

• Well equipped and functional state and district disastermanagement information system [Clear line of commandfor warning dissemination at different levels]

• Specific modification in building codes and techno-legalsystems for risk reduction

• Adequate human resource capacity for training andcapacity building in disaster preparedness and responsefunctions

• Manuals and guidelines will be available for alloperations for pre, during and post-emergencies

• Trained masons available at village level on alternateand cost effective technology for building a safer habitat

Exit StrategyExit StrategyExit StrategyExit StrategyExit Strategy

The exit strategy would be based on strengthening localcapacities for development and upgradation of disasterpreparedness and response plans along with regular mockdrills. With trained human resource made available in thestate and district and the entire planning process linkedto development plans, UNDP programme implementationsupport could be withdrawn gradually from all programmedistricts.

UNDP implementation strategy is based on partnershipswith local institutions and empowering District Disaster


Management Committees and Disaster Management Teams atall levels. Mainstreaming risk management and vulnerabilityreduction activities in the development plans and enhancingcapacities of Government functionaries would ensure that theachievements of the programme are sustained, even after theprogramme duration.

Transparency and AccountabilityTransparency and AccountabilityTransparency and AccountabilityTransparency and AccountabilityTransparency and Accountability

UNDP will ensure quarterly reporting to the nodal agencyin order to maintain better coordination and accountability.There will be review committees at state as well as nationallevel to review the implementation of the programme. Progressreport along with financial report will be shared with all forbetter understanding and transparency. Utilization of resourcesunder the programme would be based on decisions of theProgramme Steering Committee.

LEGAL CONTEXTLEGAL CONTEXTLEGAL CONTEXTLEGAL CONTEXTLEGAL CONTEXT

This project document shall be the instrument referred toas such in Article I, Paragraph I. of the Standard BasicAssistance Agreement between the Government of India andthe United National Development Programme upon signatureby the concern parties. The following types of revisions may bemade to this programme document with the UNDP ResidentRepresentative only, provided he or she is assured that theother signatories of the project document have no objection tothe proposed changes:

• Revision in, or addition of, any of the annexes of theProject Document;

• Revisions which do not involve significant changes inthe Immediate Objectives, Outputs or Activities of aproject, but are caused by the rearrangement of inputsagreed to or by cost increases due to inflation; and

• Mandatory annual revisions that rephrases the deliveryof the agreed project inputs or increased expert of othercosts due to inflation or which take into account agencyexpenditure flexibility.

BUDGETBUDGETBUDGETBUDGETBUDGET

UNDP now proposes to utilize US$ 5 million from CCF-IIfor this programme in this phase in addition to US $ 2 millionavailable from CCF-I[during Phase-I] towards institutionalsupport to Ministry of Home Affairs, comprehensive naturaldisaster risk management programmes in 73 multi-hazard pronedistricts in Gujarat, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal,Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttaranchal, Delhi, Maharashtra,Tamilnadu and Uttarpradesh. References:

List of 125 Most Hazard Prone Districts inList of 125 Most Hazard Prone Districts inList of 125 Most Hazard Prone Districts inList of 125 Most Hazard Prone Districts inList of 125 Most Hazard Prone Districts inProgramme StatesProgramme StatesProgramme StatesProgramme StatesProgramme States

Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No. PhasePhasePhasePhasePhase DistrictDistrictDistrictDistrictDistrict StateStateStateStateState

1 II Barpeta Assam

2 II Cachar Assam

3 II Dhemaji Assam

4 II Dhubri Assam

5 II Goalpara Assam

6 II Hailakandi Assam

7 II Kamrup Assam

8 II Karimganj Assam

9 II Lakhimpur Assam

10 II Marigaon Assam

11 II Nagaon Assam

12 II Nalbari Assam

13 I Araria Bihar

14 II Begusarai Bihar

15 I Darbhanga Bihar

16 II Khagaria Bihar

17 I Kishanganj Bihar

18 II Madhepura Bihar

19 I Madhubani Bihar

20 II Munger Bihar


Contd...


21 II Muzaffarpur Bihar

22 I Patna Bihar

23 II Saharsa Bihar

24 II Samastipur Bihar

25 II Sitamarhi Bihar

26 II Supaul Bihar

27 II Central Delhi Delhi

28 II East Delhi Delhi

29 II New Delhi Delhi

30 II North Delhi Delhi

31 II North East Delhi Delhi

32 II North West Delhi Delhi

33 II South Delhi Delhi

34 II South West Delhi Delhi

35 II West Delhi Delhi

36 I Amreli Gujarat

37 II Banas Kantha Gujarat

38 I Bharuch Gujarat

39 I Bhavnagar Gujarat

40 I Jamnagar Gujarat

41 I Junagadh Gujarat

42 I Kachchh Gujarat

43 I Surat Gujarat

44 II Sabar Kantha Gujarat

45 II Surendranagar Gujarat

46 II Patan Gujarat

47 I Porbandar Gujarat

48 I Rajkot Gujarat

49 I Vadodara Gujarat

Contd...


50 II Kolhapur Maharashtra

51 II Latur Maharashtra

52 II Mumbai Maharashtra

53 II Mumbai (Suburban) Maharashtra

54 II Nasik Maharashtra

55 II Osmanabad Maharashtra

56 II Pune Maharashtra

57 II Raigarh Maharashtra

58 II Ratnagiri Maharashtra

59 II Satara Maharashtra

60 II Sindhudurg Maharashtra

61 II Thane Maharashtra

62 II Ahmednagar Maharashtra

63 II Dhule Maharashtra

64 II East Garo Hills Meghalaya

65 II East Khasi Hills Meghalaya

66 II Jaintia Hills Meghalaya

67 II Ri Bhoi Meghalaya

68 II South Garo Hills Meghalaya

69 II West Garo Hills Meghalaya

70 II West Khasi Hills Meghalaya

71 I Balasore Orissa

72 I Bhadrak Orissa

73 I Cuttack Orissa

74 I Ganjam Orissa

75 I Jagatsinghapur Orissa

76 I Jajpur Orissa

77 I Kendrapara Orissa

78 I Khordha Orissa


Contd...


79 I Koraput Orissa

80 II Nayagarh Orissa

81 I Nuapada Orissa

82 I Puri Orissa

83 II Sambalpur Orissa

84 II Rayagada Orissa

85 II East Sikkim

86 II North Sikkim

87 II South Sikkim

88 II West Sikkim

89 II Chennai Tamil Nadu

90 II Cuddalore Tamil Nadu

91 II Kancheepuram Tamil Nadu

92 II Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu

93 II The Nilgiri Tamil Nadu

94 II Thiruvallur Tamil Nadu

95 II Bahraich Uttar Pradesh

96 II Balrampur Uttar Pradesh

97 II Bijnor Uttar Pradesh

98 II Budaun Uttar Pradesh

99 II Deoria Uttar Pradesh

100 II Ghazipur Uttar Pradesh

101 II Gonda Uttar Pradesh

102 II Gorakhpur Uttar Pradesh

103 II Rampur Uttar Pradesh

104 II Saharanpur Uttar Pradesh

105 II Sant Kabir Nagar Uttar Pradesh

106 II Siddharthnagar Uttar Pradesh

107 II Sitapur Uttar Pradesh

Contd...


108 II Chamoli Uttaranchal

109 II Dehradun Uttaranchal

110 II Nainital Uttaranchal

111 II Pithoragarh Uttaranchal

112 II Rudraprayag Uttaranchal

113 II Tehri Garhwal Uttaranchal

114 II Udhamsingh Nagar Uttaranchal

115 II Uttarkashi Uttaranchal

116 II Bardhaman West Bengal

117 II Jalpaiguri West Bengal

118 II Kooch Bihar West Bengal

119 II Murshidabad West Bengal

120 II Nadia West Bengal

121 II North 24 Parganas West Bengal

122 II Puruliya West Bengal

123 II South 24 Parganas West Bengal

124 II Uttar Dinajpur West Bengal

125 II Maldah West Bengal

List Of 28 Hazard-prone Districts [Phase I]List Of 28 Hazard-prone Districts [Phase I]List Of 28 Hazard-prone Districts [Phase I]List Of 28 Hazard-prone Districts [Phase I]List Of 28 Hazard-prone Districts [Phase I]

Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No. CCF-ICCF-ICCF-ICCF-ICCF-I DistrictDistrictDistrictDistrictDistrict StateStateStateStateState

1 I Khagaria Bihar

2 I Madhubani Bihar

3 I Muzaffarpur Bihar

4 I Sitamarhi Bihar

5 I Supaul Bihar

6 I Amreli Gujarat

7 I Bharuch Gujarat

8 I Bhavnagar Gujarat


Contd...

Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No. CCF-ICCF-ICCF-ICCF-ICCF-I DistrictDistrictDistrictDistrictDistrict StateStateStateStateState

9 I Jamnagar Gujarat

10 I Junagadh Gujarat

11 I Kachchh Gujarat

12 I Surat Gujarat

13 I Porbandar Gujarat

14 I Rajkot Gujarat

15 I Vadodara Gujarat

16 I Patan Gujarat

17 I Balasore Orissa

18 I Bhadrak Orissa

19 I Cuttack Orissa

20 I Ganjam Orissa

21 I Jagatsinghapur Orissa

22 I Jajpur Orissa

23 I Kendrapara Orissa

24 I Khordha Orissa

25 I Puri Orissa

26 I Rayagada Orissa

27 I Koraput Orissa

28 I Nuapada Orissa

List of 45 Hazard-prone Districts [CCF-II]List of 45 Hazard-prone Districts [CCF-II]List of 45 Hazard-prone Districts [CCF-II]List of 45 Hazard-prone Districts [CCF-II]List of 45 Hazard-prone Districts [CCF-II]

Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No.Sl.No. DistrictsDistrictsDistrictsDistrictsDistricts StatesStatesStatesStatesStates FundingFundingFundingFundingFunding

1 Araria Bihar CCF-II

2 Begusarai Bihar CCF-II

3 Darbhanga Bihar CCF-II

4 Kishanganj Bihar CCF-II

5 Madhepura Bihar CCF-II

6 Central Delhi Delhi CCF-II

Contd...


7 East Delhi Delhi CCF-II

8 North Delhi Delhi CCF-II

9 North East Delhi Delhi CCF-II

10 North West Delhi Delhi CCF-II

11 East Sikkim CCF-II

12 North Sikkim CCF-II

13 South Sikkim CCF-II

14 West Sikkim CCF-II

15 Cachar Assam CCF-II

16 Dhuburi Assam CCF-II

17 Hailakandi Assam CCF-II

18 Kamrup Assam CCF-II

19 Karimganj Assam CCF-II

20 Bardhaman West Bengal CCF-II

21 Nadia West Bengal CCF-II

22 North 24 Parganas West Bengal CCF-II

23 South 24 Parganas West Bengal CCF-II

24 Uttaradinajpur West Bengal CCF-II

25 Chamoli Uttranchal CCF-II

26 Derahdun Uttranchal CCF-II

27 Nainital Uttranchal CCF-II

28 Udhamasinghnagar Uttranchal CCF-II

29 Bahraich Uttar Pradesh CCF-II

30 Balrampur Uttar Pradesh CCF-II

31 Bijnor Uttar Pradesh CCF-II

32 Budaun Uttar Pradesh CCF-II

33 Deoria Uttar Pradesh CCF-II

34 Pune Maharashtra CCF-II

35 Raigarh Maharashtra CCF-II

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects5252525252 Emergency ManagementEmergency ManagementEmergency ManagementEmergency ManagementEmergency Management 5353535353

Contd...


36 Ratnagiri Maharashtra CCF-II

37 Thane Maharashtra CCF-II

38 Dhule Maharashtra CCF-II

39 East Garo Hills Meghalaya CCF-II

40 East Khasi Hills Meghalaya CCF-II

41 Jaintia Hills Meghalaya CCF-II

42 Ri Bhoi Meghalaya CCF-II

43 Chennai Tamilnadu CCF-II

44 Thiruvulur Tamilnadu CCF-II

45 Kancheepuram Tamilnadu CCF-II

33333

EEEEEMERGENCYMERGENCYMERGENCYMERGENCYMERGENCY M M M M MANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT

Emergency management (or disaster management) is thediscipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It is a disciplinethat involves preparing, supporting, and rebuilding society whennatural or human-made disasters occur. In general, anyEmergency management is the continuous process by which allindividuals, groups, and communities manage hazards in aneffort to avoid or ameliorate the impact of disasters resultingfrom the hazards.

Actions taken depend in part on perceptions of risk of thoseexposed. Effective emergency management relies on thoroughintegration of emergency plans at all levels of government andnon-government involvement. Activities at each level(individual, group, community) affect the other levels. It iscommon to place the responsibility for governmental emergencymanagement with the institutions for civil defense or withinthe conventional structure of the emergency services. In theprivate sector, emergency management is sometimes referredto as business continuity planning.

Emergency Management is one of a number of terms which,since the end of the Cold War, have largely replaced Civildefense, whose original focus was protecting civilians frommilitary attack. Modern thinking focuses on a more generalintent to protect the civilian population in times of peace aswell as in times of war. Another current term, Civil Protectionis widely used within the European Union and refers togovernment-approved systems and resources whose task is toprotect the civilian population, primarily in the event of natural

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Emergency ManagementEmergency ManagementEmergency ManagementEmergency ManagementEmergency Management5454545454 5555555555

and human-made disasters. Within EU countries the termCrisis Management emphasises the political and securitydimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needsof the civilian population. The academic trend is towards usingthe more comprehensive term disaster risk reduction,particularly for emergency management in a developmentmanagement context.

Phases and Professional ActivitiesPhases and Professional ActivitiesPhases and Professional ActivitiesPhases and Professional ActivitiesPhases and Professional Activities

The nature of emergency management is highly dependenton economic and social conditions local to the emergency, ordisaster. This is true to the extent that some disaster reliefexperts such as Fred Cuny have noted that in a sense the onlyreal disasters are economic. Experts, such as Cuny, have longnoted that the cycle of emergency management must includelong-term work on infrastructure, public awareness, and evenhuman justice issues. This is particularly important indeveloping nations. The process of emergency managementinvolves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, andrecovery.

MitigationMitigationMitigationMitigationMitigation

Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards fromdeveloping into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects ofdisasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs fromthe other phases because it focuses on long-term measures forreducing or eliminating risk. The implementation of mitigationstrategies can be considered a part of the recovery process ifapplied after a disaster occurs. However, even if applied as partof recovery efforts, actions that reduce or eliminate risk overtime are still considered mitigation efforts.

Mitigative measures can be structural or non-structural.Structural measures use technological solutions, like floodlevees. Non-structural measures include legislation, land-useplanning (e.g. the designation of nonessential land like parksto be used as flood zones), and insurance. Mitigation is the mostcost-efficient method for reducing the impact of hazards.However, mitigation is not always suitable and structural

mitigation in particular may have adverse effects on theecosystem.

A precursor activity to the mitigation is the identificationof risks. Physical risk assessment refers to the process ofidentifying and evaluating hazards. In risk assessment, varioushazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, riots) within a certain areaare identified. Each hazard poses a risk to the populationwithin the area assessed. The hazard-specific risk (Rh) combinesboth the probability and the level of impact of a specific hazard.The equation below gives that the hazard times the populations'vulnerability to that hazard produce a risk. Catastrophemodeling tools are used to support the calculation. The higherthe risk, the more urgent that the hazard specific vulnerabilitiesare targeted by mitigation and preparedness efforts. However,if there is no vulnerability there will be no risk, e.g. anearthquake occurring in a desert where nobody lives.

PreparednessPreparednessPreparednessPreparednessPreparedness

In the preparedness phase, emergency managers developplans of action for when the disaster strikes. Commonpreparedness measures include the

• communication plans with easily understandableterminology and chain of command

• development and practice of multi-agency coordinationand incident command

• proper maintenance and training of emergency services

• development and exercise of emergency populationwarning methods combined with emergency sheltersand evacuation plans

• stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies andequipment

An efficient preparedness measure is an emergencyoperations center (EOC) combined with a practiced region-widedoctrine for managing emergencies. Another preparednessmeasure is to develop a volunteer response capability amongcivilian populations. Since, volunteer response is not as


predictable and plannable as professional response, volunteersare most effectively deployed on the periphery of an emergency.

ResponseResponseResponseResponseResponse

The response phase includes the mobilization of thenecessary emergency services and first responders in the disasterarea. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergencyservices, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews. Theymay be supported by a number of secondary emergency services,such as specialist rescue teams.

In addition volunteers and non-governmental organizations(NGOs) such as the local Red Cross branch or St. JohnAmbulance may provide immediate practical assistance, fromfirst aid provision to providing tea and coffee. A well rehearsedemergency plan developed as part of the preparedness phaseenables efficient coordination of rescue efforts. Emergency planrehearsal is essential to achieve optimal output with limitedresources. In the response phase, medical assets will be usedin accordance with the appropriate triage of the affected victims.

Where required, search and rescue efforts commence at anearly stage. Depending on injuries sustained by the victim,outside temperature, and victim access to air and water, thevast majority of those affected by a disaster will die within 72hours after impact.

Individuals are often compelled to volunteer directly aftera disaster. Volunteers can be both a help and a hindrance toemergency management and other relief agencies.

RecoveryRecoveryRecoveryRecoveryRecovery

The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected areato its previous state. It differs from the response phase in itsfocus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisionsthat must be made after immediate needs are addressed.Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with actions thatinvolve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and therepair of other essential infrastructure. An important aspectof effective recovery efforts is taking advantage of a 'windowof opportunity' for the implementation of mitigative measures

that might otherwise be unpopular. Citizens of the affectedarea are more likely to accept more mitigative changes whena recent disaster is in fresh memory.

In the United States, the National Response Plan dictateshow the resources provided by the Homeland Security Act of2002 will be used in recovery efforts. It is the Federal governmentthat often provides the most technical and financial assistancefor recovery efforts in the United States.

Phases and Personal ActivitiesPhases and Personal ActivitiesPhases and Personal ActivitiesPhases and Personal ActivitiesPhases and Personal Activities

MitigationMitigationMitigationMitigationMitigation

Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoidingunnecessary risks. This includes an assessment of possiblerisks to personal/family health and to personal property.

One example of mitigation would be to avoid buying propertythat is exposed to hazards, e.g. in a flood plain, in areas ofsubsidence or landslides. Homeowners may not be aware of aproperty being exposed to a hazard until it strikes. However,specialists can be hired to conduct risk identification andassessment surveys. Purchase of insurance covering the mostprominent identified risks is a common measure.

Personal structural mitigation in earthquake prone areasincludes installation of an Earthquake Valve to instantly shutoff the natural gas supply to a property, seismic retrofits ofproperty and the securing of items inside a building to enhancehousehold seismic safety. The latter may include the mountingof furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to thewalls, and the addition of cabinet latches. In flood prone areashouses can be built on poles, as in much of southern Asia. Inareas prone to prolonged electricity black-outs installation ofa generator would be an example of an optimal structuralmitigation measure. The construction of storm cellars and falloutshelters are further examples of personal mitigative actions.

PreparednessPreparednessPreparednessPreparednessPreparedness

Unlike mitigation activities, which are aimed at preventinga disaster from occurring, personal preparedness focuses on


preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disasteroccurs, i.e. planning. Preparedness measures can take manyforms including the construction of shelters, installation ofwarning devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g. power,water, sewage), and rehearsing evacuation plans. Two simplemeasures can help prepare the individual for sitting out theevent or evacuating, as necessary. For evacuation, a disastersupplies kit may be prepared and for sheltering purposes astockpile of supplies may be created. The preparation of asurvival kit, commonly referred to as a "72-hour kit", is oftenadvocated by authorities. These kits may include food, medicine,flashlights, candles and money.

ResponseResponseResponseResponseResponse

The response phase of an emergency may commence withsearch and rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turnto fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affectedpopulation. This assistance may be provided by national orinternational agencies and organisations. Effective coordinationof disaster assistance is often crucial, particularly when manyorganisations respond and local emergency management agency(LEMA) capacity has been exceeded by the demand ordiminished by the disaster itself.

On a personal level the response can take the shape eitherof a home confinement or an evacuation. In a home confinementa family would be prepared to fend for themselves in theirhome for many days without any form of outside support. Inan evacuation, a family leaves the area by automobile (or othermode of transportation) taking with them the maximum amountof supplies they can carry, possibly including a tent for shelter.If mechanical transportation is not available, evacuation onfoot would ideally include carrying at least three days of suppliesand rain-tight bedding, a tarpaulin and a bedroll of blanketsbeing the minimum.

RecoveryRecoveryRecoveryRecoveryRecovery

The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat tohuman life has subsided. During reconstruction it is

recommended to consider the location or construction materialof the property.

The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war,famine and severe epidemics and may last a year or more. Thenrecovery will take place inside the home. Planners for theseevents usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage andpreparation equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life.A simple balanced diet can be constructed from vitamin pills,whole-meal wheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking oil.One should add vegetables, fruits, spices and meats, bothprepared and fresh-gardened, when possible.

As a ProfessionAs a ProfessionAs a ProfessionAs a ProfessionAs a Profession

Emergency managers are trained in a wide variety ofdisciplines that support them through out the emergency life-cycle. Professional emergency managers can focus ongovernment and community preparedness (Continuity ofOperations/Continuity of Government Planning), or privatebusiness preparedness (Business Continuity ManagementPlanning). Training is provided by local, state, federal andprivate organizations and ranges from public information andmedia relations to high-level incident command and tacticalskills such as studying a terrorist bombing site or controllingan emergency scene.

In the past, the field of emergency management has beenpopulated mostly by people with a military or first responderbackground. Currently, the population in the field has becomemore diverse, with many experts coming from a variety ofbackgrounds and having no military or first responder historyat all. Educational opportunities are increasing for those seekingundergraduate and graduate degrees in emergency managementor a related field.

Professional certifications such as Certified EmergencyManager (CEM) and Certified Business Continuity Professional(CBCP) are becoming more common as the need for highprofessional standards is recognized by the emergencymanagement community, especially in the United States.


ToolsToolsToolsToolsTools

In recent years the continuity feature of emergencymanagement has resulted in a new concept, EmergencyManagement Information Systems (EMIS). For continuity andinteroperability between emergency management stakeholders,EMIS supports the emergency management process by providingan infrastructure that integrates emergency plans at all levelsof government and non-government involvement and by utilizingthe management of all related resources (including human andother resources) for all four phases of emergencies.

Within other ProfessionsWithin other ProfessionsWithin other ProfessionsWithin other ProfessionsWithin other Professions

Practitioners emergency management (disasterpreparedness) come from an increasing variety of backgroundsas the field matures. Professionals from memory institutions(e.g., museums, historical societies, libraries, and archives) arededicated to preserving cultural heritage-objects and recordscontained in their collections. This has been a major componentwithin these fields, but now there is a heightened awarenessfollowing the events on 9/11 and the hurricanes in 2005.

To increase the opportunity for a successful recovery ofvaluable records, a well-established and thoroughly tested planmust be developed. This task requires the cooperation of a well-organized committee led by an experienced chairperson.Professional associations schedule regular workshops and holdfocus sessions at annual conferences to keep individuals up todate with tools and resources in practice.

ToolsToolsToolsToolsTools

The joint efforts of professional associations and culturalheritage institutions have resulted in the development of toolsto assist professionals in preparing disaster and recovery plans.The tools are available to users as well as templates createdby existing libraries and archives that can be helpful to acommittee preparing a disaster plan or updating an existingplan.

dPlan™, The Online Disaster Planning Tool, developed inpartnership between the Northeast Document Conservation

Center (NEDCC) and Massachusetts Board of LibraryCommissioners (MBLC) is free and fairly simple to use. Userslog-in to complete the comprehensive interactive form, theinformation is saved and stored, then, a hardcopy (PDF file)can be printed. The hardcopy should be readily available incase of emergency.

With dPlan™, there are seven sections including:Institutional Information; Prevention; Response and Recovery;Supplies and Services; Scope and Goals; Staff Training;Distribution, Review and Updating. It does not have to becompleted in one sitting. The Data Collection Form can beprinted in advance and the template can be filled in by handbefore entering the data online. Or, it is possible to enter thedata online and save it along the way. The 129-page documentmay seem daunting, but will prove to be invaluable. To reducethe amount of time needed to complete the form, check boxesand pull-down menus are provided. A scale of 1 to 4 is (onebeing serious risk and four not a risk at all) is used to measureconditions. The scale forces the user to make a choice resultingin a more effective reading. dPlan™ offers consistency in plansthrough vocabulary and format, yet an upload file featureallows for flexibility-necessary attachments and/or appendicesmay be added to supplement the plan.

The Emergency Response and Salvage Wheel is anotheruseful tool. It was produced by the Heritage Emergency NationalTask Force on Emergency Response. The design of thewaterproof, hand-held tool provides essential information in aneasy to read format. The two-sided disc outlines action stepsand salvage steps for emergency situations, including a sectionon electronic records. It is also available in Spanish.

The Disaster Mitigation Planning Assistance Website. is aWebsite created by Michigan State University Libraries, theCenter for Great Lakes Culture and the California PreservationProgram. It is possible to search resources based on individualneeds. Pull down menus filter results and an export featuremakes it possible to download the data to an (CSV) Exceldocument. The document may contain company names,addresses, phone numbers, email addresses, and URL addresses


for the corresponding service, supplier, or expert on file. It isalso possible to submit resource as well as view sample plansfrom this Website.

There are workbooks from libraries and archives withpublished disaster plans. Many can be found online, but onlytwo will be named at this time. The first one is New YorkUniversity Library's Disaster Plan Workbook. A committee often works in partnership with the Library's PreservationDepartment to administer the plan. It contains seven chapterswith forms, priorities and procedures along with a table ofcontents, appendices-divided into six sections-and index."Instructions in the workbook provide undamaging salvagemethods for all types of library materials, including a list ofsupplies needed for each. Consultants, specialists, hardwarestores and staff telephone trees are listed."

The workbook is displayed using HTML for navigationbetween the pages by clicking. It is not possible to type intothe pages of the Workbook, but the pages may be printed andcustomized with pertinent information of the library or archiveusing this format.

Western New York Disaster Preparedness and RecoveryManual for Libraries and Archives is available for download asa PDF document. This manual provides a number of worksheetsto be completed by the user. It contains a glossary of terms toensure those involved in the planning and executing processare speaking the same language. A section on "Protection" listsemergency supplies; decisions to make when assembling in-house disaster response teams; and types of alarms and systemsto warn against smoke and fire. Salvaging techniques andrehabilitation are also covered extensively. It is not limited topaper materials but also includes film, magnetic and digitalmedia.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONSINTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONSINTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONSINTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONSINTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

International Association of Emergency ManagersInternational Association of Emergency ManagersInternational Association of Emergency ManagersInternational Association of Emergency ManagersInternational Association of Emergency Managers

The International Association of Emergency Managers(IAEM) is a non-profit educational organization dedicated to

promoting the goals of saving lives and protecting propertyduring emergencies and disasters. The mission of IAEM is toserve its members by providing information, networking andprofessional opportunities, and to advance the emergencymanagement profession.

Red Cross/Red CrescentRed Cross/Red CrescentRed Cross/Red CrescentRed Cross/Red CrescentRed Cross/Red Crescent

National Red Cross/Red Crescent societies often have pivotalroles in responding to emergencies. Additionally, theInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties (IFRC, or "The Federation") may deploy assessmentteams to the affected country. They specialize in the recoverycomponent of the emergency management framework.

United NationsUnited NationsUnited NationsUnited NationsUnited Nations

Within the United Nations system responsibility foremergency response rests with the Resident Coordinator withinthe affected country. However, in practice international responsewill be coordinated, if requested by the affected country'sgovernment, by the UN Office for the Coordination ofHumanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), by deploying a UN DisasterAssessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team.

AustraliaAustraliaAustraliaAustraliaAustralia

The key federal coordinating and advisory body foremergency management in Australia is Emergency ManagementAustralia (EMA). Each state has its own State EmergencyService. The Emergency Call Service provides a national 000emergency telephone number to contact state Police, Fire andAmbulance services. Arrangements are in place for state andfederal cooperation.

IndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia

The Indian government spends a lot in managingdisasters.There has been a shift from "disaster response andrecovery" to "disaster risk management and reduction" strategiesand from "Government centred approach" to "communityparticipation".


CanadaCanadaCanadaCanadaCanada

Public Safety Canada (PSC) is Canada's national emergencymanagement agency. Each province is required to set up theirEmergency Management Organizations.

PSC coordinates and supports the efforts of federalorganizations ensuring national security and the safety ofCanadians. They also work with other levels of government,first responders, community groups, the private sector (operatorsof critical infrastructure) and other nations.

PSC's work is based on a wide range of policies andlegislation through the Public Safety and EmergencyPreparedness Act which defines the powers, duties and functionsof PSC are outlined. Other acts are specific to fields such ascorrections, emergency management, law enforcement, andnational security.

Provincial EMOsProvincial EMOsProvincial EMOsProvincial EMOsProvincial EMOs

• Provincial Emergency Program, Province of BritishColumbia's EMO.

GermanyGermanyGermanyGermanyGermany

In Germany the Federal Government controls the GermanKatastrophenschutz (disaster relief) and Zivilschutz (civildefense) programs. The German fire department and theTechnisches Hilfswerk (Federal Agency for Technical Relief,THW) are part of these programs. The German Armed Forces(Bundeswehr) can be deployed for disaster relief operations.

New ZealandNew ZealandNew ZealandNew ZealandNew Zealand

In New Zealand the Ministry of Civil Defence & EmergencyManagement (MCDEM) has statutory authority for managingany state of emergency declared by the central government.Local government bodies such as city and regional councilshave their own emergency management agencies to managelocalised states of emergency, but these all defer to the MCDEMin the event of a national state of emergency. The WellingtonEmergency Management Office (WEMO) occupies a purposebuilt building with its own water, electricity, communications

and sewerage facilities to ensure continued operations in theevent of an emergency or disaster.

RussiaRussiaRussiaRussiaRussia

In Russia the Ministry of Emergency Situations(EMERCOM) is engaged in fire fighting, Civil Defense, Searchand Rescue, including rescue services after natural and human-made disasters.

United KingdomUnited KingdomUnited KingdomUnited KingdomUnited Kingdom

The United Kingdom adjusted its focus on emergencymanagement following the 2000 UK fuel protests, severe UKflooding in the same year and the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth crisis. This resulted in the creation of the CivilContingencies Act 2004 (CCA) which legislated theresponsibilities of all category one responders regarding anemergency response. The CCA is managed by the CivilContingencies Secretariat through regional disaster centresand at the local authority level.

Disaster Management training is generally conducted atthe local level by the organisations involved in any response.This is consolidated through professional courses that can beundertaken at the Emergency Planning College. Furthemorediplomas and undergraduate qualifications can be gainedthroughout the country-the first course of this type was carriedout by Coventry University in 1994. Institute of EmergencyManagement is a charity organisation, established in 1996, toprovide consulting services for the government, media andcommercial sectors.

The Professional Society for Emergency Planners is theEmergency Planning Society.

The UK's largest ever emergency exercise was carried outon 20 May 2007 near Belfast, Northern Ireland, and involvedthe scenario of a plane crash landing at Belfast InternationalAirport. Staff from five hospitals and three airports participatedin the drill, and almost 150 international observers assessedits effectiveness.


United StatesUnited StatesUnited StatesUnited StatesUnited States

Under the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), theFederal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is lead agencyfor emergency management. The HAZUS software packagedeveloped by FEMA is central in the risk assessment processin the country. The United States and its territories are coveredby one of ten regions for FEMA's emergency managementpurposes. Tribal, state, county and local governments developemergency management programs/departments and operatehierarchially within each region. Emergencies are managed atthe most-local level possible, utilizing mutual aid agreementswith adjacent jurisdictions. If the emergency is terrorist relatedor if declared an "Incident of National Significance", theSecretary of Homeland Security will initiate the NationalResponse Plan (NRP). Under this plan the involvement offederal resources will be made possible, integrating in with thelocal, county, state, or tribal entities. Management will continueto be handled at the lowest possible level utilizing the NationalIncident Management System (NIMS).

The Citizen Corps is an organization of volunteer serviceprograms, administered locally and coordinated nationally byDHS, which seek to mitigate disaster and prepare the populationfor emergency response through public education, training,and outreach. Community Emergency Response Teams are aCitizen Corps program focused on disaster preparedness andteaching basic disaster response skills. These volunteer teamsare utilized to provide emergency support when disasteroverwhelms the conventional emergency services.

ICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENTICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENTICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENTICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENTICT IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Looking at disaster events of the last few years it is evidentthat by no means natural or man-made disasters can be fullyprevented. Only the loss caused by these events can beprevented.

Information and Communications Technology (ICT) can beused to minimize this impact in many ways. ICT is used inalmost all phases of the disaster management process. In the

disaster mitigation and preparedness process, ICT is widelyused to create early warning systems. An early warning systemmay use more than one ICT media in parallel and these canbe either traditional (radio, television, telephone) or modern(SMS, cell broadcasting, Internet). As demonstrated by AlertNet,on-line media play an important role.

In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, special softwarepackages built for the purpose can be used for activities suchas registering missing persons, administrating on-line requestsand keeping track of relief organizations or camps of displacedpersons. In addition, geographic information systems (GIS) andremote sensing software are being effectively used in all phasesof disaster management. It is essential that ICT is given its dueplace in disaster management but it should also not be takenas panacea for all ills. ICT, like any other tool, can deliver itsbest when the other necessary ingredients are in place.

WHY DISASTER MANAGEMENT?WHY DISASTER MANAGEMENT?WHY DISASTER MANAGEMENT?WHY DISASTER MANAGEMENT?WHY DISASTER MANAGEMENT?

Disaster management (also called disaster riskmanagement) is the discipline that involves preparing, warning,supporting and rebuilding societies when natural or man-madedisasters occur. It is the continuous process by which allindividuals, groups and communities manage hazards in aneffort to avoid or minimize the impact of disasters resultingfrom hazards.

Effective disaster management relies on thoroughintegration of emergency plans at all levels of government andnon-government involvement. Activities at each level(individual, group, community) affect the other levels. Eventsover the last two years have shown that there is no countrythat does not stand the threat of a disaster.

Countries like China, Indonesia, Iran and Pakistan areprone to earthquakes. Small Islands States in the Pacific regionand countries like Maldives are prone to various types of threatsfrom the sea. Bangladesh and parts of China and Indiaexperience floods each year. Therefore, disaster preparednessis no longer a choice; it is mandatory irrespective of where onelives.


DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND THE MDGSDISASTER MANAGEMENT AND THE MDGSDISASTER MANAGEMENT AND THE MDGSDISASTER MANAGEMENT AND THE MDGSDISASTER MANAGEMENT AND THE MDGS

It is somewhat surprising that no Millennium DevelopmentGoal (MDG) directly addresses the issues related to disastermanagement. Perhaps it is because it is so obvious that buildinga safer world is a prerequisite for the achievement of all theeight MDGs. Poverty eradication, freedom from hunger, primaryeducation, freedom from disasters, and building a sustainableworld etc. are all key aspects of the disaster managementprocess. It has been shown that any nation should have effectivedisaster reduction and recovery processes in place to achievethe MDGs by the expected deadline of year 2015.

WHERE ICT FITS IN?WHERE ICT FITS IN?WHERE ICT FITS IN?WHERE ICT FITS IN?WHERE ICT FITS IN?

The disaster management cycle involves four key phases.

o Mitigation-includes any activities that prevent a disaster,reduce the chance of a disaster happening, or reduce thedamaging effects of unavoidable disasters.

o Preparedness-includes plans or preparations made tosave lives or property, and to help the response andrescue service operations.

o Response-includes actions taken to save lives andprevent property damage, and to preserve theenvironment during emergencies or disasters. Theresponse phase is the implementation of action plans.

o Recovery-includes actions that assist a community toreturn to a sense of normalcy after a disaster.

These four phases usually overlap. ICT is being used in allthe phases, but the usage is more apparent in some phasesthan in the others.

ICT for Disaster Mitigation and PreparednessICT for Disaster Mitigation and PreparednessICT for Disaster Mitigation and PreparednessICT for Disaster Mitigation and PreparednessICT for Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness

The importance of timely disaster warning can never beunderestimated. When the tsunami in 2004 hit several countriesin the Asian region, it caused a loss of hundreds of thousandsof human lives, because there was no timely disaster warning.The history repeated in Northern Pakistan in the Kashmiri

earthquake nearly a year later. On the other hand, the US wasrelatively well prepared and could evacuate the population ofNew Orleans, and thus, minimized the number of deaths as aresult of the hurricane Katrina in 2005, which was no lessdamaging than the Asian tsunami or Kashmiri earthquake.

An early warning system involves several players and hasmany links. At one end there is the central authority thatmonitors and issues the warning. At the other end are thecommunities to whom the warning message is intended. Inbetween, one or more channels are linking these two ends. Thisis where ICT plays the most crucial role. However, in this caseit is not a question of one medium against another. Therequirement is to pass the warning as quick and as accurateas possible. Any one-or a combination-of the following ICT andmedia tools can be used for that purpose.

Radio and Television: Radio and Television: Radio and Television: Radio and Television: Radio and Television: Considered the most traditionalelectronic media used for disaster warning, radio and televisionstill have a valid use. The effectiveness of these two media ishigh because even in developing countries and ruralenvironments where the tele-density is relatively low, they canbe used to spread a warning quickly to a broad population. Theonly possible drawback of these two media is that theireffectiveness is significantly reduced at night when they arenormally switched off.

Telephone (fixed and mobile): Telephone (fixed and mobile): Telephone (fixed and mobile): Telephone (fixed and mobile): Telephone (fixed and mobile): Telephones can play animportant role in warning communities about the impendingdanger of a disaster. There were many examples of how simplephone warnings saved many lives in South Asian countriesduring the 2004 tsunami. Perhaps the most famous was anincident that occurred in one small coastal village of Nallavaduin Pondicherry, India. A timely telephone call-warning aboutthe impending tsunami-was said to have saved the village'sentire population of 3,600 inhabitants, as well as those of threeneighbouring villages.

Short Message Service (SMS): Short Message Service (SMS): Short Message Service (SMS): Short Message Service (SMS): Short Message Service (SMS): During the 2005 hurricaneKatrina disaster in the US, many residents of affected coastalareas were unable to make contact with relatives and friends


using traditional landline phones. However, they couldcommunicate with each other via SMS more easily when thenetwork was functional. This is because SMS works on adifferent band and can be sent or received even when the phonelines are congested. SMS also has another advantage over voicecalls in that one message can be sent to a group simultaneously.Cell Broadcasting: Most of today's wireless systems support afeature called cell broadcasting.

A public warning message in text can be sent to the screensof all mobiles devices, which have such a capability in anygroup of cells of any size, ranging from one single cell (about8 kilometres across) to the whole country if necessary. GSM,D-AMPS, UMTS and CDMA phones have this capability.Satellite Radio: Satellite radio can play a key role during boththe disaster warning and disaster recovery phases. Its keyadvantage is the ability to work even outside of areas notcovered by normal radio channels. Satellite radio can also beof help when the transmission towers of the normal radiochannels are damaged in a disaster.

Internet and Email: Internet and Email: Internet and Email: Internet and Email: Internet and Email: The role Internet and email can playin disaster warning depends entirely on their penetration withina community. These media can play a prominent role in adeveloped country where nearly half of all homes and almostall offices have Internet connections. In many developingcountries, however, less than five percent of the populationuses the Internet and even those who are users, do not use iton a regular basis. In such a situation, it is difficult to expectInternet and email to play any critical role in disaster warning.However, both Internet and email can play an important rolein the other phases of disaster management.

Amateur Radio and Community Radio: Amateur Radio and Community Radio: Amateur Radio and Community Radio: Amateur Radio and Community Radio: Amateur Radio and Community Radio: For almost acentury, amateur radio operators have assisted theircommunities and countries during disasters by providing reliablecommunications to disaster relief organizations at a moment'snotice-especially when the communication infrastructure breaksdown. In such a situation, amateur radio operators transmitemergency traffic on voice mode about the well-being of survivorsas well as information on casualties to friends and relatives.

ROLE OF ON-LINE MEDIA IN DISASTERROLE OF ON-LINE MEDIA IN DISASTERROLE OF ON-LINE MEDIA IN DISASTERROLE OF ON-LINE MEDIA IN DISASTERROLE OF ON-LINE MEDIA IN DISASTERMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

Reuters' AlertNet is a good example of an ICT/mediainitiative that contributes towards early disaster warning andmanagement, at an international level. "AlertNet started in1997 by Reuters Foundation-an educational and humanitariantrust-to place Reuters' core skills of speed, accuracy and freedomfrom bias at the service of the humanitarian community. It isa humanitarian news network based on a popular website thataims to keep relief professionals and the wider public up-to-date on humanitarian crises around the globe." (AlertNet, 2007)

AlterNet has been in operation for more than a decade now.It was born in the aftermath of the Rwanda crisis of 1994, whenthe Reuters Foundation became interested in media reports ofpoor coordination between emergency relief charities on theground. Reuters Foundation surveyed charities to determinewhat could be done to remedy this. AlertNet now attracts morethan three million users a year, it has a network of four hundredcontributing humanitarian organizations and its weekly emaildigest is received by more than 17,000 readers.

ICT FOR DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERYICT FOR DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERYICT FOR DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERYICT FOR DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERYICT FOR DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY

The most difficult period of a disaster is the immediateaftermath. This period calls for prompt action, within anexceptionally short period of time. In the aftermath of anydisaster, a significant number of individuals will be injuredand/or displaced. Many of them might still be living with thetrauma they have encountered, including loss of loved ones.Affected individuals might also be without food or other essentialitems. They might be waiting in temporary shelters, with noidea of what to do next. Some might need immediate medicalattention, while the disaster aftermath environment also createsideal breeding grounds for possible epidemics.

ICT can play a key role in such an environment in managingthe available resources.

A good example of this is Sahana, a free and open sourcesoftware (FOSS)-based disaster management system that grew


out of the events during the 2004 Asian tsunami disaster. Thissystem was developed in Sri Lanka-one of the countries hardesthit by the tsunami-by a team of ICT volunteers to help trackfamilies and coordinate work among relief organizations duringand after the tsunami disaster. Subsequently, Sahana has beendeployed to manage the earthquake disaster in NorthernPakistan (2005), the Guinsaugon landslide in the Philippines(2006) and the earthquake in Yogjakarta, Indonesia (2006).

Sahana provides four main solutions:

o Sahana Missing Person Registry: This is an on-linebulletin board of missing and found people. Informationabout the person seeking another person is also captured,which increases the chances of people finding each other.

o Sahana Organization Registry: This registry keeps trackof all the relief organizations and civil society groupsworking in the disaster region. It captures not only theplaces where they are active, but also information onthe range of services they are providing in each area.

o Sahana Camps Registry: This registry keeps track ofthe location of all the camps in the region and providesbasic data on the facilities they may have and the numberof people in them. It also provides a GIS view to plotthe location of the camps in the affected area.

o Sahana Request Management System: This is a centralon-line repository where all relief organizations, reliefworkers, government agents and camps can effectivelymatch requests of aid and supplies to pledges of support.It looks like an on-line aid trading system trackingrequest to fulfillment.

GIS AND REMOTE SENSING IN DISASTERGIS AND REMOTE SENSING IN DISASTERGIS AND REMOTE SENSING IN DISASTERGIS AND REMOTE SENSING IN DISASTERGIS AND REMOTE SENSING IN DISASTERMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

GIS can be loosely defined as a system of hardware andsoftware used for storage, retrieval, mapping and analysis ofgeographic data. Spatial features are stored in a coordinatesystem (latitude, longitude, state plane etc.) that references aparticular place on the earth. Descriptive attributes in tabular

form are associated with spatial features. Spatial data andassociated attributes in the same coordinate system can thenbe layered together for mapping and analysis. GIS can be usedfor scientific investigations, resource management anddevelopment planning.

Remote sensing is the measurement or acquisition ofinformation about an object or phenomenon, by a recordingdevice that is not in physical or intimate contact with theobject. In practice, remote sensing is the remote utilization (asfrom aircraft, spacecraft, satellite or ship) of any device forgathering information about the environment. Thus, an aircrafttaking photographs, earth observation and weather satellites,monitoring of a foetus in the womb via ultrasound, and spaceprobes are all examples of remote sensing. In modern usage,the term generally refers to techniques involving the use ofinstruments aboard aircraft and spacecraft.

GIS and remote sensing are examples of ICT tools beingwidely used in almost all the phases of disaster managementactivities.

In the planning process GIS can be used to identify andpinpoint risk prone geographical areas, as a GIS-based 3D mapprovides much more information compared to an ordinary 2Dmap. Earth observation satellites can be used to view the samearea over long periods of time and as a result, make it possibleto monitor environmental change, human impact and naturalprocesses. In the mitigation phase, GIS are helpful in monitoring.

GIS play several roles in the recovery phase too. It canidentify the damage, assess it and begin to establish prioritiesfor action (triage). GIS can also ensure uniformity in thedistribution of supplies (medicine, food, water, clothing, etc.)to emergency distribution centres. They can be assigned inproper amounts based on the amount and type of damage ineach area.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

It is essential that we look at disaster management fromthe development angle. Disaster management is no longer either

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects7474747474 Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward 7575757575

a one-off or stand alone activity. Despite the fact that disasterpreparedness has not been identified as one of the MDGs, itis apparent that proper mechanisms for disaster awarenessand means of disaster recovery are essential to achieving theMDGs. One obvious challenge faced by the Asia-Pacific regionis the low ICT penetration levels in most of the region'sdeveloping countries. According to the UNDP HumanDevelopment Report of 2005 the tele-densities of Cambodia,Nepal and Bangladesh in 2003 were 38, 18 and 15 per 1,000people, respectively. The situation is not different when itcomes to radio and television. The irony is that while a limitedsection of households might have all these ICT-based media,the majority does not have any of them. With such lowpenetration levels it is extremely difficult to establish an effectivedisaster warning system. For these communities it is essentialto think of other means (such as community radio or publicaddress systems) for effective disaster warning.

Unless the telephone, radio and television penetration canbe reasonably increased it is difficult to guarantee that anycommunity can be free from the risk from disasters irrespectiveof the efficiency of the disaster monitoring systems. Anotherbig challenge is the reluctance of some national governmentsto implement ICT-friendly policies. There are many governmentsthat do not see investments in ICT or even buildinginfrastructure as priorities. The result invariably will be thatICT and technology in general take a back seat to presumedpriorities such as ensuring good governance practices, providinghealthcare facilities and addressing gender barriers come underthe spotlight. The examples highlighted in this APDIP e-Notemake it obvious that as far as disaster management is concerned,there is no reason why ICT should take a secondary role.

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BBBBBUILDINGUILDINGUILDINGUILDINGUILDING D D D D DISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER R R R R RISKISKISKISKISK R R R R REDUCTIONEDUCTIONEDUCTIONEDUCTIONEDUCTION INININININ

AAAAASIASIASIASIASIA: A W: A W: A W: A W: A WAYAYAYAYAY F F F F FORWARDORWARDORWARDORWARDORWARD

ADPC LOOKS AHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKS AHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKS AHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKS AHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKS AHEAD TO 2015

It is with great pleasure that, on the occasion of the WorldConference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) in Kobe, Japan, Ipresent this report which reviews the strategies adopted byADPC to address the thematic areas of disaster riskmanagement, the issues encountered and lessons learnt, andits future priorities.

The past decade,since the Yokohama Conference and theKobe Earthquake,have seen an exponential increase in theincidence and impact of disasters. In Asia, people and sustainabledevelopment continue to be threatened and impeded by thenegative impacts of disasters, which destroy infrastructure andlivelihoods, endanger physical and food security, hinder socialand economic progress, and reverse cumulative gains in reducingpoverty.

Natural disasters result in deforestation, loss of biodiversityand historic cultural assets, reduced water supply anddesertification, which contribute significantly to environmentaldegradation. History has shown that the Asia-Pacific region isthe most disaster prone area in the world. Witness in 2004, thefloods in Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia and ThePhilippines, the cyclones in Japan and Vietnam, the earthquakesin Indonesia, Iran and Japan and the catastrophic tsunamithat struct countries in the Indian Ocean.

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way ForwardBuilding Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia: A Way Forward7676767676 7777777777

The extremely high urban population density, the levelofdevelopment and the extent ofpoverty in most Asian countriesfurther exacerbate the cumulative impact ofdisasters onsustainable development. Since its establishment nearly twodecades ago, ADPC has played a key role in advancingdevelopments in disaster risk management by structuring itselfto focus on specific technical areas-climate risk management,disaster managementsystems,public health in emergencies,strategic disaster risk management and urban disaster riskmanagement-which optimizes ADPC's accumulated operationalexpertise and experience. Projects and programs includecommunity-based disaster risk management, building nationaland provincial disaster management systems, promotingregional cooperation, identifying disaster risk managementneeds and developing strategic solutions, and multi-levelinstitutional capacity building and training. These activitiesare meant to address current and future disaster riskmanagement challenges and issues.

In the coming years, ADPC will continue to develop effectiveoperational partnerships and collaborations with stakeholdersin disaster risk management and systematically advocate andsupport mainstreaming disaster risk management intosustainable development policies, plans and practicesthroughout the Asia-Pacific region. In acknowledging theencouragement and support received from internationaldevelopment agencies and partners, and the dedicated effortsof a hard-working and professional ADPC staff, I fervently re-affirm ADPC's commitment to pursuing its vision of buildingsafer communities and sustainable development throughdisaster reduction.

Asian Disaster Preparedness Center was established nearlytwo decades ago by Col Brian Ward, as a result of a jointfeasibility study on the needs of Asian countries in strengtheningtheir national disaster management systems. The study wascommissioned by the United Nations Disaster ReliefOrganization (UNDRO), now the United Nations Office for theCoordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), and theWorld Meteorological Organization (WMO) with funding support

from UNDP. Training was identified as "the greatest need ofall" for the region. Since then, ADPC has come a long way inmeeting the needs and challenges of the region through capacitybuilding, project implementation, facilitating regionalcooperation, information sharing and networking.

Although ADPC is not the only disaster managementorganization in Asia today, it has emerged as the leading regionalresource center and is one of the longest serving regionalresource centers in the world for disaster risk management.ADPC has a team of over 50 professionals from 16 countriescovering Asia, Australia, the United States and Europe.

ADPC restructured in July 2003 to focus on specific technicalareas: climate variability and change management, urbandisaster risk management, public health in emergencies,building national and provincial disaster management systems,and community based disaster risk management, promotingregional cooperation, identifying disaster risk managementneeds in the region and developing strategic solutions. Theconsolidation enables our teams to work more effectively withstakeholders.

ADPC continues to work on crosscutting themes such asinstitutional capacity building and training, information sharing,networking and knowledge management and providing technicaladvice. Common tools including risk assessment, mapping andcommunity-based approaches are employed. ADPC continuesto address multiple hazards under this new thematic approachand has identified new areas of importance to disaster riskmanagement that include chemical, biological and radio-nuclearrisks, conservation of culture and heritage, and the role ofdomestic capital markets in financing improvements in thebuilt environment to create a safer, more disaster-resilientworld.

THE ASIAN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS CENTRETHE ASIAN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS CENTRETHE ASIAN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS CENTRETHE ASIAN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS CENTRETHE ASIAN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS CENTRE

2015 is the target date for achieving the MillenniumDevelopment Goals which coincides with the silver jubilee ofthe start of the International Decade for Natural Disaster


Reduction and the end of the Kobe Plan of Action. This paperoutlines ADPC's activities that support and advance the effortsof these international programs and challenges and its intentto lead in mainstreaming disaster risk management conceptsand practices into development processes. ADPC's Look AheadTowards 2015 will also provide an overview of how ADPC isresponding to evolving issues in disaster risk management andfocusing on key themes including urban, health, communityand climate.

The paper will show how ADPC will continue to emphasizethe priority areas of informing and involving communities,support the application of expertise and investment to improvethe built environment and the development of institutions whichwill promote, guide and implement DRM. ADPC will also presentits intent to address emerging risk issues including chemical,biological and radio-nuclear risks and conservation of historicareas through domestic capital markets in financing theimprovements in the built environment. ADPC placesimportance on building capacities and raising awarenessamongst stakeholders including all levels of government, privatesector entities, donors and communities. This paper explainshow ADPC is apllying these new skills to make real changesin institutional capacity and the built environment throughstakeholder skills development and action. Private entities,public institutions and community groups trained to create amore resilient built environment will be our key achievement.

ADPC FOCUSADPC FOCUSADPC FOCUSADPC FOCUSADPC FOCUS

ADPC Disaster Risk Management TimelineADPC Disaster Risk Management TimelineADPC Disaster Risk Management TimelineADPC Disaster Risk Management TimelineADPC Disaster Risk Management Timeline

In the 1970s, disasters were viewed as one-off events.Governments and relief agencies ususally responded withouttaking into account the social and economic implications northe causes. With advancements in our understanding of theprocesses that underlie hazardous events, a more technocraticparadigm came into existence. This paradigm was based on abelief that the only way to deal with disasters was through theapplication of public policy and geophysical and engineeringknowledge. There was an emphasis on preparedness measures,

as well as stockpiling relief goods, preparedness plans and agrowing role for humanitarian and relief agencies. Thiscontingency planning approach improved the efficiency of reliefagencies and resulted in a significant drop in the number ofdeaths, but it left a lot to be desired in terms of appropriateand effective long-term rehabilitation, reconstruction andsustainable development. As the knowledge base grew, disasterresponse and risk managers began to realize that it was notenough to manage disaster events alone but that the underlyingrisks needed to be addressed as well. By reducing vulnerabilityto hazards, building capacity and improving people's 'resilience',disaster risks could be reduced.

The terms "risk management," "risk reduction,""vulnerability reduction," "capacity building" and "mitigation"began replacing the term "disaster management," thus makingpro-active disaster risk management in Asia part of thedevelopment agenda that must deal with the growing varietyand intensity of hazards. It was a shift from short-term, reactive,charity-driven responses to long-term, proactive, developmentalinitiatives.

From its inception in 1986, ADPC has recognized theimportance of learning from grassroots organizations andfocusing on communities as key stakeholders. Community-BasedDisaster Risk Management (CBDRM) has assumed theimportance it deserves and ADPC will continue to advocate fora dual-track approach of bottom-up and top-down policy andpractice.

ADPC was an early advocate of Urban Disaster RiskManagement (UDRM). An understanding of sustainabledevelopment issues led ADPC to conclude that urbanization isa phenomenon not to be denied. With USAID/Office of ForeignDisaster Assistance (OFDA) support over the past decade, ADPClaunched an on-going program to address urban disaster riskmanagement in Asia.

ADPC identified Climate Variability and Change as adisaster risk management issue almost a decade ago. As scienceimproved our ability to predict extreme events and devise more


reliable early warning systems, the need for links betweendisaster risk managers, NGOs, vulnerable communities andthe scientific community became an agenda item for ADPCaction. ADPC sits on the cutting edge of these initiatives toengage the scientific community first on floods, and now toinclude cloudbursts, tsunami and landslides for useful earlywarning information in disaster mitigation initiatives andsustainable agricultural policy, planning and implementation.

Requirements for Public Health in Emergencies have focusedinternational agencies on the effects of disaster response andpreparedness that had been lost in a growing array of issues.The World Health Organization has engaged with ADPC tocreate structural and non-structural scenarios to address masscasualty events through 'resilient facilities' and staff trained inpsycho-social issues of responders and medical and traumavictims. WHO, with ADPC support, has identified the need todeliver this training and the first WHO/ADPC/UNDP Disastersand Development event has been successfully initiated.

ADPC CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL DECADEADPC CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL DECADEADPC CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL DECADEADPC CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL DECADEADPC CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL DECADEFOR NATURAL DISASTERFOR NATURAL DISASTERFOR NATURAL DISASTERFOR NATURAL DISASTERFOR NATURAL DISASTER

Reduction (IDNDR) and International Strategy forReduction (IDNDR) and International Strategy forReduction (IDNDR) and International Strategy forReduction (IDNDR) and International Strategy forReduction (IDNDR) and International Strategy forDisaster Reduction (UN ISDR)Disaster Reduction (UN ISDR)Disaster Reduction (UN ISDR)Disaster Reduction (UN ISDR)Disaster Reduction (UN ISDR)

In the late 1980s, ADPC lent a regional voice to the globaladvocacy of the scientific community for a decade for disasterreduction. ADPC was involved as a key regional partnerthroughout IDNDR, especially after Yokohama. Milestonesinclude the collaboration between the IDNDR Radius Projectand our Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Program; co-organizingwith UNESCAP and the IDNDR Secretariat the February 1999Asia meeting in Bangkok, the Bangkok Declaration, and therelease of the ADPC-IDNDR publication "Managing Disastersin Asia and the Pacific: A Review of Lessons Learned Duringthe International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction" atthe Geneva Forum in July 1999. At the closing of IDNDR,ADPC was invited to be a member of the 22 member UN Inter-Agency Force on Disaster Reduction. ADPC founded the ISDRAsia Partnership.

PartnershipsPartnershipsPartnershipsPartnershipsPartnerships

Partnerships are a key element for sustaining institutionsand activities. ADPC recognized from the start the need forworking with partners to increase opportunities for trainingand technical assistance. Partnerships are a potent tool indecision-making on institutional roles and responsibilities indisaster situations. Knowing the partners, their resources,strengths and weaknesses helps to ensure that key issues,skills and requirements are not omitted. Assistance to ADPChas been generously provided by Australian AID (AusAID),USAID and its Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA),United Nations agencies, especially WHO, UNDP, UNICEF,ESCAP, FAO, WMO, ISDR, the European Union (DIPECHO)and bi-lateral organizations such as DANIDA, GTZ, NORAD,and SIDA. The World Bank, on whose PROVENTION SteeringCommittee ADPC sits, and the Asian Development Bank havebeen active partners of ADPC.

Promoting Regional CooperationPromoting Regional CooperationPromoting Regional CooperationPromoting Regional CooperationPromoting Regional Cooperation

An essential element for disaster reduction and safer livingenvironments is building networks between key partners. Withan established network of people from all sectors a commonvision of disaster reduction and sustainable development canbe achieved. Past experience has proven such partnerships tobe an effective mechanism for promoting awareness, developingand implementing strategies, policies and plans, joint-programsand initiatives in disaster reduction. ADPC has enjoyed a long-standing relationship with National Disaster ManagementOffices in Asia. In 2000, ADPC established a mechanism toidentify the disaster-related needs and priorities of Asiancountries, to develop action strategies and to promote cooperativeprograms on a regional and sub-regional basis through theRegional Consultative Committee on Disaster Management(RCC).

The RCC is made up of 30 members who work in seniorgovernment positions and are heads of the National DisasterManagement Offices in 25 countries in Asia. To date, four RCCmeetings have been held. These meetings have been


instrumental in providing an increasingly visible platform fordisaster risk management and demonstrate the support andcommitment of political leaders of member countries as wasevident in the inauguration of the 3 rd and 4 th RCC meetingsby the Deputy Prime Minister of India and the President of thePeople's Republic of Bangladesh in Delhi, October 2002 and inDhaka, March, 2004.

ADPC has been actively involved in providing technicalsupport to a number of existing regional and sub-regional bodiesincluding ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment (ASOEN)on transboundary, pollution and environmental disasters, theASEAN Committee on Disaster Management (ACDM) on thedevelopment of the ASEAN Regional Program on DisasterManagement (ARPDM), the Mekong River Commission on theimplementation of their Flood Management and MitigationProgram (FMMP), as well as close collaboration with the SouthAsian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), theInternational Center for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) in Nepal, the South Pacific Applied GeosciencesCommission (SOPAC), and Emergency Management Australia(EMA). ADPC will continue to be proactive in its support tostrengthen, enhance and sustain these partnerships.

Lessons LearnedLessons LearnedLessons LearnedLessons LearnedLessons Learned

ADPC's experience in disaster management and disasterrisk reduction has resulted in a number of important lessonslearned:

o A common understanding of terminology is essential forprogress in disaster risk management (DRM).

o Top-down and bottom-up DRM strategies should beimplemented simultaneously.

o Simulation tools and demonstration projects illustratethe translation of theory to practice, offer importantinsights and should be used more extensively to developand update DRM systems and arrangements.

o The process of evaluation and review and the subsequentprocess of adjustment and improvement are integral tothe implementation of DRM strategies.

o The links between DRM and governance, poverty,education, livelihoods and health must be betterrecognized and addressed in training and capacitybuilding.

o Investment in mitigation is an essential component ofsustainable development.

o The role of local government is critical to safer, moreresilient built environments.

o Technical expertise needs to incorporate disaster riskmitigation in professional training.

o The role of the community must continue to evolve fromthat of victim and beneficiary to partner in programdesign and implementation.

Regional Consultative CommitteeRegional Consultative CommitteeRegional Consultative CommitteeRegional Consultative CommitteeRegional Consultative Committee

As a key mechanism to systematically encourage andfacilitate regional cooperation in disaster reduction, the RegionalConsultative Committee for disaster management (RCC) wasconceived in mid-1999. Supported by the Government ofAustralia since 2000, the RCC provides an annual forum formember governments to share information on national, sub-national and regional priorities and needs, as well as lessonslearnt and best practices. The RCC is comprised of heads ofNational Disaster Management Offices (NDMOs); to daterepresenting 25 countries in Asia. Annual meetings are convenedby ADPC and co-organised by Government of a host countrywhich have been held in 2000 and 2001 in Thailand, 2002 inIndia and 2004 in Bangladesh. The 5th RCC meeting will beheld in Vietnam in May 2005. The inauguration of the 3rd and4th RCC meetings by the Deputy Prime Minister of India andthe President of the People's Republic of Bangladeshdemonstrate the commitment of political leaders of membercountries to disaster risk management.

An RCC Program on Advocacy and Capacity Building forMainstreaming Disaster Risk Management in DevelopmentPractice (MDRM) in member countries, supported by AusAID,was launched in March 2004.


PRIORITY ACTIVITIESPRIORITY ACTIVITIESPRIORITY ACTIVITIESPRIORITY ACTIVITIESPRIORITY ACTIVITIES

Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management intoMainstreaming Disaster Risk Management intoMainstreaming Disaster Risk Management intoMainstreaming Disaster Risk Management intoMainstreaming Disaster Risk Management intoDevelopment Policy, Planning, and ImplementationDevelopment Policy, Planning, and ImplementationDevelopment Policy, Planning, and ImplementationDevelopment Policy, Planning, and ImplementationDevelopment Policy, Planning, and Implementation

Asia suffers more disasters than any other region of theworld and disasters set back years of development gains.Conversely, development activities can reduce disaster risks orinduce new risks if disaster risk considerations do not figureinto project design. Development activity and disaster riskreduction are two sides of the same coin and have to be dealtwith in unison. It is still necessary to convince entities andindividuals to consider their activities in the light of "risks." Inshort, create a "culture of risk awareness."

Mainstreaming disaster risk management into developmentpractice requires all institutions at all levels and from all sectorsto clarify their roles and responsibilities. Mainstreaming shouldresult in better anticipation of short-and long-term impacts andhelp people prepare for events that require trained personneland safe, resilient 'lifeline infrastructure' for disaster victims.Mainstreaming promotes the preparation and application ofinformation, assessments, guidelines and awareness of disasterrisk.

Government, financial, national and local implementingagencies must factor into their programs the measures neededto reduce disaster risks. Are critical facilities located on landthat is landslide prone? Resources to run these systems,especially investment capital, will need to come from domesticcapital markets and national finance systems.

Recently, ADPC embarked on a project for Advocacy andCapacity Building for Mainstreaming Disaster RiskManagement in Development Practice.

The project is a direct outcome of the 4 th Annual RegionalConsultative Committee (RCC) meeting held in Dhaka,Bangladesh. With core funding from AusAID, the project seeksto promote and encourage the mainstreaming of disaster riskmanagement (MDRM) into sustainable development policiesand practices throughout Asia. ADPC hopes to create a critical

mass of advocates and champions for MDRM, a greaterwillingness to include MDRM in regional and nationaldevelopment agendas and the widespread adoption of MDRMtraining and curricula materials.

Community-based Approaches to Disaster RiskCommunity-based Approaches to Disaster RiskCommunity-based Approaches to Disaster RiskCommunity-based Approaches to Disaster RiskCommunity-based Approaches to Disaster RiskManagementManagementManagementManagementManagement

Community-based Disaster Management (CBDM) emergedas an alternative during the 1980s and 1990s. Over the last twodecades it has become apparent that top-down approaches failto address the needs of vulnerable communities, often ignoringlocal capacities and resources. A top-down approach can increasevulnerability and undermine project improvements in qualityof life, security and resilience. The CBDM approach (nowCBDRM) emphasizes the active involvement of communities inall phases of disaster risk management. The aim is to reducevulnerabilities and to increase the capacities of vulnerablegroups to prevent or minimize loss and damage to life, property,livelihoods and the environment, and to minimize humansuffering and hasten recovery.

The ADPC approach to Community-based Disaster RiskManagement concentrates on:

(1) capacity building through training,

(2) sharing experiences amongst practitioners and decision-makers, especially regional exchanges or South-Southlearning, and

(3) initiating links among national and local governmentdepartments, NGOs and communities through local,national and regional platforms and associations.

In 1997, ADPC in collaboration with the Duryog Nivaran,a network of disaster mitigation NGOs in South Asia, initiatedthe first international course on CBDRM. Today CBDRMtraining has become one of the flagship courses offered byADPC. So far, twelve international CBDRM courses and severalnational courses have been organized. Training in CBDRM hasbeen effective in promoting the importance of communityinvolvement and has become a national priority in Bangladesh,


Cambodia, India, Lao PDR, the Philippines and Sri Lanka.ADPC partner organizations offer the course at the nationallevel in these countries on a regular basis and ADPC continuesto play a support role in quality control and updating coursematerial.

ADPC employs CBDRM across its thematic areas. TheUrban Disaster Risk Management (UDRM) team isimplementing CBDRM successfully in Nepal, Cambodia andthe Philippines. These activities have resulted in a greaterparticipation of urban communities in developing action plans,improving standards of living and creating a more resilientbuilt environment. Between 2001-2004, ADPC implemented aregional program, Partnerships for Disaster Reduction forSoutheast Asia (PDRSEA) in six countries. The project wasimplemented with core funding from ECHO under the Secondand Third DIPECHO Action Plans for Southeast Asia. Theemphasis of the PDRSEA project focuses on developing newtools and methodologies, capacity building and training tointegrate community-based disaster risk management intonational disaster risk management programs and supportinginitiatives by community groups to address the risks they face.An important product of PDRSEA2 was the first edition of theCBDRM Field Practitioners' Handbook.

In May 2004 under the PDRSEA2 Project and incollaboration with UNESCAP and the International Federationof Red Crosses (IFRC), ADPC held the Third DisasterManagement Practitioners' Workshop. The four-day workshopprovided opportunities for practitioners to discuss how CBDRMis presently being practiced in the region and how it can beintegrated into government policies, planning and programbudgets.

Institutionalizing CBDRM in Government Policy,Institutionalizing CBDRM in Government Policy,Institutionalizing CBDRM in Government Policy,Institutionalizing CBDRM in Government Policy,Institutionalizing CBDRM in Government Policy,Planning and BudgetsPlanning and BudgetsPlanning and BudgetsPlanning and BudgetsPlanning and Budgets

Institutionalizing CBDRM is a multi-sector, multi-level andparticipatory process based on agreed values leading topermanence, regularization, and sustainability throughintegration into the socio-economic development processes.

From the perspective of community groups andorganizations, 'institutionalization' is a state in which their roleis recognized by the government, their efforts are supportedand the roles and functions of various stakeholders are defined.

In different organizational and cultural contexts the processis referred to by different names. These include: institutionalize,mainstream, scale-up, normalize, legitimize, integrate, adopt,replicate or sustain.

Institutionalization of CBDRM is required to:

o Achieve the vision of disaster-resilient communities.

o Scale-up the impact (more people, more communities,more risks addressed).

o Enhance learning (more stakeholders, more cases, morelessons).

o Sustain the gains (more structural, more permanentimprovements).

o Recognize that strategic success lies in the hands ofpeople in communities.

o Position CBDRM as a viable approach to sustainabledevelopment.

o Mobilize partner resources for disaster risk management.

The workshop concluded with consensus that:

o A bottom-up approach (CBDRM) is an essential part ofDisaster Risk Management.

o CBDRM works best when there is a high level ofcoordination and cooperation amongst stakeholders.

o CBDRM works best when it addresses both structuraland non-structural program planning andimplementation.

o CBDRM is multi-faceted and thus cross-sectoral in scope.

o CBDRM is most effective when it is adapted to matchthe social, political and cultural environment of acommunity.


o There is a need to maintain efforts to enhanceinclusiveness, decentralization and empowerment.

o There is a need for continued innovation through reviewof the form and content of training materials andactivities.

ADPC maintains CBDRM as a priority for the Asian region.Next steps for ADPC are to institutionalize CBDRM and organizenational and regional forums with government officials, NGOsand community representatives. A PDRSEA follow-on programsupported by the EU will extend the reach of CBDRM toCambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Lao PDR and Vietnam andADPC will work towards similar initiatives in other sub-regionsof Asia.

DISASTER RISK COMMUNICATIONDISASTER RISK COMMUNICATIONDISASTER RISK COMMUNICATIONDISASTER RISK COMMUNICATIONDISASTER RISK COMMUNICATION

Disaster Risk Communication (DRC) helps ensure that at-risk communities become more aware of the threats they faceand the protective actions they can take.

ADPC is partnering with organizations to develop a varietyof risk communication tools in local languages. These programsemphasize the variety of formats that awareness campaignscan take and help partners prepare and implement programs.ADPC's Urban DRM team has trained partner institutions toimplement disaster risk communication campaigns inBangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Lao PDR andIndonesia.

In Nepal, an Earthquake Safety Day has been established.Every year programs and activities are organized around thetheme of earthquake safety to promote greater awareness ofearthquake risk.

In Bangladesh, parades, dramas and campaigns areorganized annually to remind people of the dangers they faceand of the safety measures that can be taken to minimize risk.In Sri Lanka, there have been several public awareness effortscarried out as part of an overall DRM program. One exampleis a soap opera on landslide hazard that was televised nation-wide.

Through Asian Development Bank-funded TechnicalAssistance Projects in the two Indian states of Uttar Anchaland Uttar Pradesh, similar campaigns were conducted to raisepublic awareness of earthquakes and floods.

From 2001 to 2003, ADPC implemented a program calledthe Disaster Reduction Program for Cambodia, Lao PDR andVietnam (DRP-CLV), with core funding from DANIDA. Theeighteen-month project focused on capacity building, pilotimplementation and program development. Disaster riskcommunication and public awareness activities supportedbehavioral change in institutions and communities, and ADPCtested an innovative approach to social marketing for disastermitigation. This involved identifying target groups, assessingtheir levels of needs and understanding and tailoring programsthat prepared and tested communication products and messageswith the identified stakeholder community. The participatoryapproach proved to be very successful. Tools developed includedposters, leaflets, educational material for primary schoolchildren, songs and street-plays.

Disaster risk communication continues to be a key area offocus for ADPC. It will remain a priority activity in disasterrisk reduction as there will be a constant need to educateofficials that rotate in and out of critical decision makingpositions and community leadership of the different threatsthey will be facing. There will be newer threats and the peopleat large will need to be alerted, warned and educated aboutthem. ADPC will engage with the mass media in Asia toencourage it to report on disaster prevention, mitigation andresponse constructively and pro-actively.

Investing in MitigationInvesting in MitigationInvesting in MitigationInvesting in MitigationInvesting in Mitigation

Applying disaster risk management tools and technologiesto the built environment has been a neglected aspect of disasterrisk management, yet it is the key link to sustainabledevelopment. Capital investment projects need to incorporatedisaster mitigation technologies and construction methods forcommunity facilities, infrastructure and shelter constructionand retrofit programs. Capital investment in the built


environment needs to be added to the disaster risk managementagenda. Shelter and community service construction and retrofitprograms can safeguard lives, support conservation of thenatural and built environment-including historic urban areasand community structures-and contribute to local economicdevelopment.

These programs can be financed domestically. It is neithernecessary nor desirable to have mitigation projects funded bydonors alone. Rather, it is important to mainstream the conceptsof mitigation improvement into the existing lending activitiesof national and community-based financial institutions. Existingmortgage lending and home improvement credit can beexpanded to include mitigation technologies for new constructionand existing structures.

Improvements can be based on the well-researchedconstruction guidelines and methods documented in how-tomanuals and handbooks, construction worker training in theapplication of improved construction techniques becomes usefulwhen combined with the financing to carry out the recommendedchanges.

The estimated five to seven per cent increase in constructioncosts is an investment in security and much less than thereplacement cost of structures damaged and destroyed bydisasters. Municipal finance programs in Asia have generallybeen limited to water supply and sewerage projects and solidwaste collection and disposal. This definition of infrastructureneeds to be expanded to include 'mitigation furniture' (raisedwalkways, dikes, flood control devices). Urban infrastructurealso includes community facilities that require upgrading tomake them safer, more disaster-resilient structures.

The domestic bond market can supply the funds forinfrastructure development agencies, thrift societies and housingfinance companies. What is needed is a capital investmentprogram based on affordability criteria to create commerciallyviable programs that offer affordable improvement packages tolow-income families. Such programs would include raisingawareness of the cultural value of historic urban areas and the

technical inputs needed for more resilient design andtechnologies as well as trained labor, appropriate materialsand capital.

Good Governance for Disaster Risk ManagementGood Governance for Disaster Risk ManagementGood Governance for Disaster Risk ManagementGood Governance for Disaster Risk ManagementGood Governance for Disaster Risk Management

Successful disaster reduction initiatives need political willand effective governance. Because governments play such animportant role, ADPC engages with disaster managementauthorities at the national, provincial and district levels to helpthem strengthen capacities to develop and enforce disastermitigation policies, regulations, operations and action plansand building codes. Successful instances of support provided tokey government agencies include:

o ADPC-UNDP Technical Support Projects in Cambodiaand Sri Lanka helped build up an integrated institutionalframework for disaster management.

o The development and delivery of a series of trainingcourses to the National Disaster Management Office(NDMO) of East Timor and various organizationsengaged in disaster management work in East Timor.

o In Thailand, the Royal Thai Government establishedthe Department of Disaster Mitigation and Prevention,whose core personnel participated in ADPC's DMC andCBDRM training courses.

o In Cambodia and India, implementation of hazard-specific capacity building activities for flood riskmanagement.

o Pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation orientationfor the new Ministry and Disaster Management andMitigation Center in Uttar Anchal in India-the first inthe country.

o A Commissionerate of Disaster Management in UttarPradesh plus the development of district level disastermanagement plans with a multi-hazard focus.

o In Sri Lanka a National Act was passed to establish anational physical planning department with its own


disaster mitigation unit to help integrate disastermitigation into the national land use planning policy (asa direct result of the Asian Urban Disaster ManagementProgram).

o The Royal Government of Nepal established a nationalday to observe the importance of earthquake mitigationand a national committee to organize the event.

o In Indonesia, the government agreed to include urbandisaster mitigation in its national development policy.

o In Sri Lanka, the government is considering an ADPC-AUDMP study as the basis for policy and institutionalchange.

o In Lao PDR a new fire code is being drafted based onthe experience gained from the AUDMP demonstrationproject.

o Naga City, Philippines developed a disaster mitigationimplementation plan for the city that is still beingimplemented.

o Ward 34 of the Municipality of Kathmandu, Nepaldeveloped an earthquake preparedness plan.

o The city of Bandung, Indonesia is implementing a floodand earthquake mitigation plan.

o Flood mitigation plans have been developed andimplemented for the Bangladesh municipalities ofGaibandha and Tongi.

o Nawalapitiya and Ratnapura in Sri Lanka areimplementing multi-hazard mitigation plans. ADPC isnow developing partnerships with Afghanistan andChina to advise and assist their governments inpromoting mitigation and disaster reduction.

Capacity Building for Disaster Risk ManagementCapacity Building for Disaster Risk ManagementCapacity Building for Disaster Risk ManagementCapacity Building for Disaster Risk ManagementCapacity Building for Disaster Risk Management

ADPC supports disaster-related management activitieswithin an overall decision-making framework, which we calldisaster risk management. An overall decision-makingframework for DRM should be based on a clear national policy

on risk management and it should achieve results throughinterlocking, accountable coordinating committees andimplementing agencies at national, intermediate and local levels.

A number of actions are needed to establish such aframework, including concept development, advocacy, capacitybuilding, independent monitoring and evaluation, strategicplanning and change management, and increasingly, capitalimprovement project development that channels investmentfunds into making the built environment more resilient. ADPCrecognizes the critical role of training in achieving this. Trainingas a capacity building tool has been a core activity of ADPCsince its inception and capacity building initiatives are part ofmost ADPC projects and programs.

Courses include:

o disaster risk management

o disaster risk communication

o community-based disaster risk management

o urban disaster mitigation (UDM)

o hazard-specific courses on flood disaster riskmanagement, earthquake vulnerability risk reduction,fire disaster risk management and flood preparednessplanning

o tailored country-based training courses

o public health and disasters

o disasters and development

Initiatives are under way to further the development ofdisaster risk management structures, including the introductionof new courses on:

o skills for effective training and training-of-trainers

o exercise and simulation management

o management of health risks arising from deliberate useof chemical, biological and radio-nuclear materials (inpartnership with WHO)


o coordination center management

o crisis and consequence management

o land-use management

o Information Technology applications in disastermanagement

To achieve effective results from training, ADPC linkstraining to action programs. ADPC then follows-up through thenetwork of course participants to inquire into the changes thatmay have occurred by applying skills gained during the trainingexperience. Training efforts are directed towards programoutcomes identified to increase capacity of an agency or systemin analysis, monitoring and evaluation; gain new insights intocauses of disasters and increasingly, the links across sectors.The role of exercises and simulations is similarly important, asthese tools can be uniquely effective in achieving significantchange in behavior and encouraging development of appropriatedisaster risk management structures and arrangements.

Managing Public Health RisksManaging Public Health RisksManaging Public Health RisksManaging Public Health RisksManaging Public Health Risks

The relationship between public health issues andemergency management has continued to gain considerableattention. Public health is a prime human development indicator.With increased awareness of linkages between disasters,development and poverty reduction, public health issues haveemerged as a key focus area for disaster managers anddevelopment workers alike. The relationship between healthand the built environment, land management, climate andurbanization are now being incorporated into health discoursesthat were once dominated solely by purely medical issues.

With recent political developments and rising concerns aboutterrorism and human-made disasters, attention has shifted topreparing health-related agencies for crises and agencycoordination in emergencies. There is a growing need to improverapid response capacity to emergencies, which can only beachieved through well-organized, well-trained and coordinatedemergency workers. This may involve communities as firstresponders. There is also an urgency to build capacities of

public health professionals to deal with large-scale public healthconsequences in times of disasters, emergencies and conflictsituations. To prepare a cadre of professionals, who can respondto emergencies, it is necessary to build capacities of healthworkers, volunteers and responders and the management skillsto develop and maintain facilities to which disaster victimswould be sent. Training is seen as a tool to bring awarenessand skills to emergency workers, disaster planners and medicalpersonnel.

Most courses offered by other institutions focus on 'response',and training individuals from UN agencies and internationalNGOs involved in charity and humanitarian assistance, or dealwith issues related to the care of refugees in complex emergencysituations. These courses put less emphasis on mass casualtymanagement in the context of emergencies and public healthissues like SARS and HIV/AIDS or on the linkage withdevelopment issues. To address this gap, ADPC has developedexpertise in health and medical aspects of response as well asprevention and mitigation of crises. ADPC training courses onhealth emergencies are being presented in collaboration withUN agencies such as WHO and UNDP and donor agencies suchas the Royal Government of Norway, JICA, Ministries of Health,public health colleges in universities, and international NGOs.New programs and projects are being developed and areattracting an audience outside in South Africa and the EasternMediterranean among others. ADPC training includes:

o Public Health and Emergency Management in Asia &the Pacific (PHEMAP) delivered in collaboration withthe Regional Offices of WHO for South East Asia(SEARO) and the Western Pacific (WPRO). This is acomprehensive training program designed for Ministriesof Health as the institutions responsible for providinga comprehensive and coherent health response to anemergency. PHEMAP courses can be adapted to alllevels of a Ministry and cover the problems thatMinistries actually face in natural disasters and masscasualty situations. The 5 th regional course is in theoffing. In conjunction with the regional courses conducted


in Bangkok, national courses are being organized andimplemented at the country level in Papua New Guinea,Vietnam and The Philippines.

o Public Health in Complex Emergencies (PHCE) isorganized in collaboration with the Mailman School ofPublic Health of Columbia University, World EducationInc. (WEI) and the International Rescue Committee(IRC). The training program in Asia addresses the uniquepublic health needs of refugees and internally displacedpersons. Areas covered are critical public health issuesfaced by governments and NGO/PVO personnel workingin complex emergencies. Topics include epidemiology,communicable diseases, environmental health, nutrition,reproductive health, weapons, violence and trauma,protection and security, psychosocial issues andcoordination.

o Hospital Emergency Preparedness & Response Course(HEPR) is designed to assist health service providers,both administrative and medical, to plan responses toemergencies that involve large numbers of casualties.

o Disasters and Development (D&D) has recently beenlaunched jointly by ADPC, the Southeast Asia RegionalOffice (SEARO) of WHO, and the United NationsDevelopment Program (UNDP). The course promotes amore effective public health risk/emergency managementapproach as a contribution to sustainable developmentin a comprehensive and integrated manner. ADPC isalso addressing a critical issue gaining widespreadconcern and attention-public safety and security. Publicsafety, like public health, is a fundamental need. Onlyin a safe physical and social environment will peopleprosper. A safe environment includes safe air, soil, food,water, public transport, appliances, practices, protectionfrom violence and prevention of accidents. Safety is alsoa collective psychology-public perception of "being safe"is an important element of individual and communalwell-being. A high level of public awareness is needed,maintained by informed debate and public education.

The whole concept of public health is being revisited butprograms cannot be developed or implemented as stand-alone activities or undertaken by any single agency.Therefore, there is a call for integration of health sectorconcerns with other sectors in a participatory manner.

Urban Disaster Risk ManagementUrban Disaster Risk ManagementUrban Disaster Risk ManagementUrban Disaster Risk ManagementUrban Disaster Risk Management

Asia is one of the fastest urbanizing regions in the world.In 2000, 37 per cent of Asia's population lived in cities. Thisproportion is projected to rise to more than 50 per cent withinthe next twenty-five years. An estimated 50 per cent of theworld's cities are situated along major earthquake belts, riverflood plains, landslide prone mountain slopes or on tropicalcyclone tracks. In Asia, most cities are located in hazard proneareas. The spread of health hazards such as HIV/AIDS andSARS are among the most recent examples of regional,transboundry health hazards that spread easily in urbanpopulations.

Terrorism, fatal accidents and chemical and biological risksare new threats that Asia's urban centers and towns must learnto manage. Vulnerable communities need a collective vision todetermine a strategic framework with identified action areasto make cities competitive, manageable, sustainable, and saferplaces to live.

Cities have often grown around historic urban areas, whichin the past were also seats of administration, culture, economyand learning. These historic areas mean much more than theirphysical presence, as imposing and beautiful as they may be,and convey a sense of identity, strength, beauty, know-how,technical skills, social structure and economic prowess amongothers. Historic urban areas are an ignored socio-cultural andeconomic resource and are increasingly vulnerable to naturaland human-made hazards. Disasters such as the recentearthquakes in Gujarat, India and Bam, Iran are tragedies thatneed not have happened.

ADPC has identified key issues of the increasingvulnerability of cities and towns through its work in urbanareas over the past decade and the that include:


o The lack of human settlement land planning and newshelter development policies and programs to settleurban populations in safer areas.

o Increasing socio-economic vulnerability of ruralcommunities caused by over-population andenvironmental concerns such as the availability of water,water quality, land degradation and plot fracturing.

o Large in-migration to urban areas that concentrate whatwas once dispersed rural poverty.

o Failure of urban governments to anticipate shelterdemands leading to the growth of slums or to createcredit facilities for shelter and retrofit programs.

o Failure to consider risk reduction in urban planning.

o Limited application of technical information related tohazard environment, social, economic and physicalvulnerabilities and assessment tools for ascertainingpotential risk.

o Lack of information on hazard scenarios, absence ofearly warning mechanisms and lack of historicalinformation on destructive events that limit the capacityof municipalities to assess the vulnerability of the builtenvironment.

o Poor enforcement of building codes.

o Traditional urban boundaries that are breaking up anddisturbing delicate ecological relationships and that areexposing historic urban areas to increasing risks.

Since 1995, ADPC has successfully been implementing theAsian Urban Disaster Mitigation Program (AUDMP). AUDMP,funded by USAID/OFDA, identified specific models that reducevulnerability to disasters and documented those models forreplication. The program was implemented with partnerorganizations in nine countries; Bangladesh, Cambodia, India,Indonesia, Lao PDR, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka andThailand. It established strong networks of municipalities,development agencies and regional and national disaster

mitigation professionals and experts who continue to supportand replicate disaster mitigation models unique to the Asiancontext throughout the region. Through AUDMP, ADPC ismaking a significant contribution to establishing disastermitigation as an integral part of the urban development process,paying attention to the unique cultural, social and local contextof each country. A set of innovative strategies for urban riskmanagement includes:

o Employing a participatory approach to city-level actionplanning for risk reduction.

o Creating capacity at the local level to carry out riskassessment and avoid arbitrary decision-making andestablish priority interventions.

o Engaging with the private sector for financial supportand commercial and industrial hazard risk identificationand mitigation.

o Building resilience in vulnerable communities byactivating and motivating poor communities to improvetheir built environment and emergency response skillsand resources.

o Promoting a community-based approach to convertvictimized communities into a resource for their ownprotection.

o Developing and applying new skills to design andimplement demonstration projects and their scaling-upto safer shelter programs in order to reduce losses.

o Institutionalizing risk communication in localgovernment, the media and NGOs to create a safetyconscious public.

o Building the capacity of stakeholders to monitor,evaluate and revise their policies and programs to keepinformation current, procedures updated and responseand preparedness materials in working order.

Long-term institutional support provided by USAID/OFDAhas had a significant impact on attitudes, knowledge and skillsin the countries where the Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation


Program has been implemented. A number of general 'disasteraxioms' were reconfirmed through program implemention:demonstration projects help create a safer built environment;information and awareness programs, training courses andpolicy change activities need to be kept current; and capitalinvestment in mitigation in cities is the next priority.

National governments are organized along sectoral linesand can provide broad guidelines and oversight to critical issues.Local governments are of necessity cross-sectoral. Localgovernment units have proved to be the most responsive unitof government for effective implementation of mitigationinitiatives within a decentralized system of administration. Itis the unit where land use practices can be regulated and saferconstruction methodologies can be promoted and enforced. Thefollowing lessons were gleaned from ADPC experience:

o Government partnership and cooperation is essential inachieving safer, more resilient cities.

o Decentralization, devolution and transparency enhancedisaster mitigation because they facilitate access.

o Disaster mitigation is not a sector but a core functionof the public and private sectors and civil society andis unique to the national, cultural, social, economic andlocal context.

o All hazards become disasters when people are adverselyaffected and are a direct result of development patterns.

o Specific mitigation measures are hazard and contextdependent.

o Resources can be generated for mitigation improvementsas responsibility is decentralized and expertise andpolitical will are strengthened through training andcapacity building.

o Small, enthusiastic, field-oriented groups are effectiveinstitutional partners.

o Cross-sector, multi-disciplinary partnerships andapproaches are essential to success.

o Mitigation is most effective when fully integrated intothe development process.

o Mitigation anticipates the impact of present hazards onfuture development.

The next step for ADPC envisions safer urban communitiesby preventing, minimizing and mitigating the suffering of cityinhabitants and reducing their economic and material losseswhile preserving the gains and benefits of urbanization. Someof the key strategies to be employed are:

o Planning and building safer cities through investmentin mitigation derived from domestic capital and financeinstitutions that build on successful ADPC pilot projectsin landslide-prone Sri Lanka; structural retrofit ofschools in earthquake-prone Nepal; and safe havens inflood-prone Bangladesh.

o Policy development and technical support for disastermitigation programs and emergency management andresponse planning at the local government andcommunity level that integrates scientific data andinformation into decision-making.

o Development and implementation of public awarenessand risk communication strategies that involves themedia as an important stakeholder in risk reductioninitiatives.

o Information and knowledge management initiatives tohelp train a new generation of professional and politicalleaders who are more aware of the measures needed tocreate a safer built environment.

MANAGING CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGEMANAGING CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGEMANAGING CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGEMANAGING CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGEMANAGING CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE

The impact of hydro-meteorological hazards on socio-economic systems is becoming more intense. Droughts, floodsand storms can have long-lasting effects that disrupt livelihood,contribute to increased vulnerability and threaten the foodsecurity of rural producers. Climate change compounds theproblem, as it is expected to alter the frequency, severity and


complexity of climate-related hazards. Livelihood systems thatdo not have built-in buffering mechanisms are especiallyvulnerable. In recent years there has been dramatic progressin our understanding of climate systems and the ability tomonitor and forecast weather events on the scale of seasonsand beyond.

In recent years, there has been dramatic progress in theunderstanding of climate systems and the ability to monitorand forecast weather events on the scale of seasons and beyond.The advent of more reliable forecasts goes hand-in-hand withemerging trends in disaster management when predominantlyreactive strategies are gradually replaced with more proactiveand forward looking approaches.

These developments provide a unique opportunity fordeveloping countries to reduce their vulnerability to adverseweather and climate phenomena and to take better advantageof benign weather spells. Widespread concern about the likelyimpact of emerging climate risks due to human induced actionson the climate system provides opportunities to translate climatechange adaptation concepts into locally actionable practices.Potential opportunities also exist to understand and make useof the patterns of climate variability through skillful use ofpast-observed climate data sourced in different countries.

However, there are formidable challenges in making useof climate information for societal benefit. The major barriersare:

o Most climate information products and tools developedby scientists for resource management are not fullyused, partly because scientists too often lack anunderstanding of institutional, economic and culturaldecision-making environments.

o Decision-makers frequently do not seek new sources ofinformation or initiate contacts with experts who couldbe helpful.

o While the capacity to generate climate informationproducts rests largely with advanced global climate

research centers, the need for these products lies withlocal at-risk communities in developing countries.

o The uncertainties associated with climate change makeit difficult to mainstream climate change adaptationoptions into development planning processes.

ADPC is in a unique position to address these challengesto promote more comprehensive and proactive use of climateinformation for risk management in the region. Like allknowledge intensive processes, the use of climate informationrequires national and local institutions to develop a capacityto interpret and have well-functioning procedures forinformation dissemination. Also required are climateinformation products to match end-users' needs by earningtheir trust and motivation.

ADPC addresses this gap by assisting countries in theregion to create this institutional environment through capacitybuilding efforts in climate data interpretation and informationproduct development. ADPC bridges the knowledge gap betweenknowledge providers and interested governments by setting uppartnerships between international science communities,regional, national and local experts and governments. Since1998, ADPC has been implementing climate programs withsupport from USAID/OFDA and has made several inroads inapplying climate information for disaster mitigation in theAsian region such as:

o Identification of regions, seasons and sectors sensitiveto the El Niño Southern Oscillation.

o Setting up institutional mechanisms for climate forecastapplications.

o Pilot delivery of locally relevant climate information.

o Developing a three-tiered (short-medium-long range)overlapping forecast system.

o Establishing Climate Risk Communication Schoolsthrough continuous engagement of climate informationproviders and users.


o Integrating climate information in developmentplanning.

ADPC in collaboration with the International Institute forClimate Prediction (IRI) and with assistance from the NationalOceanic Atmospheric Administration and its Office of Globalprograms (NOAA) will implement a climate change adaptationpilot project in South East Asia. In Bangladesh, FAO selectedADPC to translate climate change adaptation concepts intolocally actionable practice through pilot demonstration projects.

Policy makers in developing countries do appreciate thedesirability of addressing risks associated with known andobserved climate variability. It is possible to convince policymakers to undertake strategies to address these risks. Thewealth of experience available within ADPC enables us todevelop strategies for mainstreaming climate change adaptationoptions into ongoing policy and development planning processes.These strategies need to focus on:

o Development of institutional systems to provide localizedclimate information with lead times of 3-5 days (weatherforecast), 5-10 days (medium-range forecast), 20-25 days(sub-seasonal forecast), and 1 month and beyond(seasonal forecast).

o Development and local demonstrations that use climatechange model outputs (future climate), climate forecastinformation (very near future climate and near real-time data) and climate analog products (past climate)for enhancing adaptive capacity to climate change.

o Training intermediary user institutions to translateprobabilistic forecasts into location-specific impactoutlooks for use in preparing contingency plans for endusers.

o Interactive climate risk management field schools thatenhance end user knowledge of climate-societyinteractions, help end users interpret and apply climateinformation, ensure the incorporation of end userexperience and wisdom on climate risk managementinto decision-making processes and promote a continuous

dialogue among climate information providers. o Providean institutional forum for connecting global centers ofexcellence on climate research applications with high-risk communities and governments.

ADPC LOOKSAHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKSAHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKSAHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKSAHEAD TO 2015ADPC LOOKSAHEAD TO 2015

The effort to raise the profile of disaster risk managementat the international level has begun. Governments and donoragencies have been generously supporting disaster risk reductioninitiatives, especially in developing countries. The scientificcommunity is improving forecasting and early warning tools forfloods, storms, typhoons and cyclones and eventually forearthquakes and landslides. NGOs are making significantcontributions to awareness, making real improvements in builtenvironments, and helping to increase the preparedness ofcommunities for emergency response and disaster risk reduction.

Despite these inroads, the loss of lives and property is stillimmense and shocking. It is clear that we have a long wayto go.

Making the right development choices requires coordinatedefforts by committed leaders who have the political will anddetermination to include risk reduction measures in their policiesand plans; a corporate sector that will prioritize risk issues andinclude them into their business plans; scientists who willprovide the knowledge and understanding of current and newareas of risk reduction; committed non-government agenciesthat advocate for risk reduction; educators who are responsiblefor shaping the awareness of future generations; a mass mediathat has the power to influence and change behavior; andinformed citizens who make choices about the risks in theirlives.

ADPC will concentrate its efforts on developing each of thefollowing:

Mainstreaming Disaster Risk ManagementMainstreaming Disaster Risk ManagementMainstreaming Disaster Risk ManagementMainstreaming Disaster Risk ManagementMainstreaming Disaster Risk Management

Disaster risk management is not a stand-alone sector butan essential concern that operates across sectors. Mainstreamingbrings disaster risk management issues and techniques into


the processes of development and implementation of sustainableprograms. It is a key issue in the design and delivery of goodgovernance systems and institutional capacity building.Mainstreaming is an important agenda item for creatingplatforms of exchange and policy development as well as forproviding a channel of communication for communities usuallyisolated from development practice and disaster riskmanagement. The scientific community and domestic financeentities are two important communities that should be includedin this process. For ADPC, mainstreaming promotes a raisedlevel of awareness and the technical, human, and financialresources to act. Mainstreaming is best carried out through acomprehensive and consultative dialogue between stakeholdersin disaster risk management which includes: all relevant sectorsof government, community groups and civil societies, thescientific community, NGOs, donor/funding agencies andfoundations.

Informing and Involving CommunitiesInforming and Involving CommunitiesInforming and Involving CommunitiesInforming and Involving CommunitiesInforming and Involving Communities

This key area contributes significantly to ADPC's goal ofmaking the community much more than just the "beneficiary"of disaster response and mitigation programs. ADPC will applyits efforts to consolidate policy and practice in which thecommunity is seen as a resource and partner with governmentin disaster risk management.

A common understanding of the vocabulary of disaster riskmanagement and of key concepts and popular associated termsused in discussions about disaster risk management is essentialif risks are to be appropriately addressed by communities andgovernment alike. ADPC's information and knowledgemanagement activities will constitute an important role indeveloping useful guidance, clarifying terms and reviewingliterature to provoke both awareness and action.

ADPC will develop outreach mechanisms to identifyinformation needs to inform and update the awareness of currentconditions and actions being taken in disaster risk management.Monitoring will support a willingness to seek adjustments andimprovements to base line information and its applications,

and increase the likelihood of the process being sustained. Theinitiatives should be further repeated and emphasized throughthe engagement of other stakeholders such as the mass mediaand school information services, and can be consolidated throughthe use of related simulation activities.

ADPC will continue to refine and deliver community-baseddisaster risk management training to engage, guide, monitorand evaluate community members as they proceed to deal withthe various risks that they face.

Improving the Built EnvironmentImproving the Built EnvironmentImproving the Built EnvironmentImproving the Built EnvironmentImproving the Built Environment

ADPC will promote capital investment projects and creditprograms that integrate improved skills and resources withcredit to improve existing and new dwellings, communityfacilities, hospitals and business structures, all working to createa more resilient built environment. Improvement projects willput to use appropriate technology manuals, improvedtechnologies and construction skills as required by newconstruction and retrofit programs. ADPC will demonstratehow integrating health, culture, finance and planningconsiderations can work together to produce more effectivebuilding regulations, historic area conservation programs andshelter, land and infrastructure development projects. Localand national financial institutions play a key role as does thedomestic capital market in initiating and/or scaling up pilotand demonstration projects initiated with donor assistance.

Supporting DRM DevelopmentSupporting DRM DevelopmentSupporting DRM DevelopmentSupporting DRM DevelopmentSupporting DRM Development

ADPC will address institutional development requirementsthrough its network of regional, national and local entitiesthrough capacity building and structuring an agenda thatincorporates disaster risk management. Development activitiesshould also aim to establish efficient structures which build onthe complimentary strengths of each its members. Institutionaldevelopment will clarify roles and relationships and the waysin which each entity interfaces with society. Further analysisis required to determine who should be responsible for what;whether it is necessary to create new entities; and the extent


to which and the amounts of human and financial resourcesnecessary for key agencies to accomplish their mandate. ADPCwill initiate Training-of-Trainers courses to introduce new andapply existing skills to disaster risk management.

Building Capacity and Raising AwarenessBuilding Capacity and Raising AwarenessBuilding Capacity and Raising AwarenessBuilding Capacity and Raising AwarenessBuilding Capacity and Raising Awareness

ADPC's emphasis on and experience with training as a riskmanagement tool will continue through core courses and projecttraining to provide appropriate skills and approaches for disasterrisk management. ADPC will work with interested entities todevelop national versions of ADPC's regional training programs.ADPC will focus on the need for professional developmentthrough long-term academic endeavour and short-term trainingthat reflects disaster risk management as a necessary part ofthe technical background of engineers, planners and architects.Disaster risk management and awareness-raising activitiesmust be conducted cross-sectorally and promote access toscientific tools and processes for end-users engaged in disasterrisk management activities. New areas of importance on theADPC agenda include chemical and biological risks, psycho-social issues of violence and trauma and terrorism, culturalconservation, mass disease outbreaks and multi-hazard events.

Urban RiskUrban RiskUrban RiskUrban RiskUrban Risk

The inevitability of urban migration is upon us as one ofthe most important social phenomenon the world faces today.Cities and towns are concentrating what was once dispersedrural poverty into communities which are increasinglyvulnerable to floods, landslides, earthquakes, typhoons,industrial disasters, cyclones and storms. Urban expansion isnot something to be wished away. Urbanization can alsofavourably impact the quality of life in rural communities.Disaster risk management in urban areas is essential tosafeguard the resources available there as a necessarycomponent of national development.

Resources include historic urban areas, industrial parksand new town, high density development. ADPC will continueto consolidate and update the information base for urban areas

on which policies, plans and projects for disaster riskmanagement can take place. ADPC will expand the applicationof tools for hazard assessment and will ensure its tool kit forurban risk assessment includes more links to the science ofearthquakes and landslides, and more opportunities to applymicrozonation in its work.

Public Health in EmergenciesPublic Health in EmergenciesPublic Health in EmergenciesPublic Health in EmergenciesPublic Health in Emergencies

This key area addresses the capacity to respond to andpreparedness for a disaster. First responder skills are key tothe approach ADPC has adopted including collapsed structuresearch and rescue, mass trauma management skills and firstaid. However, ADPC recognizes that it is difficult to getcommunities ready with the skills and equipment available tothem, especially in resource scarce environments, for nationaland trans-boundary medical epidemics and emergencies aswell as disaster occurrences such as earthquakes. The provisionof clear and transparent information and training is a majoradvantage in these circumstances. Urbanization and climatevariability further impacts public health issues and actions.The associated need for increased numbers of lifelines and safehaven facilities is often overlooked in public health budgets. Itis for these reasons that ADPC training activities feature crosssector relationships and emphasize the budgetary implicationsfor government officials, medical personnel and INGOs amongothers.

Climate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate Change

For almost a decade ADPC has been promoting the conceptof applying meteorological data to the development of predictioncapability and early warning systems for agriculturalcommunities. ADPC provides key links with the scientificcommunity and recognizes the demand for more useful dataand interpretations to ensure that field activities continue tobe fed by the advances of science. ADPC looks structurally atthe need for climate information by addressing institutionalsystems, including interactive field schools, and by developinglocal applications for improving adaptive capacities for dealingwith climate change.


A ROLE FOR ADPCA ROLE FOR ADPCA ROLE FOR ADPCA ROLE FOR ADPCA ROLE FOR ADPC

ADPC, as a regional resource center, is well positioned torespond to the emerging threats in disaster risk management.It's focus is to mainstream disaster risk management in differentsectors of development. ADPC will continue to build coalitionsand partnerships, advocating and promoting disaster riskreduction measures, building capacities and creating a cadreof skilled personnel who are equipped to take appropriate riskreduction actions. Mainstreaming disaster risk managementthrough the key areas of community-based disaster riskmanagement, urban disaster risk reduction, public health andemergencies, and climate variability and change will be thedirection ADPC will take to advance disaster risk managementin the Asia region.

ADPC will continue to be an advocate for a safer, moredisaster resilient built environment. New players will need tobe brought into the work of National Disaster ManagementOrganizations, NGOs and national, state and local responseand mitigation entities.

This new array of institutions and entities will includehousing developers and local government officials charged withbuilding code enforcement. It should also include insurancecompanies offering reduced rates as incentives on policies forhousing construction that incorporate disaster resistanttechnologies, and financial sector institutions that offer targetedcredit programs for retrofit and new shelter construction aswell as community infrastructure programs.

ADPC will demonstrate the importance of the domesticcapital market as a resource waiting to respond to new areasof financial activity. Mitigation is an excellent opportunity toattract investment. ADPC therefore looks to the future with ahigh level of confidence tempered with a healthy respect for theextent of the changes which are required.

The necessary partnerships, knowledge, capabilities,commitment and political will exists to ensure that the nextdecade will be a period of unprecedented progress in disasterrisk management.

VisionVisionVisionVisionVision

Safer communities and sustainable development throughdisaster reduction.

MissionMissionMissionMissionMission

To reduce the impact of disasters on communities andcountries in Asia and the Pacific by raising awareness,establishing and strengthening sustainable institutionalmechanisms, enhancing knowledge and skills and facilitatingexchange of information, experience and expertise.

Strategic PlanStrategic PlanStrategic PlanStrategic PlanStrategic Plan

Promoting disaster reductionPromoting disaster reductionPromoting disaster reductionPromoting disaster reductionPromoting disaster reduction

o To promote increased awareness, knowledge andadoption of disaster reduction practices as an integralpart of the development process at community, national,sub-regional, regional and international levels.

o To serve as an international knowledge clearinghouseand information exchange center on disaster-relatedissues.

o To collaborate with international agencies to incorporatea disaster reduction focus in their strategies fordevelopment assistance.

o To increase the dialogue between the scientificcommunity and policy-makers and decision-makers toenhance the application of scientific knowledge fordisaster reduction.

o To promote disaster prevention, mitigation andpreparedness concepts and practices in strategic areasof development in Asia as a way to reduce disasters.

o To have an established mechanism to assess the needsof the disaster management sector in Asia and to identifystrategic areas of intervention including participationin post-disaster assessments.

o To develop and demonstrate the validity andeffectiveness of methods and tools that address disasterreduction strategies.


o To sensitize policy-makers, decision-makers andadministrators to bring about changes in policies andlegislative institutional mechanisms for disastermanagement in their countries.

Building CapacityBuilding CapacityBuilding CapacityBuilding CapacityBuilding Capacity

o To help strengthen the capacity of countries,organisations, communities and individuals to reducethe impact of disasters.

o To regularly assess the needs of the region for capacitybuilding to reduce disaster impact.

o To develop and deliver specific capacity-building productsand services.

o To build specific institutional capacities to undertakesystematic, cross-sector planning processes for disasterreduction and for replication of ADPC-developedproducts and services.

o To assess the effectiveness and relevance of ADPCproducts and services and continually modify them tomeet the needs of the region.

Facilitating PartnershipsFacilitating PartnershipsFacilitating PartnershipsFacilitating PartnershipsFacilitating Partnerships

o To facilitate and promote partnerships and networksamong and across communities and institutions andexchange information, experiences, practices and lessonslearned.

o To develop and maintain an information database ofindividuals, organisations and governments, as well astheir activities and initiatives on different aspects ofdisaster reduction at regional and national levels.

o To explore and forge areas of institutional cooperation.

o To develop and sustain partnerships and networks inthe region.

Recognition as a Proactive and Responsive RegionalRecognition as a Proactive and Responsive RegionalRecognition as a Proactive and Responsive RegionalRecognition as a Proactive and Responsive RegionalRecognition as a Proactive and Responsive RegionalResourceResourceResourceResourceResource

o To be a proactive and responsive regional resource withinternational status promoting disaster reduction,

supported by countries of the region, while also accessingand integrating international best practices andresources to achieve ADPC goals.

o To create innovative products and services whichanticipate regional needs.

o To secure ongoing support for ADPC activities fromgovernments and institutions in the region andinternationally.

o To be recognised as a technical resource by regionalcooperation mechanisms (AEGDM, ASEAN, ARF, APEC,BIMSTEC, SAARC, MRC), and by national, provincialand community level organisations.

o To promote South-South and South-North exchange ofinformation, experiences and lessons learned. o Toachieve inter-governmental organisation status.

Achievement of Quality Service through a Team ApproachAchievement of Quality Service through a Team ApproachAchievement of Quality Service through a Team ApproachAchievement of Quality Service through a Team ApproachAchievement of Quality Service through a Team Approach

o To maintain and improve ADPC as a diverse, multi-cultural, international team backed by efficient,supportive management systems focused on achievingthe highest quality of service to the region.

o To develop administrative and personnel policies andprocedures that encourage a diverse inter-disciplinary,international and team-oriented staff structure.

o To maintain a reliable, efficient and multi-purposemanagement information system.

o To maintain an internal monitoring, evaluation andauditing system.

o To build ADPC's technical and organisational capacityto meet identified and emerging needs.

o To follow ADPC's Guiding Principles and culture.

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management...Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management...Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management...Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management...Strategic Framework for Disaster Risk Management...114114114114114 115115115115115

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SSSSSTRATEGICTRATEGICTRATEGICTRATEGICTRATEGIC F F F F FRAMEWORKRAMEWORKRAMEWORKRAMEWORKRAMEWORK FORFORFORFORFOR D D D D DISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER

RRRRRISKISKISKISKISK M M M M MANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT AFTERAFTERAFTERAFTERAFTER THETHETHETHETHE G G G G GUJARATUJARATUJARATUJARATUJARAT

EEEEEARTHQUAKEARTHQUAKEARTHQUAKEARTHQUAKEARTHQUAKE

THE IMPACT OF THE DISASTERTHE IMPACT OF THE DISASTERTHE IMPACT OF THE DISASTERTHE IMPACT OF THE DISASTERTHE IMPACT OF THE DISASTER

Gujarat lies on the west coast of India. In addition to itscoastline on the Arabian Sea, it has common borders withPakistan and the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh andMaharashtra. The state consists of 25 districts and has a totalpopulation of around 41 million. Although 2/3 of the populationlives in rural areas, Gujarat is India's most highly industrialisedstate.

The severe earthquake that struck Gujarat on 26 January2001 flattened much of the state. Out of the 21 affected districts,those most severely hit were Kutch-Bhuj, Ahmedabad,Jamnagar and Rajkot. Within these districts more than 37.8million people have been affected. According to official figuresreleased by the central Government as of 6 February, theearthaquake killed 16,459 people and injured 68,478. The deathtoll continues to rise and is currently estimated to be between20,000 and 50,000.

The Natural Disaster Management Control Room locatedat the Ministry of Agriculture in Delhi reported on 6 February2001 that 12,250 cattle had died, 228,906 houses/huts weredestroyed and 397,615 houses/huts were damaged. Accordingto preliminary assessments, the damage to buildings andinfrastructure amounts close to 1.2 billion USD.

The overall situation is considered as a multiple disaster,since the earthaquake is the third natural disaster strikingGujarat in four years. The state still suffers from the effectsof a cyclone in 1998 and drought, which started in 1999 andis expected to continue through 2001. The persistent impact onthe vulnerable population increases with each fresh disaster.Even prior to the earthquake, most of these districts are knownto be highly food insecure, have a higher percentage of populationwho live below the poverty line and the majority of the districtsare prone to disasters.

THE GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSETHE GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSETHE GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSETHE GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSETHE GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSE

The response of the state and national government to theGujarat earthquake was considered by the national andinternational communities as aggressive and effective in itsorganisation and delivery of emergency supplies, purchasedwith its own resources, given the magnitude of the disaster.The central Government immediately launched a massive rescueand relief operation by mobilising available resources andpersonnel to mitigate the suffering of the victims.

The initial relief effort is centrally coordinated by the NaturalDisaster Management Control Room, which works closelytogether with the State Government of Gujarat. The centralGovernment provided financial assistance of USD 1 billion,food assistance and other relief items.

Several states including neighbouring Rajasthan, MadhyaPradesh and Maharashtra provided supplies, personnel and abroad variety of relief items.

The Relief Commissioner of Bhuj established an NGOcoordination centre. Subcentres were to be established after amore thorough assessment of the overall situation andrequirements. Over 300 NGOs were reported as involved withrelief operation.

THE PROJECTTHE PROJECTTHE PROJECTTHE PROJECTTHE PROJECT

The present project builds on the overall UN/UNDMTexperience during the emergency/relief stages of the Gujarat


earthquake, as well as from the most significant recent disasters,i.e. Orissa Super Cyclone and Latur earthquake.

It will benefit from the Coordination Cells established inthe framework of project IND/01/… "Support Unit for thetransition from Relief to Sustainable Recovery", utilising theircapacity to identify local stakeholders and capacity buildingneeds that can be addressed even in the midst of the recoveryprogramme.

The project also seeks to strengthen the state and nationalorganisations in managing the multiple risks that the state ofGujarat faces, ensuring that the recovery and reconstructionfully take into account such risks in order to reduce thevulnerability of the most precarious groups in the reconstructionefforts.

The overall objective of the project is to reduce the disasterrisks faced by the vulnerable populations, primarily in theState of Gujarat, and ultimately in the most disaster-proneStates of India, by improving risk management, disasterpreparedness and emergency response capacities at the stateand central levels in the country.

In doing so, the key objectives are to strengthen the stateand national risk/disaster management structures and tosupport and facilitate local level disaster management throughbuilding capacities of local stakeholders.

STRATEGY FOR THE USE OF UNDP RESOURCESSTRATEGY FOR THE USE OF UNDP RESOURCESSTRATEGY FOR THE USE OF UNDP RESOURCESSTRATEGY FOR THE USE OF UNDP RESOURCESSTRATEGY FOR THE USE OF UNDP RESOURCES

In coordination with projects IND/01/… "Support Unit forthe Transition from Relief to Sustainable Development",IND/01/… "Shelter and Housing Reconstruction Strategy afterthe Gujarat Earthquake" and IND/01/… "Integrated LivelihoodRestoration", the project will initiate activities with the supportof the UNDMT/UNDP Coordination Cells will benefit from theGO and NGO partnerships already concreted for the emergency-rehabilitation activities.

Of particular relevance for the purposes of this project isthe joint endeavour with the Disaster Mitigation Institute of

Ahmedabad to launch an information and awareness campaignto inform citizens and communities on the ongoing relief effortand increase their awareness on the dos and don'ts during thefirst period after the disaster.

This cooperation framework will be expanded to cover amore comprehensive risk-reduction and disaster preparednessearly warning and general awareness programme. The outputsidentified for funding under this project can be summarized asfollows:

1. Revised nationl/state risk/disaster management systemsas per the lessons learned in Gujarat and relevantinstitutions capacitated in undertaking theirresponsibilities Workshops will be organised with themain actors in the disaster management community, atthe central, departmental and local levels, to revise theexisting risk and disaster management systems in thelight of the lessons learned from Gujarat, Orissa andLatur, and the systems put in place such as the DisasterManagement Ministry of Uttaranchal.

2. Comprehensive Training Programme From the aboveexercise, a full-fledged training programme will bedeveloped to increase the institutional capacity toundertake the necessary actions to reduce vulnerabilityto natural disasters in the most prone areas. A set ofprocedures, manuals and guidelines to facilitateoperations will also be produced.

3. Capacities of local stakeholders increased for disasterrisk management.

In partnership with the Disaster Mitigation Institute ofAhmedabad and other NGOs in the State of Gujarat, and withreliable partners (NGOs, research and academic institutions)to be identified in the other States, awareness and trainingprogrammes will be conducted to increase vulnerablycommunities' awareness on their risks and how to protect theirlives and properties from future disasters.


Community preparedness plans will be produced and piloted,and key community actors trained in their application andpermanent updating and testing. User-friendly trainingmaterials will be developed to support this activity.

IMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES, OUTPUTS, INDICATORSIMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES, OUTPUTS, INDICATORSIMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES, OUTPUTS, INDICATORSIMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES, OUTPUTS, INDICATORSIMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES, OUTPUTS, INDICATORSAND ACTIVITIESAND ACTIVITIESAND ACTIVITIESAND ACTIVITIESAND ACTIVITIES

Immediate Objective 1Immediate Objective 1Immediate Objective 1Immediate Objective 1Immediate Objective 1

Strengthen the national and state disaster managementsystem and capacitate the relevant institutions in undertakingtheir responsibilities within this framework.

Output 1Output 1Output 1Output 1Output 1

Revised national/state risk/disaster management systems

ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities

o Gujarat and previous disasters' lessons-learnt workshopsand exercises

o Roles and responsibilities of relevant organisations andstakeholders agreed

o Skill-building activities in administrative, managementand operational aspects of the plan

o Database on hazards, vulnerabilities and risks in Gujaratestablished and/or updated and maintained

o Inventory of available national and state and localresources and capacities to cope with potential risks

o Compendium of procedures, manuals and guidelines tofacilitate operations at the different levels


Comprehensive Training Programme to increaseinstitutional capacities to reduce vulnerability to naturaldisasters in the most prone areas


o Design an initial training programme for key decision-making level officials at the central and state governmentlevel

o Design a programme for the exchange of experienceswith Latur and Gujarat at the state and communitylevel

o Production of training materials

o Conduction of at least 10 workshops

o Review and evaluation of the programme

o Production of guidelines,

Immediate Objective 2Immediate Objective 2Immediate Objective 2Immediate Objective 2Immediate Objective 2

To increase the capacity of local governments, communityorganisations and other local level stakeholders for disasterrisk management


Local level disaster risks and resources-capacities assessedand increased, with community participation.


o Awareness campaign focusing on risk reduction

o Database and inventory of risks and programmes

o Community preparedness plans

o Training of local key stakeholders in risk reduction anddisaster preparedness techniques

o Development of user-friendly community awareness andtraining materials

o Mechanism for feedback to the state and central levelsof risks and disasters established

MonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoring

The project will be nationally executed, with the "DEA" asthe Central Government's focal point. UNDP will assign a full-time project officer to oversee the operations, including fieldvisits, spot-checking and auditing. All GOs and NGOs involvedwill sign subcontracts in which quarterly financial and narrative/progress reports will be established as compulsory.


InputsInputsInputsInputsInputs

The total funding requirement in support of the abovementioned activities is US$1,000,000.

RisksRisksRisksRisksRisks

No major risks are foreseen in the execution of this project,other than a shift of priorities from the key stakeholders oncethe impact of the Gujarat earthquake is forgotten in the dailynews.

ManagementManagementManagementManagementManagement

The project will be executed under a National Executionarrangement with the "DEA", which will act as the focalgovernment institution, ensuring the participation of theinvolved institutions in the States of Gujarat, Uttaranchal,Orissa and Maharashtra.

UNDP will designate the Emergency Officer to be recruitedfor Delhi as per the Coordination umbrella project, to overseethe overall operations of the project and will report to theUNDP Resident Representative on progress, achievements andconstraints.

Monitoring and EvaluationMonitoring and EvaluationMonitoring and EvaluationMonitoring and EvaluationMonitoring and Evaluation

The following monitoring mechanisms will be used tomonitor and evaluate the project:

o A work-plan for the implementation of the differentobjectives

o Quarterly narrative progress report and financialstatements

o Periodic field visits, spot-checks and auditing by theUNDP Emergency Officerr to assess progress

o One mid-term and one final evaluations and reports

o Documentation of best practices

o Project and budget revisions as appropriate

BudgetBudgetBudgetBudgetBudget

Budget LineBudget LineBudget LineBudget LineBudget Line ItemItemItemItemItem US$US$US$US$US$

17.51 National consultants 200,000

21.01 Subcontracts-databases and inventories 150,000

21.02 Subcontracts-Awareness campaigns 150,000

21.03 Subcontracts-Development of materials 60,000

31.01 Workshops-central level 50,000

31.02 Workshops-state and community level 250,000

41.01 Equipment-central/state level 120,000

52.01 Publications 20,000

GRAND TOTAL 1,000,000

To be properly spelled-out and/or defined by UNDP/CO inconsultation with respective authorities

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Water Hazards, Resources and Management...Water Hazards, Resources and Management...Water Hazards, Resources and Management...Water Hazards, Resources and Management...Water Hazards, Resources and Management...122122122122122 123123123123123

66666

WWWWWATERATERATERATERATER H H H H HAZARDSAZARDSAZARDSAZARDSAZARDS, R, R, R, R, RESOURCESESOURCESESOURCESESOURCESESOURCES ANDANDANDANDAND

MMMMMANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT FORFORFORFORFOR D D D D DISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER P P P P PREVENTIONREVENTIONREVENTIONREVENTIONREVENTION

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

The Asian and Pacific region extends over a total area ofabout 35 million square kilometres, or 26 per cent of the world'sland area. With nearly 60 per cent of the world's populationand over 60 per cent of the total irrigated land, the region ismore densely populated and more intensely cultivated thanelsewhere.

Natural disasters are estimated to have claimed about 3million lives around the world in the past two decades, as wellas severely affecting the livelihood of about 1 billion people.The damage caused to property has been assessed at well overUS$ 400 billion. In 1990 The UN General Assembly declaredthe 1990s to be the International Decade for Natural DisasterReduction, in which the international community, under theauspices of the United Nations, would pay special attention tofostering international cooperation in the field of natural disasterreduction.

At the beginning of the International Decade for NaturalDisaster Reduction, worldwide bilateral and multilateral donorinvestment in development was estimated to be about US$ 50billion. In the same year it was estimated that losses causedby disasters totalled US$ 47 billion, leaving a net balance ofUS$ 3 billion. Since then, the situation has not improved asnatural disasters continue to exact their toll and hamperdevelopment efforts. Asia and the Pacific has been one of the

worst hit regions of the world. It is estimated that more than50 per cent of the world's major disasters occur in Asia and thePacific.

Since the International Decade for Natural DisasterReduction began in 1990, the total number of deaths causedby natural disasters in Asia and the Pacific has exceeded 200,000.The estimated total damage to property was already about US$50 billion until the Kobe earthquake in 1995 and very heavyflooding in China in 1995 and 1998. In the 1991 cyclone andstorm surge event in Bangladesh, 140,000 people perished,whilst the flood of 1998 affected the lives of 25 million people.

The total damage by the 1995 flood in Bangladesh wasestimated at US$ 2 billion, the equivalent of 10 per cent of thegross domestic product (GDP) of that country. In that year,various provinces of China were affected by extensive floodsduring the month of July, affecting 220 million persons, taking2,300 lives and causing a total loss of US$ 12.5 billion, equivalentto 4.5 per cent of the GDP of that country.

The flood in 1998 in China was the most severe one in thepast 44 years. According to governmental estimates, 223 millionpeople-one fifth of China's population were affected, 3,004 peopledied and 15 million were made homeless. About 15 millionfarmers lost their crops. The floods caused severe damage tocritical facilities such as health clinics, schools, water supply,and other infrastructure such as roads, bridges and irrigationsystems as well as industrial facilities. At the end of August,direct economic damage was estimated at over US$ 20 billion.The total damages caused by floods in 1998 in the Region wereestimated to be over US$23 billion.

Through such events, the national economies of developingcountries in Asia are significantly affected by the loss of scarceresources that could otherwise have been used for social andeconomic development. In many cases the development processhas been set back years or decades. The frequency and intensityof adverse natural phenomena and the extensiveness andseverity of the damage they cause seem to be increasing overtime.


Because of the continuing rapid population growth in thecountries of Asia and the Pacific, people, mostly the poor, arebeing forced to settle at squatter areas in large cities, usuallyinhabiting low-lying flood-prone areas, unstable hillsides orother disaster-prone marginal areas owing to the high cost ofsuitable alternative locations and the extremely high cost ofnew infrastructure and services. In consequence, the numberof persons vulnerable to natural hazards is increasing rapidly.

The principal reasons for the continuing increase in theloss levels caused by natural disasters include:

(i) the continuing growth of the population,

(ii) the increase in building density by the growingconcentration of people and the economic assets in urbanareas, and

(iii) a constant migration of people to coastal areas that aregenerally more highly exposed to natural disasters.

For example, in Bangladesh over a million people are livingon islands formed by silt deposits and along the vulnerableflood plains and coastal areas. Over 85 per cent of the populationof China live on alluvial plains or along river basins concentratedin one third of the total area of the country. The situation isquite similar in Viet Nam, where the dykes along riversproviding protection are sometimes breached by flood waterscausing extensive inundation. The development of industry inregions that are subject to natural hazards, without appropriateprotective measures being taken, is another reason for thegrowing increase in the loss levels caused by natural disasters.

Natural hazards cause a high number of lives to be lost,but relatively small property losses, in the least developed anddeveloping countries. In the relatively developed countries, onthe other hand, where disaster prevention and mitigationmeasures are adequately established, the loss of lives is relativelysmall but the damage to property can be high. Losses may ofcourse vary considerably within a given country.

China's structure of land use dictates the disastercomposition of the country. In terms of the geographical extent

of vulnerability, the bulk of farmland and pastures are themain areas threatened by natural hazards. In the event of adisaster, therefore, peasants and herdsmen are affected themost, and in case of a destructive disaster, thousands uponthousands of households may be adversely affected. However,in terms of total losses, those resulting from disasters in urbanareas will usually be much heavier.

The effect of natural hazards on the loss of human lives isdirectly related to the poverty levels in a given country. Nationaland regional efforts for natural disaster reduction shouldtherefore be closely linked with poverty alleviation and economicand social development activities.

Table : Relative Intensity of Water-based HazardsTable : Relative Intensity of Water-based HazardsTable : Relative Intensity of Water-based HazardsTable : Relative Intensity of Water-based HazardsTable : Relative Intensity of Water-based Hazardsfaced by Some Countries in Asiafaced by Some Countries in Asiafaced by Some Countries in Asiafaced by Some Countries in Asiafaced by Some Countries in Asia

COUNTRYCOUNTRYCOUNTRYCOUNTRYCOUNTRY CycloneCycloneCycloneCycloneCyclone FloodFloodFloodFloodFlood DroughtDroughtDroughtDroughtDrought LandslideLandslideLandslideLandslideLandslide TsunamiTsunamiTsunamiTsunamiTsunami

Australia S S S

Bangladesh S S S L L

China M S S L L

India M S S L

Indonesia L M M L L

Lao PDR M L

Malaysia M S* S L M

Myanmar M M M

Nepal M L* M L

Pakistan M M* M L M

Philippines S S L S S

Sri Lanka M S S L

Thailand M S* S L

Viet Nam M S L S S

* coastal flooding Source: Asian Disaster Preparedness Center; DHA/South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme/EmergencyManagement Australia. Legend: S = severe; M = moderate; L = low

Another factor that exacerbates the effects of naturalhazards is the environmental degradation taking place in many


countries of the region. The damage caused by natural hazardsis higher in countries where environmental degradation isrampant. Deforestation, erosion, overgrazing, overcultivationand incorrect agricultural practices and the degradation ofnatural buffers amplify the effects of natural hazards. Tableshows the relative intensity of hazards faced by some countriesin Asia and the Pacific.

All in all, therefore, the potential for the occurrence ofdevastating natural disasters is much greater in the countriesof Asia and requires particular attention if the severe toll ofthese events on life and property is to be significantly reduced.It is the purpose of this report to examine the extent of thesedisasters in further detail, to report upon the progress that hasbeen made during the Decade to cope with the problems theybring, and to suggest improved ways and means of doing so.

ACTIONS REQUIRED TO MITIGATE FUTUREACTIONS REQUIRED TO MITIGATE FUTUREACTIONS REQUIRED TO MITIGATE FUTUREACTIONS REQUIRED TO MITIGATE FUTUREACTIONS REQUIRED TO MITIGATE FUTUREDISASTERSDISASTERSDISASTERSDISASTERSDISASTERS

Risk ManagementRisk ManagementRisk ManagementRisk ManagementRisk Management

The countries of the ESCAP region are exposed to a highproportion of water-related disasters, brought about by cyclones,storm surges, floods, landslides and droughts. The effectivenessof disaster reduction measures will be dependent upon aquantification of the nature and occurrence of these hazards.A description and analysis of natural hazards and the consequentrisks associated with them are an essential step in assessingthe strategies required to mitigate their effects. This processis usually termed "risk management".

In essence, disaster risk management involves an analysisof the exposure to risk of the disaster prone community, i.e. adisaster risk analysis followed by the identification andimplementation of appropriate measures in order to manageexisting, future and residual disaster risks and to reduce theireffects to acceptable levels. The modern risk managementapproach involves recognition of:

o the need to investigate the entire range of the particulardisaster up to the maximum probable event;

o the importance of public consultation to encourageownership of the resulting mitigation plan;

o the risk relating to developments in the disaster pronearea; and

o the need to implement a comprehensive public educationand awareness programme.

All the elements that contribute risk to the situation mustbe carefully identified and the order of their importanceestablished. The elements can also evaluated with respect totheir potential to cause damage to the existing development.Once the major hazards are identified, the risk analyses willaim to determine their magnitude and frequency.

This general risk management process can be applied to alltypes of risk and to the organizations exposed to these risks.The detailed process consists of the following steps:

o identify the stakeholders exposed to or affecting therisk of the disaster;

o identify public and private property, social systems andenvironmental elements at risk;

o estimate the disaster risk, i.e. the likelihood andconsequences of the disaster;

o assess the acceptability of the disaster risk;

o define disaster risk treatment strategies;

o monitor and review disaster risks and the effectivenessof risk treatment, and

o communication between the community and riskmanagement agencies.

Hazard and VulnerabilityHazard and VulnerabilityHazard and VulnerabilityHazard and VulnerabilityHazard and Vulnerability

Disaster risk management involves the assessment of hazardand vulnerability.

Hazard assessment is concerned with defining the propertiesof the hazard and its direct effect. The first step in hazardassessment is data collection and recording. Tropical cyclonespose three threats, namely, wind, flood and storm surge. The


intensity of a tropical cyclone is measured by its windcharacteristics which are described by velocity and direction.Evaluation of the hazard associated with cyclones thereforeinvolves the measurement of wind direction, velocity andfrequency at a number of meteorological stations.

The assessment of the flood hazard involves theidentification of:

o flood behaviour;

o topography, and

o population at risk.

When combined, these elements define the nature andextent of the flood hazard at a particular locality. Generally,this information is presented in map form showing the areaswhich are likely to be inundated to a given depth with aspecified frequency.

For hazard evaluation of storm surge, it is necessary todetermine the frequency of intense winds, the topography ofthe continental shelf and adjacent coastline and the normaltidal behaviour.

In evaluating the relationship of hazards to the elementsat risk, it is important that the analysis is applied to the entiredisaster episode, encompassing onset, response, aftermath andrecovery phases. Different sets of 'elements at risk' will emergein the different phases of the disaster episode. For example, thethreat to life and limb of the disaster prone residents is an issueduring the response phase, while the rapid return of the watersupply, sewerage and communication systems to serviceabilityis an issue during the recovery phase.

On the other hand vulnerability is a measure of the levelof exposure of people and property to the various water-relatedhazards. Vulnerability can be measured as:

o physical vulnerability, which relates to buildings,infrastructure and agriculture;

o social vulnerability which relates to the impact thehazard will have on various social groups,

o economic vulnerability, which is a measure of hazardscausing losses to economic assets and processes.

These three items, taken collectively and combined withdamage information, measure the probable damage for a givenfrequency of hazard. When the potential damage for a givendisaster has been assessed, the disaster risk can be determinedby the product of the damage and the probability of occurrenceof the disaster. It is usually only possible to express physicalvulnerability in monetary terms.

Vulnerability is a measure of the degree of susceptibilityand resilience of a disaster prone community. Vulnerabilitydetermines how well a community can cope with a disaster.This in turn depends upon the magnitude of the disaster, thedisaster awareness of the community and the topographic,infrastructure, social and economic factors which determinethe social and economic disruption caused by the hazard.

Risk EvaluationRisk EvaluationRisk EvaluationRisk EvaluationRisk Evaluation

By evaluating the risk of various hazards to which thecountry is liable or potentially liable, it becomes practicable toformulate strategies to mitigate the impact of hazards in a cost-effective way. If a community is especially vulnerable to aparticular type of disaster severe risk treatment measures maybe required to reduce the disaster risk to acceptable levels.

More recently, the definition of risk management has beenexpanded to include the notion of uncertainty. "Risk" is definedas the possibility that an expected outcome is not achieved orreplaced by another, or that an unforeseen event occurs. Thisis a broad view of risk that includes both uncertainty due tofuture events and the consequences of limited knowledge,information and experience. "Uncertainty" describes the lackof sureness about something and can be represented by aprobability distribution of error.

Disaster mitigation projects, as currently undertaken, areformulated to provide economical protection to disaster proneareas. Projects are determined by analyzing disaster potential,together with damage performance and cost, for a range of


project sizes and configurations. The disaster mitigation planselected is based on maximizing net economic benefits consistentwith acceptable risk and functional performance. This approachtreats the input variables as deterministic functions.

The trend is now towards the use of a combined risk modelwhich incorporates "uncertainty" into the input variables as aprobability density function representing possible statisticalerror in each of the input variable relationships. This riskmanagement approach acknowledges that there is not a specific,unequivocal performance level.

Initially, the evaluation of risk, or the evaluation of disasterpotential, is based on the analysis of available meteorologicaland hydrological records of the individual country, augmentedby data available from other countries in the region, dependingon the nature of the disaster.

Meteorological data for hazard assessment need to be basedon a comprehensive, nation-wide system of meteorologicalrecording stations. It is also highly desirable that this systemis closely associated with, and compatible with, the nationalmeteorological recording systems operated by neighbouringcountries. The main categories of meteorological data neededfor effective water-based natural disaster identification are:

o precipitation data;

o wind and atmospheric pressure;

o synoptic observations of relevant weather elements.

Hydrological data for hazard assessment should also bebased on a comprehensive, nation-wide system of stream gaugingstations. There are three major components of hydrologicaldata required for hazard assessment, namely, flood discharges,water levels and flow velocities. Long-term streamflow data arealso required to predict and quantify drought behaviour. Whererivers cross international boundaries, the free exchange of datais vital for flood forecasting activities.

Over the past decade, remote sensing techniques havebecome an essential feature of data collection systems formonitoring watershed conditions. These techniques are

invaluable for the rapid collection of data and for the study ofextensive areas, particularly in developing countries for whichconventional resource mapping sources are limited. Underfavourable conditions, they are well suited for reconnaissancestudies of water-related disasters affecting large areas, such asflooding.

Normal aerial photography has proved to be a usefultechnique for watershed monitoring, because of the high degreeof resolution obtainable and the ability of this technique toshow the spatial distribution of ground characteristics.

By comparison with conventional aerial photography,satellite imagery has the major advantage of low cost, enablinga much larger area to be covered by a smaller number of prints.However, the ground resolution capability of this form of imageryis much lower than that achievable with aerial photography,which generally limits the scope of its application toreconnaissance level mapping.

Over the past twenty years, the enormously increasedamount of resource evaluation and assessment data availablefrom the various types of remote sensing systems, much of itavailable directly in computer accessible format, and increasinglywidespread availability of low-cost computer equipment, hasgreatly encouraged the development of techniques for thearchiving, analysis, mapping and presentation of such data,using GIS methodology. These techniques are supported by awide-range of commercial software packages and systems whichallow the ready manipulation of vast amounts of data. Availablecomputer models have been developed to predict the floodbehaviour of river flow, such as rates of rise and fall, duration,frequency and magnitude of floods and periods of low flow.

INTEGRATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENTINTEGRATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENTINTEGRATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENTINTEGRATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENTINTEGRATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENTMEASURESMEASURESMEASURESMEASURESMEASURES

In the light of the many major disasters experiencedthroughout the Region during the past decade, it would bedesirable to review the disaster management practices of themember countries. The experiences gained should be used as


a basis to assist further evolution of disaster managementpractices, especially in those areas where implementationpractices could be improved.

Wholesale changes do not appear warranted butadjustments to the existing approach would achieve:

o further mitigation of disaster damage to existingdevelopment;

o control over the future growth of potential disaster losses.

To achieve these objectives, there appears to be a case forthe adoption of a system which could be effectively implementedas part of the member's disaster strategies.

After examining the available information on the status ofdisaster management in the ESCAP region, it is apparent thatmany of the member countries are yet to adopt an integratedapproach for disaster management. The preferred disastermanagement system should integrate the following elements:

o the individual management measures;

o the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders;

o the disaster management plan and the disasteremergency plan;

o the resource management considerations andprogrammes;

o where applicable, the concept of comprehensive land-use planning based on total watershed managementprinciples.

The objectives of the overall management system shouldensure that:

o disaster management matters are dealt with havingregard to community safety, health and welfarerequirements;

o public information is freely available on the likely extentand nature of possible future hazards;

o all reasonable measures are taken to alleviate the hazardand damage potential to existing properties at risk, and

there is no significant growth in future hazard anddamage potential resulting from new developments;

o appropriate forecasting and warning systems exist, andemergency services and government assistance areavailable in the event of future disasters;

o the disaster management system is managed havingregard to social and economic costs and benefits toindividuals as well as the community at large.

An integrated approach is required to bring together thesediverse issues, which are usually fragmented over a numberof different authorities. This can be achieved through greatercooperation amongst the agencies, authorities and individualsinvolved in all aspects of disaster prevention and preparedness.

The extent to which the integrated approach can be achievedrelies on a number of factors, including the management ofnatural resources and the strength of existing legislation. Asa general principle however, the overall coordination of disastermanagement plans should be vested in a single organization,preferably operating at the national level, which assumesresponsibility for legal, administrative and financial mattersrelating to the management of natural disasters.

The ultimate goals of integrated disaster managementshould be to limit the hazards and damages to socially acceptablelevels, to promote environmental enhancement and to providedisaster warning, response, evacuation and recovery from theonset to the aftermath of the disaster.

EDUCATION, TRAINING AND INFORMATION SHARINGEDUCATION, TRAINING AND INFORMATION SHARINGEDUCATION, TRAINING AND INFORMATION SHARINGEDUCATION, TRAINING AND INFORMATION SHARINGEDUCATION, TRAINING AND INFORMATION SHARING

The adoption of such a system could however pose a problemfor some countries, which may lack the specialist technicalskills needed to develop a comprehensive management planand the capacity to implement the resulting prevention andpreparedness measures. These problems could be addressed bythe provision of specialist professional support and training fortheir agencies and institutions and financial subsidies fromnational governments and donor countries.


The disaster management process requires an ongoingcommitment to the education and training of disaster managersby the various tiers of government and professional bodies. Theexchange of information regarding difficulties, problems andsolutions and the results of research is essential for improveddisaster management. This can be fostered by the free flow ofinformation at the local and international levels through formalagreement, workshops and conferences.

There is a number of significant advantages to be gainedby adopting a national and international approach to water-related disaster management. This approach would lead to abetter and more efficient use of the resources of each nationand the region. Disaster management principles have developedto a different degree and in different ways in the variousESCAP countries. Considerable cost savings and efficienciescould be achieved through the sharing of information andexperiences in the coordination of disaster management researchactivities among the various countries. This form of cooperationwould promote a consistent approach to disaster managementpolicies and techniques, leading to better disaster managementpractices, and would help to reduce each country's exposure tothe risk of future disasters. Moreover, wider cooperation amongstneighbouring countries would facilitate the development of aregional data base of disaster related information throughoutthe region. This information should promote a better and moreefficient allocation of resources to disaster management bothwithin individual countries and across the region.

CURRENT STATE OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS INCURRENT STATE OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS INCURRENT STATE OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS INCURRENT STATE OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS INCURRENT STATE OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS INTHE ESCAP REGIONTHE ESCAP REGIONTHE ESCAP REGIONTHE ESCAP REGIONTHE ESCAP REGION

Mitigation StrategiesMitigation StrategiesMitigation StrategiesMitigation StrategiesMitigation Strategies

To date, the principal thrust of the water-related disastermitigation strategies employed in the ESCAP Region hasconcentrated on disaster preparedness, rather than on disasterprevention. Whilst this approach has in many countries beensuccessful in reducing the overall death toll associated withthese hazards, the amount of physical damage has continuedto mount.

The prevention measures which can be directed towardsthe reduction of the effects of the hazard prior to its occurrenceand the preparedness measures which may be implementedduring and after the disaster.

In summary, these mitigation measures attempt to lessenthe impact of the hazard by adopting both structural and non-structural approaches. The objective of the structural approachis to control the effects of the hazard by using specific engineeringworks as the best means of protecting life and property. On theother hand, the objective of the non-structural approach is tomodify susceptibility to the hazard through a range of controlsand other non-engineering devices.

The most successful preventive measures employed to curbthe destructive and injurious effects of tropical cyclones arebuilding design and construction standards, established to assistbuildings and other structures to resist wind and water damage.The range of measures available for protection against theeffects of flooding is much wider than that available to reducethe impact of tropical cyclones. It includes civil engineering-oriented structural measures, such as channel modifications,flood storages and levees, as well as non-structural measuressuch as planning controls and flood proofing of buildings. Thesemeasures are designed and implemented in order to reduce theincidence or extent of flooding and storm surges and/or tominimize their effects.

The selection of the best mix of measures for applicationat a given location to prevent the occurrence of future water-related disasters should be based on a consideration of all theavailable structural and non-structural options. The optimalmix of measures should be based on risk analysis and theeconomic performance of the overall scheme. Consideration ofsocial and environmental factors in addition to the legislativeand legal constraints should form part of the planning process.

Disaster preparedness covers those actions that are takenwhen a potentially hazardous event threatens to become adisaster. Preparedness activities are designed to reduce socialdisruption and losses to existing property and are an essential


component of overall disaster planning. Although these activitiescan serve, in the absence of more permanent mitigationmeasures, to reduce the threat to loss of life and property, theyare more effective when employed as a component of acomprehensive, overall disaster management plan.

SUCCESS STORYSUCCESS STORYSUCCESS STORYSUCCESS STORYSUCCESS STORY

ChinaChinaChinaChinaChina

Because China is frequently struck by the full range ofwater-related hazards, it experiences massive disasters in termsboth of human suffering and of economic losses, often over wideareas. Accordingly, the Chinese Government attaches greatimportance to its efforts to reduce the effects of these disasters.

Its approach to mitigating these catastrophes involves theprinciple of comprehensive disaster management, whichcombines economic development with disaster reduction andincludes such measures as disaster prevention, fighting, reliefand rehabilitation in promoting social stability and protectinglife and property.

Over the last two decades, and with increased vigour duringthe IDNDR, China has made a concerted effort to improve themanagement functions required to ensure a fully integratedand efficient natural disaster reduction system, which is tailoredto meet China's own special needs. This has involved thepromulgation and enforcement of a suite of appropriate lawsand regulations; the vertical and horizontal integration ofrelevant government departments according to their respectivefields of competence; the application of engineering and non-engineering measures; the raising of public awareness; improvedhazard monitoring and early warning systems; the formulationof disaster control plans based on risk assessment; theapplication of science and technology in mitigating disasters;increased education and training in natural disaster reduction;and the fostering of the growth of disaster reduction NGOs.

Because China experiences meteorological disasters in theform of tropical cyclones, floods and droughts, which can affecthuge populations and vast areas, its disaster mitigation efforts

have concentrated largely on the management of these threehazards.

Meteorological DisastersMeteorological DisastersMeteorological DisastersMeteorological DisastersMeteorological Disasters

China is exposed to severe and frequent tropical cyclones,torrential rains and drought. The Chinese Government isconcentrating its efforts to combat these disasters and improvedlevels of prediction and warning are constantly beingimplemented in an attempt to contain the destruction andeconomic loss associated with such disasters.

FloodsFloodsFloodsFloodsFloods

The 1998 flood in the Yangtze River was as great as thoseof 1931 and 1954, but the resulting flood damage was much lessthan that experienced during the earlier floods. For example,the area inundated by floodwater during the 1998 flood wasinsignificant compared to the extent of flooding in the 1931flood, which covered most of the middle and lower Yangtzeregion, and the 1954 flood, which inundated about 3.2 millionhectares. In the 1931 flood 145,000 people died; some 33,000people died in the 1954 flood; but only 1562 people were killedin the 1998 flood, most by debris flows in mountain regions.

It is obvious from the achievements in disaster mitigationby the Chinese Government that the reduction in flood-relateddeaths and damages can be directly attributable to the floodcontrol systems which have been implemented in both ruraland urban areas. Although the main thrust of China's floodmanagement has been directed towards structural measures,including levees, reservoirs, flood diversion basins, and rivertraining and dredging, non-structural measures such ascatchment management and rehabilitation techniques areprogressively being employed as a significant component of anintegrated flood management system.

Disaster preparedness is designed to minimize loss of lifeand property damage and to organize and facilitate timely andeffective rescue and relief in the case of a disaster. It must besupported by legislation which can ensue readiness to copewith disaster situations when they cannot be avoided. It also


includes forecasting and warning, the education and trainingof the population, and organization for and the managementof disaster situations, including the preparation of operationalplans, training of relief groups, stockpiling of supplies andprovision of necessary funds. Furthermore, it should includeflood fighting and evacuation, relief and rehabilitation. To beeffective, such disaster preparedness measures, including thosewhich are taken when the occurrence of a tropical cyclone, floodor storm surge imposes the threat of a disaster, must be plannedin advance.

The most important of these measures for helping to mitigatethe effects of tropical cyclones and floods is the developmentand implementation of effective forecasting and warningsystems. These can be particularly effective in reducing thepotential damage by increasing the time between the predictionand onset of an event. To be effective they must include notonly the latest techniques for the formulation of accurateforecasts, but also related communications systems designed todisseminate timely and accurate advice to the general public.

Programme DevelopmentProgramme DevelopmentProgramme DevelopmentProgramme DevelopmentProgramme Development

OverviewOverviewOverviewOverviewOverview

As part of its contribution to the mid-term review of theIDNDR Programme, the Water Resources Section Secretariatof ESCAP prepared an overview of the status of the naturaldisaster mitigation efforts of its members. It found that therehas been a growing recognition in the region of the significantbenefits of disaster prevention and mitigation, rather than adhoc relief reduction activities. Some countries had a long-established framework for responding to the disaster mitigationrequirements of the country. Others had either strengthenedtheir institutional mechanisms or were in the process ofoverhauling them.

Substantial progress had been achieved in meteorologicalforecasting and warning of tropical cyclones, and the capabilityto forecast floods had improved considerably through theindividual efforts of various countries, with assistance from thesupport given by ESCAP, the World Meteorological Organization

(WMO), UNDP and other organizations. Useful programmesand the capability to forecast tropical cyclones and floods hadimproved considerably through the establishment of theTyphoon Committee and the Panel on Tropical Cyclones. Thesetwo bodies had cooperated in the forecasting and warning ofcyclones, information exchange, provision of training and otherforms of activity relating to the reduction of the impact ofwater-related natural disasters.

The development and use of radar for forecasting andmeasuring rainfall events and the increased number oftelemetric rainfall stations in some countries had increasedtheir capability for the rapid collection and processing ofprecipitation data and the forecasting of floods. There was stillconsiderable variation among countries of the region with regardto the availability and reliability of equipment needed foreffective cyclone and flood forecasting and warning. Predictionof drought had also become more reliable by taking into accountsuch factors as the El Niño phenomenon and the undertakingof appropriate mitigation and preparedness measures.

It was determined that each country needed to improve thequality of forecasts and warnings in relation to water-relatednatural hazards and to increase the lead time of warnings, toenable areas likely to be affected to make adequate advancepreparations. The need for emphasis to be given to theimprovement of communication links for the transmission ofbasic data and providing related warning information aboutnatural hazards was seen to be a priority issue.

Risk assessment and mapping had not been undertaken bymost of the countries of the region. There was a need forcomprehensive vulnerability analysis to be undertaken fordisaster-prone areas, incorporating information about pastdisaster events, the socio-economic conditions of the populationliving in the affected area, and inventories of major structuresliable to damage. Risk assessment and hazard mapping wouldthen be used to delineate areas vulnerable to natural hazardsand determine the frequency, intensity, impact, return periodand other data in relation to each category of hazard.


Almost all countries in the Asian and Pacific regionexperienced severe flood problems at comparatively frequentintervals. Their traditional approach to the reduction of floodlosses relied upon the use of structural flood mitigation measuressuch as the construction of dams, levees and channelimprovements. Most of the earlier flood mitigation programmesadopted by individual countries had been specific to a city orto a discrete agricultural area and had employed a narrowrange of engineering works to provide solutions to the floodingproblem.

Although some projects were successful, some of them haveactually exacerbated flood damage. In recent years, mostcountries have recognized the inadequacy of programmes basedsolely on structural measures. Numerous attempts had beenmade to employ non-structural flood loss prevention measuresto assist in minimizing losses, principally through exercisingcontrol over development in flood-prone areas. These measureswere usually associated with a mix of structural measures and,in some circumstances, provided a comprehensive means ofcoping with a flood problem. In many cases, however, attemptsto formulate programmes which included some non-structuralmeasures had met with limited success, particularly thoseinvolving planning controls, acquisition of land and therelocation of people.

BangladeshBangladeshBangladeshBangladeshBangladesh

Bangladesh is predominantly a rural country, relying heavilyupon agricultural production for its existence. Unfortunately,its topographic and climatic systems make it one of the mostwater-related disaster prone countries in the Asian region. Itis frequently struck by destructive cyclones, devastating floodsand crippling droughts. These hazards cause severe agriculturallosses and place great strains on country's economy and itsability to achieve sustainable development.

Cyclones frequently sweep out of the Bay of Bengal andimpact on the coastline with devastating effects. These cyclonesgenerate dangerous floods, which are exacerbated by stormtides and wreak havoc along the entire coastal belt. Further

upstream, in the delta formed by the three great rivers, thePadma, the Jamuna and the Meghna, frequent major floodingcan inundate up to 70 percent of the entire country. The effectsof these floods in terms of loss of life and property, ecologicaldamage and lost production have crippled the country's economyand set back development programmes by years. In additionto the loss of production caused by cyclones and floods,Bangladesh has also experienced severe drought conditionswhich have resulted in disastrous crop failures. The loss ofagricultural production caused by droughts has also imposedsignificant strains on the socio-economic structure of the country.

In order to combat the many major disasters which haveafflicted Bangladesh in recent years, the government haspursued a vigorous programme of disaster management. Thisprogramme gave the initial priority to improvement in theforecasting and early warning systems for cyclones and floods,along with emphasis on emergency response and relief.Subsequent initiatives have involved prevention andpreparedness measures with a bias towards infrastructuredevelopment, such as the construction of coastal dykes andriver embankments. More recently, multi-level initiatives arebeing pursued which include: awareness and educationprogrammes; decentralized planning and communityparticipation in disaster mitigation and response; involvementof NGOs in disaster mitigation and response; and incorporationof disaster management and reduction component indevelopment projects.

Up to the present time, the disaster managementprogramme has been successful in mitigating the effects ofwater-related natural disasters. For example, the severe 1991cyclone resulted in the death of 140,000 people and propertylosses of US$ 2.0 billion. A cyclone of similar intensity to the1991 event occurred in 1993 and resulted in the loss of only126 lives. The reduction in the death toll was directly attributableto the improved forecasting and warning services and theprovision of cyclone shelters. Although the 1998 flood was theworst in living memory and inundated more than 70 percentof the entire country, the limited number of casualties compared


to earlier floods was also attributable to the effectiveness of thedisaster management measures implemented over time.

Bangladesh is aware that although the comprehensivecontrol of water-related natural hazards is not entirely possibleand the population will have to continue to live with theassociated disasters which they bring, continuing effort isrequired in the development of a national disaster managementplan to ameliorate their future impact.

Adequately constructed and equipped cyclone shelters hadconsiderably reduced the number of lives lost to typhoons andtropical cyclones. As a preventive measure, cyclone-resistantdesigns for dwellings had helped reduce the number of casualtiesand reduce serious damage to buildings.

Progress had been achieved in developing mitigationmeasures to improve the safety of non-engineered structuressuch as ordinary dwellings and simple public buildingsconstructed with local materials in the traditional manner. Insome countries of the region there was a need for preparationor review of cyclone resistant design codes for buildings andother engineering structures and for their enforcement, as wellas the undertaking of proper arrangements for the infrastructureto be able to deal with natural hazards.

Republic of KoreaRepublic of KoreaRepublic of KoreaRepublic of KoreaRepublic of Korea

The Republic of Korea frequently suffers disasters resultingfrom tropical cyclones, storms and floods. Over the last 20years, these hazards have caused considerable loss of life,disruption to the economy and massive property damage.Occasional droughts also affect the agricultural and industrialsectors and impact upon rural communities.

A review of the available damage statistics discloses thatthe Government's efforts in natural disaster reduction hasresulted in a dramatic reduction in the death toll. Duringthe IDNDR the average annual loss of life has beenreduced from 280 to less than 80. However, the average annualdamages have remained substantially constant over the sameperiod.

These achievements can be attributed to improved disastermanagement planning and the initiatives associated with theplan. The most significant initiatives have involved the following:a strengthening of the institutional framework for naturaldisaster prevention and preparedness by concentrating theoverall responsibility for the task into a single agency; acomprehensive revision of the Natural DisasterCountermeasures Act to incorporate comprehensive disasterprevention measures, provision of adequate funding foroperational aspects and the encouragement of privateparticipation in disaster mitigation; the placing of greateremphasis on scientific research in the field of disaster prevention;and the formulation of a 5-year Disaster Prevention Plandirected towards the implementation of measures coveringafforestation, flood control, disaster prevention and technologydevelopment.

To cope with the fact that disasters are becoming morevaried and larger in scale, the Korean Government is continuingits efforts in the field of disaster reduction by concentrating onsuch aspects as: streamlining land development regulations;availability of flood insurance; greater investment in floodcontrol; systematic scientific research for disaster prevention;development of a national disaster management system; andactive international cooperation.

Most countries of the region had enacted legislation toprovide for the controls and responsibilities necessary to copewith disaster situations. This legislation has permitted therelevant authorities to govern the long-term requirements ofdisaster prevention and the short-term needs of disasterpreparedness. Although statutory controls were available togovern the relevant aspects of community planning anddevelopment, including zoning, subdivision controls andenvironmental issues pertaining to disaster prevention, manyGovernments were reluctant to invoke them. ManyGovernments had appointed a central organization to coordinatethe disaster mitigation activities of the various governmentbodies and other interested groups, so that a comprehensiveapproach was adopted. In certain countries, some of these


organizations were established on an ad hoc basis only whena natural disaster had occurred or was expected to happen. Itwas only the more developed countries of the region that hadcohesive institutional arrangements in place.

Most countries had upgraded their civil defence capabilityfor the rescue of people from endangered areas, through themobilization of armed forces or the organization of the localcommunity in response to threats of disaster through cooperativeactivities involving volunteers. A number of countries hadintroduced programmes to provide information and educatethe public on hazard situations, particularly floods.

The Typhoon CommitteeThe Typhoon CommitteeThe Typhoon CommitteeThe Typhoon CommitteeThe Typhoon Committee

The Typhoon Committee was established by theparticipating countries under the auspices of ESCAP and WMOand has been functioning and holding annual sessions since1968. The Typhoon Committee covered a wide range of activitieson typhoon-related disaster reduction for which severalimportant initiatives were launched under its framework,particularly those aiming at improving typhoon and floodforecasts.

Among the initiatives undertaken, the two most importantones were the Typhoon Operational Experiment (TOPEX)programme and the SPECTRUM (Special ExperimentConcerning Typhoon Recurvature and Unusual Movement)which laid down important infrastructure and establishedhuman resources and facilities for subsequent contribution todisaster prevention and preparedness.

It may be noted that the objective of TOPEX was to carryout, through international co-operation in the prompt andreliable collection and exchange of observational data, anoperational test of the functioning of the various systems usedfor typhoon analysis, forecasting and warning. TOPEX consistedof three components the meteorological hydrological andwarning dissemination and information exchange components.TOPEX was an exercise that tested the effectiveness of thetotality of the system built up over more than a decade for floodwarnings, typhoon warnings and dissemination of information

to the public. For flood loss prevention, the Committee hadcarried out the following activities:

i. evaluation of the established system for forecasting andwarning of the hydrological effects of floods and/or stormsurges by comparison of their outputs with actualobserved data in the fields;

i. identification of simple deterministic forecasting modelsused by, or available to services in the typhoon area,selection of specific models for application to eachdesignated area and comparison of the models' resultsin real-time forecasting operational mode;

i. evaluation of separate and/or combined hydrologicaleffects of typhoons, particularly river and storm surgeflooding, and thereby determination of associated floodrisk.

In parallel, other regular activities have been in operationinclude:

i. operation, maintenance and improvement of existingflood forecasting and warning systems;

ii. establishment of flood forecasting and warning systemsin other river basins;

iii. establishment of pilot areas for comprehensive floodloss prevention and management which includedinvestigation, survey and study of the pilot areas,preparation of comprehensive plans for flood lossprevention and management within the context of overallwater resources development of the pilot areas andimplementation of selected aspects of the comprehensiveplans by stages, if necessary.

In terms of activities for disaster preparedness, theCommittee provided assistance in establishment of appropriatenational organizations at all levels, and in formulation of plans;improvement of facilities and services for emergencycommunications; improvement of effectiveness of warnings andcommunity reaction; training in disaster preparedness;improvement of techniques for assessment and reporting of


damage and consequent needs; preparation and implementationof pilot projects for pre-disaster planning, including analysis ofhazards and resources at all levels, and case studies on suchplans and their effectiveness in practice; and development ofmeasures to reduce damage associated with storm surge.

The advent of IDNDR has strengthened the cooperationamong the Committee members and also helped enhanceawareness on the importance of natural disaster reduction. Themembership of the Committee continued to increase from 7 tolately 15, consisting of the Governments of Cambodia, China,Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Japan, LaoPeople's Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Macau, Philippines,Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand, United States, VietNam and Hong Kong, China.

Example of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical CyclonesExample of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical CyclonesExample of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical CyclonesExample of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical CyclonesExample of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones

In parallel with the operations of the Typhoon Committee,the Panel on Tropical Cyclones was also established under theauspices of WMO and ESCAP to promote measures to improvetropical cyclone warning systems in the Bay of Bengal and theArabian Sea. The Panel aims to direct their common endeavourstowards successful implementation of a comprehensive cycloneoperational plan to facilitate the most effective tropical cyclonewarning system for the region with existing facilities.

As part of the common endeavour, the Panel adopted acomprehensive cyclone operational plan for this subregion. Thebasic purpose of the operational plan was to facilitate the mosteffective tropical cyclone warning system for the region withexisting facilities.

In doing so the plan defined the sharing of responsibilitiesamong Panel countries for the various segments of the systemand records the co-ordination and co-operation achieved. Theplan recorded the agreed arrangements for standardization ofoperational procedures, efficient exchange of various data relatedto tropical cyclone warnings, issue of cyclone advisories froma central location having the required facilities for this purpose,archival of data and issue of a tropical weather outlook for thebenefit of the region.

The operational plan contains an explicit formulation of theprocedures adopted in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Searegion for the preparation, distribution and exchange ofinformation and warnings pertaining to tropical cyclones.Experience has shown that it is of great advantage to have anexplicit statement of the regional procedures to be followed inthe event of a cyclone, and this document is designed to serveas a valuable source of information always available for referenceby the forecaster and other users, particularly under operationalconditions.

A technical plan aiming at the development andimprovement of the cyclone warning system of the region hasbeen drawn up by the Panel. Implementation of some itemsunder the technical plan would lead to a strengthening of theoperational plan. The operational plan is evolutionary in nature.It is intended that the text of the plan be updated or revisedfrom time to time by the Panel and that each item of informationgiven in the annexes to the plan be kept up to date by themember country concerned. The plan included a hydrologicalprogramme comprising two main components:

i. hydrological network and flood forecasting systems, and

ii. storm surge project.

Cooperation among the members continues to bestrengthened with the implementation of these components inaddition to work on meteorology. An important point to notein this respect is that through the implementation of the plan,the exchange of hydrological data among the member countriesfor flood warnings has been greatly improved.

Community AwarenessCommunity AwarenessCommunity AwarenessCommunity AwarenessCommunity Awareness

In many countries of the region it was recognized that theinitial and most vital response to a disaster must be at the locallevel and that the community must be well informed aboutdisaster-preparedness measures and be alert in the time ofdisaster. It was considered essential that the building of disasterawareness in the general population, starting with theindividual, was essential in reducing casualties. In order to


promote community involvement in disaster prevention andpreparedness, community awareness programmes andeducational programmes relating to warning systems and otheraspects of disaster preparedness were developed andimplemented, and committees that included representatives ofnon-governmental organizations and the public were establishedat the local level to monitor and guide disaster-relief operations.

IndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia

The main water-related disasters affecting India are tropicalcyclones, floods and droughts. Although the incidence of cyclonestrikes in the coastal belt is not high, India is regarded as oneof the most flood prone countries in the region, with 40 millionhectares, or 12 percent of the whole country, being affected.India is also often subject to drought when the monsoon rainsfail to occur.

India is a union of 25 States and 7 Union Territories. TheUnion Territories are subject to the direct rule-making powersof the National Parliament and the administrative control ofthe Central Government. The States are fully autonomous inrelation to their activities under the Constitution. Theresponsibility for natural disaster management is spread overthe various tiers of Government, with State Governmentsassuming a primary role in disaster rescue and relief measures.The Central Government supplements the States' activities byproviding substantial financial support and other forms ofassistance.

In recent times many advances have been made in disastermitigation, response and preparedness. Major advances havebeen achieved in the field of disaster response at both theCentral and State Government level through closer collaborationamong the various agencies. Overall coordination has beenassumed by the Ministry of Agriculture with support fromother relevant ministries. Streamlining the disbursement ofrelief funds following a disaster has substantially improved therelief operations and reduced hardship.

Improvement in cyclone forecasting and warning has beenmade possible by the use of remote sensing systems, including

satellite and weather radars. Timely warnings and quickresponse has permitted the early evacuation of threatenedpopulations. As a consequence, the number of cyclone relateddeaths has been reduced by a factor of 10.

Flood modification strategies include both structural andnon-structural measures. The construction of numerous dams,drainage channels and protective embankments along rivershas helped to mitigate the intensity of floods and reduce damagein many areas. The non-structural measures include riskmapping, flood plain zoning and forecasting and warning. Theflood forecasting and warning functions are the responsibilityof the Central Government, which has established acomprehensive network throughout the country. Watershedmanagement has been elevated in importance to further reducerun-off and promote sustainable development.

Drought monitoring and alleviation is also afforded a highpriority in disaster management. The construction of waterstorages, monitoring of crop situations and the implementationof drought management strategies has helped to ameliorate theeffect of drought and to reduce the amount of associated damage.

In an effort to further its achievements in water-relateddisaster reduction, India is directing its efforts towards thelinking of disaster mitigation with development planning, theestablishment of more effective communication systems, theuse of the latest information technology, the introduction ofdisaster insurance, the employment of extensive publicawareness and education campaigns, particularly in rural areas,the greater involvement of the private sector, and thestrengthening of institutional mechanisms and internationalcooperation.

SUMMARY OF DISASTERS EXPERIENCED DURINGSUMMARY OF DISASTERS EXPERIENCED DURINGSUMMARY OF DISASTERS EXPERIENCED DURINGSUMMARY OF DISASTERS EXPERIENCED DURINGSUMMARY OF DISASTERS EXPERIENCED DURINGTHE DECADETHE DECADETHE DECADETHE DECADETHE DECADE

GeneralGeneralGeneralGeneralGeneral

Following a decision made by the Typhoon Committee incooperation with United Nations agencies and the League ofRed Crescent Societies, ESCAP compiles every year region-


wide statistics and reports on the damage caused by tropicalcyclones, floods, droughts and other severe weather events.The data and accompanying report serve a vital function inproviding current indicators of the extent of damage sufferedby countries of the region as a result of these types of naturaldisaster. On-going regional and global programmes also needsuch information to support the efforts of member countries toreduce losses of life and damage to property from meteorologicaldisasters.

To compile such data, ESCAP each year sends aquestionnaire on damages caused by natural disasters to itsmembers and associate members. The type of informationnominated for collection and compilation includes directdamages caused to human resources, agricultural products andfacilities, public utilities and private property. The evaluationof indirect damages to economic and social activities has alsobeen recommended for inclusion in the programme. Thecategories for damage assessment are those adopted in theESCAP Water Resources Journal for the presentation of suchstatistics.

Data and information which relate to annual damagesustained as a result of tropical cyclones and floods in theregion are compiled and presented in the June issues of theJournal. Information considered includes loss of life, injuries,population affected, damage to buildings, agricultural areasaffected and areas of cropland damaged.

Not all countries providing information on damage causedby tropical cyclones or floods include a monetary assessmentof damages. Information gleaned from other sources indicatesthat the costs of damage attributable to these two phenomenaare increasing at a rate of over 4 percent annually. However,as these damage costs relate only to direct damage, theysignificantly underestimate the actual damage. If the value ofthe additional and significant indirect losses were included, thetotal monetary value would increase substantially.

Not all countries report on a regular basis or provide acomplete set of statistics. As a result there are gaps in the

chronology of damages presented for the countries concerned.Although questions have been raised as to the reliability of thedata, the information does serve as a general indicator of thedisruption caused by the damage inflicted by tropical cyclones,floods and droughts on the individual countries. An indicationof the severity and frequency of disasters which accompanythese events may be obtained from the tabulations.

In 1996, the Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, UnitedNations Environment Programme summarized the root causesof environmental problems for the Asia and Pacific region interms of social, economic, institutional and environmentalfactors. This summary also included detailed descriptions ofthe water-related hazards and accompanying disasters in theESCAP region from the beginning of the International Decadefor Natural Disaster Reduction in 1990. This information ispresented in the following sections.

As we have seen, the developing countries in this regionare situated in the world's worst water-related hazard belts offloods, droughts, cyclones, tidal waves, and landslides. Themajor natural disasters faced periodically are largely due toclimatic factors. The region has been one of the worst hit interms of natural disasters, suffering 50 per cent of the world'smajor emergencies. Since the International Decade for NaturalDisaster Reduction began in 1990, the total number of deathsin the region due to these causes has exceeded 200,000, withthe damage to property over this period estimated at US$100billion. Vulnerability has increased due to growing urbanpopulations, environmental degradation, and a lack of planningand preparedness.

Disasters are the result of meteorological phenomena suchas typhoons, hurricanes, sheet flooding, of coastal and river-based floods. These is turn appear to be related to climaticphenomenon such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation thatresults in a lower mean sea surface temperature in the east,failure of the monsoon rains in India, and drought in Indonesiaand Australia. Vulnerability to natural hazards has beenincreased in many coastal areas as a consequence of the lossof habitat such as mangroves and coral reefs that formerly


provided natural protection against coastal flooding. Tropicalcyclones, or typhoons, which are common in the ESCAP region,occur most frequently over the north-west Pacific during Juneand November just east of the Philippines, with an average of30 typhoons per year.

In the Bay of Bengal, tropical cyclones usually form overthe southern end during April-December and then move to theeast coast of India and Bangladesh, causing severe floodingand, often, devastating tidal surges. The cyclones generated inthe South Pacific Ocean frequently cause devastation in smallisland countries such as Fiji, Tonga, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands,and Samoa. Overall, the Philippines, Bangladesh, and Vietnamappear to suffer most frequently from these large events.

Floods, which are the most common climate-related disastersin the region, include seasonal flooding, flash flooding, urbanflooding due to inadequate drainage facilities, and floodsassociated with tidal events induced by typhoons in coastalareas.

In Bangladesh, one of the most flood-prone countries in theregion, as many as 80 million people are vulnerable to floodingeach year. Another example is India, where 40 million hectaresare at risk from flooding each year, and the average annualdirect damage has been estimated at US$240 million, althoughthis can exceed US$1.5 billion when flooding is severe.

It has been observed that the impact of droughts differswidely between industrial and developing countries because ofsuch factors as water supply efficiency and behavioural patternssuch as water use efficiency. Most of the estimated 500 millionrural poor in this region are subsistence farmers occupyingmainly rainfed land.

The drought-prone countries in this region are Afghanistan,Iran, Myanmar, Pakistan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and partsof Bangladesh. In India about 33 per cent of the arable land,representing 14 per cent of the total land area of the country,is considered to be drought-prone, whilst a further 35 per centcan also be affected by drought when rainfall is exceptionallylow for extended periods. Nepal has experienced severe droughts

in the past, along with the Philippines, Thailand, Australia,and the Pacific islands of Fiji, Vanuatu, and Samoa.

Landslides, which are very common in the hills andmountainous parts of the region, occur frequently in India,China, Nepal, Thailand, and the Philippines. In addition to theprimary cause-the topography-landslides are aggravated byhuman activities, such as deforestation, cultivation, andconstruction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes. Forinstance, as a result of combined actions of natural (mostlyheavy rainfall) and human factors, as many as 12,000 landslidesoccur in Nepal each year.

Environmental degradation and disasters are very closelylinked in this region. The countries that suffer most fromdisasters are the same ones in which environmental degradationis proceeding most rapidly. Similarly, poverty and vulnerabilityto disasters are closely linked. There is an average of some3,000 deaths per event in low-income countries, comparedwith less than 400 per event in middle and high-incomecountries.

Encroachment onto disaster-prone lands under the pressureof rapid population growth is accelerating the regionalvulnerability to disasters. It has been estimated that annualflood losses in some countries are 40 times more today thanwhat they were in the 1950s. According to the IndianGovernment, one out of every 20 people in the nation isvulnerable to flooding. Similarly, in China more than 85 percent of the population is concentrated on alluvial plains orbasins along river courses that constitute one third of its totalland area.

A summary of major water-related disasters experiencedin the Region is presented in Appendix 1 for the years 1994,1995, 1996 and 1997. This information has been extracted fromthe July issues of ESCAP's Water Resources Journal. Themagnitude of each disaster is expressed in terms of:

o country or area affected;

o type of disaster;


o period of occurrence and name of regions/areas seriouslyaffected;

o human damages (persons killed, injured, etc.);

o material damages (property, agriculture, etc.);

o total estimated damage cost.

A perusal of this damage information will verify that thesedisasters continue to wreak havoc throughout the region. Thetoll inflicted on its populations, in terms of human lives,individual suffering and hardship, is staggering in magnitude.Losses of private possessions and livelihoods, coupled withdisruption to the normal pattern of life and local economies,can be spread over large areas and have a debilitating effecton the nation's economy as a whole.

From the end of June,1998, persistent rains, which wereattributed to the La Niña phenomenon, caused some of themost devastating floods of the Decade and took a heavy toll onhuman life and property in several countries in the ESCAPregion.

Although China and Bangladesh were the worst affected,the Republic of Korea, Viet Nam, India and Nepal also sufferedsignificant loss of life and related damage. It was estimatedthat over 250 million people were affected by the floods withmany being rendered homeless. A brief summary of the excessiverains and major floods in China, Bangladesh, Korea and VietNam are presented in the following sections.

1998 DISASTERS1998 DISASTERS1998 DISASTERS1998 DISASTERS1998 DISASTERS

ChinaChinaChinaChinaChina

Flooding along some major rivers in China duringAugust,1998 was described as the worst in decades. The worstaffected areas were in central and north-eastern China.

Commencing in June, heavy protracted rain fell over largeareas of China and culminated in severe flooding on manymajor waterways, particularly the Yangtze River. It wasestimated that the August peak was the second highest in more

than 130 years, only being eclipsed by the record flood of 1954when 33,000 people were drowned. In other parts of the countryfloods, landslides and mudflows affected some 240,000 people.

Over 3000 people lost their lives, with landslides andmudflows causing many of the deaths. Some 15 million peoplewere rendered homeless, 5 million houses were destroyed and22 million hectares were inundated and 1.8 million hectares ofcrops totally destroyed. The total damage bill was estimatedto exceed $ US 20 billion.

Several major dykes were breached during the flood,affecting large sections of the local population. Many dykeswere deliberately cut to ease the pressure on downstreamareas. More than 500,000 people were evacuated from the flooddiversion zone at Jingjiang on the Yangtze River so that themajor dykes could be cut to protect the industrial city of Wuhanand other areas downstream.

It was necessary to mobilize more than 1.7 million Chinesesoldiers and civilians to undertake essential maintenance workon the levees, which had to be undertaken to avoid failure asflood peaks threatened to overwhelm them. In some cases, thedecision was made to abandon or breach some levees so thatother more important areas could be protected. Essential servicesand relief efforts were taxed to the limit as essential servicesfailed completely and medical services were placed underextreme pressure to cope with a situation of mounting diseaseoutbreaks.

BangladeshBangladeshBangladeshBangladeshBangladesh

Heavy monsoon rain which commenced to fall in mid-July1998 caused extensive flooding in 37 of the 64 administrativedistricts, inundating about two thirds of the country. Majorflooding was recorded in most rivers throughout these districts.The torrential rain which fell in the Himalayas caused riversto break their banks, resulting in the longest-lasting floods inmemory.

The floods resulted in the death of over 600 people whowere drowned or killed by collapsing houses. Some 25 million


people were affected by the floods and hundreds of thousandswere left homeless. Over 6600 head of cattle were lost. A totalof 760,000 hectares of farmland were inundated by floodwaterwith 425,000 hectares of crops being completely destroyed. Theloss of crops was estimated at about US$ 150 million.

The Government launched a full-scale rescue and reliefoperation by mobilizing the army for emergency rescueoperations and the distribution of food supplies to the floodvictims. Many of the flood-affected communities suffered anoutbreak of water-borne diseases resulting from contaminateddrinking water.

Republic of KoreaRepublic of KoreaRepublic of KoreaRepublic of KoreaRepublic of Korea

During early August,1998 the City of Seoul experienced theworst flood disaster since the 1987 floods which claimed 381lives, injured 428 and affected 151,000 people.

On the 5th and 6th of August. a storm deluged themetropolitan area of Seoul with 620 millimetres of rain, makingit one of the heaviest downpours on record. The resulting floodsand mudslides killed 131 people, left 61 missing and causeddamage estimated at US$ 323 million.

Several days earlier, the same storm caused flash floodswhich killed 95 people, left 20,000 homeless and inundated55,000 hectares of farmland. These floods were also accompaniedby mudslides which engulfed buildings, damaged infrastructureand triggered an outbreak of disease.

Earlier in the year the northern parts of the country wereravaged by floodwaters. the heavy rains which started towardsthe end of July culminated in serious flooding, affecting a widearea. Some 270 people were killed, more than 150,000 peoplewere evacuated and damage to property exceeded US$ 689million. Over 47,000 hectares of farmland were swamped andlarge areas of the rice crop completely destroyed.

Viet NamViet NamViet NamViet NamViet Nam

Typhoon Dawn and other tropical storms which struck 15central provinces of central Viet Nam from 11th to 26th

November,1998 caused extensive flooding and damage. Floodingwhich accompanied the heavy rainfall resulted in flash floodingthroughout the region and was reported to be the mostdevastating since the historical record flood of 1964.

Some 2.4 million people were directly affected by thedisaster, 267 people being killed and more than 110 peoplebeing injured or reported missing. Almost 500,000 buildingswere damaged by floodwater, some 10,000 of them beingcompletely destroyed. Almost 115,000 ha of crops were inundatedby floodwater and suffered significant damage. The total damageto crops, infrastructure and private property was estimated atUS$ 93 million.

The devastation was exacerbated by the fact that most ofthe provinces had experienced serious drought conditions for9 months prior to the onset of flooding.

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PPPPPREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESS O O O O OPTIONSPTIONSPTIONSPTIONSPTIONS FORFORFORFORFOR THETHETHETHETHE ESCAP ESCAP ESCAP ESCAP ESCAPRRRRREGIONEGIONEGIONEGIONEGION

PREVENTION AND PREPAREDNESS APPROACHESPREVENTION AND PREPAREDNESS APPROACHESPREVENTION AND PREPAREDNESS APPROACHESPREVENTION AND PREPAREDNESS APPROACHESPREVENTION AND PREPAREDNESS APPROACHES

The key to effective reduction in the loss of life and damageto property resulting from tropical cyclones, storm surges, floodsand other forms of water-based disaster lies in the developmentand adoption of improved disaster prevention and preparednessmeasures.

Disaster prevention may be described as the application ofmeasures that seek to prevent natural phenomena fromoccurring or to limit the scope and intensity of their effects. Itis concerned with the formulation and implementation of longrange programmes and policies which are aimed at eliminationof the occurrence of disasters or the reduction of their adverseeffects on the basis of a careful assessment of vulnerability andrisk. It must be emphasized that major natural disasterphenomena such as tropical cyclones and widespread floodscannot be prevented from occurring, but the probability andextent of serious damaging effects can be minimized. Thesemeasures may include both structural and non-structuralapproaches, including legislative and regulatory measures.

Disaster preparedness may be described as the applicationof measures which are designed to minimize loss of life andproperty damage and to organize and facilitate timely andeffective rescue, relief and rehabilitation when disastrous

disaster events do occur. Again, the assessment of these risksmust be undertaken in terms of risk and vulnerability.Preparedness measures may include forecasting and warningsystems, community education, and organization andmanagement of disaster situations including the preparationof operational plans, training of relief groups, the stockpilingof supplies and the provision of the necessary funds. It is mustbe supported by appropriate emergency legislation which comesinto force in disaster situations or similar emergencies whichcannot be avoided.

Prevention and preparedness measures are not isolatedactivities since both can be undertaken together or one can bea continuation of the other. This is because not all disasterscan be prevented, and preventative measures may fail to achievetheir objectives. Thus, to limit or mitigate the effects of disasterswhich cannot be prevented, certain measures have to beundertaken to return the community to normality as soon aspossible after the event.

A variety of prevention and preparedness measures hasbeen applied in the countries of the ESCAP Region, albeit withvarying degrees of success and often in an uncoordinated fashion.

As previously stated, disaster prevention and preparednessconsist of a wide range of measures, some long term and othersshort-term, aimed at saving lives and minimizing the amountof damage that might otherwise be caused. Prevention coversthe long-term aspects and is concerned with policies andprogrammes to prevent or eliminate the occurrence of disasters.

Preparedness covers the short-term measures which aredesigned to cover the action necessary during the approach ofa possible disaster, during the existence of a disaster situationand in the ensuing period devoted to relief and rehabilitation.Disaster prevention and preparedness is usually accomplishedusing two fundamental approaches. Firstly, it may be achievedusing permanent controls, structural or non-structural, designedand developed in advance of the disaster. Secondly, it may beachieved by using temporary measures, planned in advancebut only put into effect during the emergency.


DISASTER PREVENTIONDISASTER PREVENTIONDISASTER PREVENTIONDISASTER PREVENTIONDISASTER PREVENTION

The destructive power of tropical cyclones is manifested bystrong winds, flooding and storm surges. Any disaster preventionand preparedness system must include warnings and protectivemeasures against each of these effects. Winds are a fundamentalproperty of tropical cyclones, whilst flooding and storm surgesmay be a consequence of tropical cyclones but also of othernatural events.

The principal preventive measures employed to mitigatethe destructive and injurious effects of tropical cyclones involvethe introduction of building design and construction standardsaimed at improved resistance to the damaging effects of windand water.

Disaster prevention measures attempt to lessen the impactof flooding or storm surge on the social and economic conditionsof human settlements in floodplains or low lying coastal areas.The range of preventative controls adopted to protectdevelopment on floodplains includes both structural measuressuch as channel modifications, flood detention storages andlevees which arc designed to reduce the incidence or extent offlooding, and non-structural measures such as flood insurance,flood zoning restrictions, land-use management, economicincentives, public information and community education. Non-structural measures are intended to modify flood susceptibilityand flood impact. The range of measures available to protectagainst the effects of flooding is much wider than that availableto reduce the impact of tropical cyclones.

Preventative measures to protect low-lying coastal areasagainst damage from tidal inundation also include structuraland non-structural measures. The principal structural measureinvolve the construction of embankments capable ofwithstanding the anticipated storm surge heights and forces.Non-structural measures employ land-use zoning and controlsover occupation in high hazard areas. Building controls are alsoimposed to restrict building on vulnerable areas. These controlsrequire that flood heights are set a safe elevation above a givendatum.

The selection of the best mix of measures to prevent theoccurrence of future flood or storm surge disasters will be basedon the consideration of all the available structural and non-structural options. The optimal mix of measures will be basedon risk analysis and the economic performance of the overallscheme. Consideration of social and environmental factors inaddition to the legislative and legal constrictions should beincluded in the planning process.

DISASTER PREPAREDNESSDISASTER PREPAREDNESSDISASTER PREPAREDNESSDISASTER PREPAREDNESSDISASTER PREPAREDNESS

Disaster preparedness is seen as that action taken whenthe occurrence of a tropical cyclone. flood or storm surgethreatens to become a disaster. Preparedness activities aredesigned to reduce social disruption and losses to existingproperty and are an essential component of overall disasterplanning. They can serve in the absence of more permanentmeasures to reduce the threat to loss of life and property.

The main types of disaster preparedness include:

o forecasting and warning systems;

o evacuation from affected areas;

o flood fighting;

o flood relief;

o cyclone shelters.

Depending on the size of the drainage basin, the length ofriver and the time of concentration of floodwater in the mainchannel, flood forecasts and warnings may be issued well inadvance of the arrival of the flood crest on large rivers. Flashfloods originating on small catchments present special problemsand usually require some form of forecasting based on rainfallestimates.

Although the forecasts for cyclones and floods may beaccurate and timely they may have little or no effects on theintended recipients if the warning system for dissemination ofthe forecast is inadequate. Each agency responsible foremergency operations should receive prompt forecasts andwarnings of the changing circumstances so that action needed


to meet the emergency can be achieved. Dissemination offorecasts requires an effective communications system basedon radio broadcasts, television, newspapers, telephone andspecial warning systems. The evacuation of people from apotential or actual disaster area is one of the most importantelements of disaster mitigation. Careful planning is necessaryfor the efficient evacuation and relief of flood victims. To beeffective the plan should define hazardous areas and potentialdangers. However, the difficulty in evacuating victims andproperty can be increased if escape routes cannot cope with thetraffic volume, if evacuation services cannot be contacted orsuitable evacuation equipment such as trucks, boats andhelicopters are not available.

Flood fighting can be defined as the taking of precautionarymeasures against disaster at times of flood or storm-surge.These measures should aim to prevent damage or to minimizeits extent to protect life and property and in general, to ensurethe safety of the population. Successful flood fighting dependsupon good organization, thorough advance planning, well-trained personnel and the effective coordination of operationsat local, provincial and national levels. The planning shouldcover all those who will be involved, from the flood-fightingcorps, municipality, town or village officers, and the generalpublic, to the regional and central government. It involves theconstruction of temporary controls to exclude floodwater fromprotected areas or the strengthening of existing structures toensure protection.

The main aim of relief is to provide immediate assistanceto overcome personal hardship and distress, including essentialrepairs to houses and the repair and replacement of essentialitems of furniture and personal effects. Relief should includethe reception and care of evacuated victims, the provision ofmedical services and similar activities.

STRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR DISASTERSTRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR DISASTERSTRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR DISASTERSTRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR DISASTERSTRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR DISASTERMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

A variety of both structural and non-structural measuresis available for coping with water-based disasters. These

measures are discussed in further detail below. As we havealready indicated, most or all of these methods have been usedin the countries of the ESCAP Region as part of their disastermitigation programs.

Cyclone ManagementCyclone ManagementCyclone ManagementCyclone ManagementCyclone Management

Winds are a fundamental property of tropical cyclones,whilst flooding and storm surges may be a consequence oftropical cyclones but also of other natural events. A variety ofstructural measures has be taken to protect lives and propertyagainst these effects.

Tropical cyclones may produce wind velocities of 200 kmper hour or more. Under these conditions, buildings are subjectto air pressure variations which can produce strong outwardsforces on roofs, ceilings and walls, leading to explosive lifting,bursting or collapse. High winds may also induce falling debrisand airborne wreckage to be carried from adjacent buildings,and these can impact with such force as to penetrate or severelydamage conventional wall and roof materials.

Structural precautions which have been or could be takento minimize the damage caused by these effects include:

o siting or re-siting of buildings in locations with minimalexposure to high-velocity winds;

o use of special cyclone-resistant building materials;

o special forms of roof and wall construction designed towithstand extremely high wind velocities;

o construction of cyclone shelters within or adjacent tobuildings.

In selecting a location with reduced exposure to hazardouswind velocities, it needs to be remembered that cyclones aregenerally associated with intense rainfall and possibly heavyflooding. Clearly, buildings should not be located in positionsposing increased flood hazard.

Cyclone are also often associated with storm surges, leadingto potential flooding of coastal areas. Where possible, buildingsshould not be located in surge prone locations. Alternatively,


buildings may be raised above expected flood levels. This is alsoa possibility for locations which are likely to be subject tocyclone-induced flooding.

Many countries in the region have Government or Universitylaboratories which conduct research into the structural effectsof tropical cyclone damage and have developed structural andbuilding designs and special materials to suit such conditions.Many countries have also now developed improved structuraldesign guidelines and standards governing building constructionin cyclone-prone areas and these should be identified,emphasized in building regulations or by-laws and widelypublicized amongst engineers, architects, builders and thegeneral public.

Cyclone shelters are specially strengthened and equippedrooms or chambers constructed inside or adjacent to individualbuildings. For short-term emergency shelters, a floor spacearea of about 0.5 m2 per person is adequate. For longer durationcyclones, which might last for 12 hours or more, a floor spaceof about 1m2 per occupant is desirable.

According to the building design and layout, shelters mightbe constructed inside the building, in the basement, under agarage or other concrete floor, or as an extension on one sideof the building. Shelters should have concrete walls and astrengthened roof, with a single door which is missile-impactresistant. They require of course to be adequately ventilated,with a system which is not reliant on electrical supply in caseof power failure. Shelters design for longer-duration occupancyrequire a water supply and toilet and all shelters should beprovided with a kit of emergency equipment, including torchand lamp, first-aid kit, portable radio, water and food containers,portable cooking gear and spare clothing.

Flood ManagementFlood ManagementFlood ManagementFlood ManagementFlood Management

(i) Levees and Flood Walls(i) Levees and Flood Walls(i) Levees and Flood Walls(i) Levees and Flood Walls(i) Levees and Flood Walls

The principal purpose of levees and floodwalls is to confinefloodwaters to the stream channel and a selected portion of thefloodplain. These barriers protect only the land area immediately

behind them, and are effective only against flood depths up tothe chosen level for which they were designed. However, theymay create a false sense of security about the degree of protectionprovided. Floods exceeding the levels for which the levees andfloodwalls are designed can cause disastrous losses of life andproperty.

The requirements for the design and construction of leveesand floodwalls are governed by degree of hazard to life andproperty within the protected area and by site conditions. Leveesare normally constructed of earth and require significant spaceto accommodate the required base width. Floodwalls are usuallyconstructed of concrete or steel and take up far less room. Theyare more suitable for use in congested areas.

Because levees and floodwalls can fail by overtopping,undermining, slumping and excessive seepage, the design ofthese structures should attempt to reduce the possibility offailure from these causes. Ample freeboard, which takes intoaccount the settlement of levees, wave action, sedimentationof the river channel and inaccuracies in estimation of floodlevels, reduces the possibility of overtopping of levees orfloodwalls. Undermining is minimized by locating levees orfloodwalls far enough away from channels to eliminate exposureto high velocity or scour. Proper side slopes and constructionmethods minimize slumping of earth levees. Excessive seepagecan be reduced by the provision of seepage protection works.Damage can also be caused by termites and burrowing animals.Regular inspections are necessary to locate and remedy thedamage in an early stage of development.

Levees and floodwalls complicate the drainage of land theyprotect and provision must be made for the discharge of internaldrainage water unless adequate storage is available. Dischargethrough levees or floodwalls can be achieved by gravity flowthrough pipes equipped with gates. When prolonged flood stagesprevent gravity outflow, the internal drainage water must bestored temporarily, removed by pumping or disposed of usinga combination of these methods.

To be effective, levees require proper maintenance. Such


maintenance should include regular inspections as well asperiodical patrols during and immediately after severe floods.Vegetation, grazing and traffic on earth levees should becontrolled. Proper attention to any defects will help ensureagainst levee failure.

(ii) Channel Modification(ii) Channel Modification(ii) Channel Modification(ii) Channel Modification(ii) Channel Modification

Normal natural watercourses have a river channel of limitedcapacity, which may be exceeded annually, with excessfloodwater overflowing onto the floodplain. Hydraulicimprovements to the watercourse or to the floodplain, and/orflood channels constructed within the floodplain, enable floodwaters to be passed at a lower level than would occur naturally.In urban areas, such works also permit the optimization of landuse through improved residual drainage.

The various types of channel modification include:

o straightening, deepening or widening of the channel;

o removing vegetation or debris;

o lining the channel;

o raising or enlarging bridges and culverts which restrictflow;

o removing barriers which interfere with flow;

o installing river training works.

Channel modifications are similar to levees and floodwallsin that they can be used to protect a specific site or region. Theycan also provide the community with other positive benefits,such as improved navigation and recreation.

Channel modifications are likely to be most effective onsteeper, smaller streams with overgrown banks and narrowfloodplains. Channel modifications are unlikely to have anysignificant effect in flooding situations where there are extensiveareas of overbank flooding, or where flooding effects aredominated by tide levels.

River training works are structural measures of variouskinds which are undertaken in order to provide a more effective

channel for the passage of flood flows and sediment loads. Suchworks may be designed either to retard flow rates along a riverbank, in order to reduce erosive velocities and increase thedeposition of sediments, or to provide protection for the bankagainst erosion or scouring.

Permeable groynes and revetments, constructed of piling,rock, concrete, fencing materials, vegetation or other materials,are generally used for these purposes. Groynes protrude intothe channel and are designed to divert flow away from thebank, whilst at the same time causing an accumulation ofsediment along the toe of the bank and on the downstream sideof the groyne structure. Revetments, on the other hand, areconstructed along or parallel to the bank, where they serve toreduce the velocity of flow along the bank, thus reducing bankerosion and allowing the river bank to stabilize.

Which of these devices should be used in a given situationdepends upon characteristics of the stream channel and theextent and nature of the existing erosion damage. Whicheverkind of device is employed, its satisfactory long-termperformance will be very much dependent upon its continuingmaintenance.

Disadvantages which are related to the use of channelmodifications include the costs of proper maintenance, thedestruction of riverine habitat for fish and wildlife, and thepotential for the aggravation of channel scouring and bankerosion if the structures are not intelligently designed, wellconstructed and carefully maintained.

(iii) By-pass Floodways(iii) By-pass Floodways(iii) By-pass Floodways(iii) By-pass Floodways(iii) By-pass Floodways

These structures serve two functions in flood mitigation.Firstly they create large, shallow reservoirs which store a portionof the flood water and hence decrease the flow in the mainchannel below the diversion. Secondly, they provide anadditional outlet for water from upstream, improving flowcharacteristics and decreasing water levels for some distancebelow the diversion. Opportunities for the construction offloodways are limited by the topography of the area and theavailability of low-value land which can be used for the floodway.


There are two types of by-pass floodways, natural andconstructed. A natural floodway follows the course of an existingcross-country depression and carries floodwaters that can nolonger be carried within the river channel. The land in thefloodway is generally not different from other farmland, exceptthat it may be low-lying. Some floodways have control banksconstructed across them, or may be bordered by levees, in orderto control the spread of floodwater. Restrictions are usuallyplaced on land development in floodways to ensure that futureloss and damage from major floods is reduced to a minimumand to ensure that the floodway functions as designed.

When required, controls in the form of spillways and gatesare provided at the entrance to a floodway. Spillways take theform of a lowered and protected section of levee which is designedto control the amount of floodwater diverted into the floodwayfrom the river. As spillways can be overtopped for long periodsby high velocity floodwater, they have to be specially designedto avoid failure. Protection can be provided by rock gabions or,where appropriate, by building the spillway with gentlebackslopes which are well grassed.

If the floodway possesses comparatively steep bed-slopes,control banks may be built perpendicular to the direction offlow at intervals along the length of the floodway. These banksare similar in design to the entrance spillway, and form a seriesof basins which reduce the water velocity by dropping thefloodwater in progressive steps down the floodway alignment.

Diversions are works constructed to intercept flood flowsupstream of a damage-prone area and route them around thearea through an artificial channel. Diversions may eithercompletely re-rout a stream or collect and transport only thoseflows that would cause damage.

Diversions are particularly well suited for protectingdeveloped areas, because they do not usually require landacquisition or construction within the protected area. However,opportunities for diversions are often limited by the nature oflocal land formations and soil conditions. There must also bea receiving water body or stream channel with sufficient capacity

to carry the flow bypassed through the diversion without causingflooding.

(iv) Retarding Basins and Flood Storage Areas(iv) Retarding Basins and Flood Storage Areas(iv) Retarding Basins and Flood Storage Areas(iv) Retarding Basins and Flood Storage Areas(iv) Retarding Basins and Flood Storage Areas

Flood storage and retardation involves the deliberate,controlled flooding of designated areas in order to minimizeoverall flood losses. It permits floods exceeding a specifiedmagnitude to spread over low-lying lands situated behindembankments in a controlled fashion, accomplished by theoperation of gated structures or spillway sections incorporatedin the embankments. The diversion of floodwater, when carefullycontrolled, will reduce the flood peak at downstream locationsand confine flooding to within the flood control system.

Areas selected for flood storage and retardation aretraditionally low-lying locations which have a history of flooding.By the formulation of proper controls it is possible to utilizethese areas for habitation and agricultural purposes, on theunderstanding that they will be flooded periodically. This callsfor the preparation of a comprehensive programme of floodoperation, a knowledge of the depth and extent of areainundated, the imposition of controls to ensure predictableflood behaviour and the implementation of a reliable floodforecasting and warning system to ensure timely and safeevacuation. Special provisions are also required for the protectionof emergency services and for flood refuge areas.

To reduce the damages associated with controlled flooding,it is necessary to provide drainage works capable of emptyingthe flood storage area as quickly as possible after the cessationof main river flooding.

Retarding basins reduce downstream flood flows in bothmainstream and urban drainage situations. They allow smallflows to pass unimpeded but trap a portion of larger flows. Inurban areas, retarding basins are most suitable for small streamswhich respond quickly to rainfall and/or stormwater flooding.However, they introduce a number of inherent problems, whichshould be carefully evaluated for each particular situation.These may include the following:


o basins may require a substantial area to achieve thenecessary storage;

o long duration or multi-peak storms (when the basin isfilled from a previous peak) can increase the risk ofovertopping or breaching;

o the impact on floods larger than those for which theyare designed is limited.

Sites for retarding basins in developed urban areas aregenerally limited in number and extent. Available sites areusually restricted to established recreational areas, such asparks, playing fields and parking lots. In new urbandevelopments or re-developments, the incorporation of a systemof retarding basins at the planning stage can result in effectiveflood protection for those areas.

Retarding basins are sometimes constructed by building anearth embankment across the watercourse and providing outletfacilities to control releases appropriate for the capacity of thedownstream channel. The outlet facility usually takes the formof a box or pipe culvert. If earthworks are used for theconstruction of the basin embankment, the provision of adequatespillway capacity is essential to protect the basin from failureby overtopping if flows exceed the design flood.

Land along the river and natural depressions on thefloodplain can be utilized for the off-river storage of floodwaters.Flood flows are diverted into them in order to reduce floodpeaks downstream. The efficiency of operation of such storagescan usually be improved by providing them with suitable intakestructures for controlled filling and outlet structures arrangedto permit controlled releases when downstream conditions allow.

(v) Flood Mitigation Reservoirs(v) Flood Mitigation Reservoirs(v) Flood Mitigation Reservoirs(v) Flood Mitigation Reservoirs(v) Flood Mitigation Reservoirs

In appropriate circumstances dams can be constructed tocreate reservoirs which control major flood flows by temporarilystoring flood waters and releasing them at a safe flow rate.Such devices may be used to control floods arising from existingcatchment conditions or to offset the impact of proposed landuse changes. The amount of storage required depends upon the

degree of protection needed and the downstream channelcapacity.

The degree of mitigation provided by a flood control reservoirdepends on the combination of dam storage, spillway capacityand the pattern of flood inflows. The effect of storage is todecrease the flood peak without reducing the total volume offloodwater. The reduction of the flood peak is achieved at theexpense of an increased duration of dam releases at lowerrates. For dams equipped with gates or valves, the way inwhich these controls are operated will determine the rate ofrelease and the degree of downstream mitigation.

The protection afforded by a surface reservoir is greatestin the area immediately downstream of the dam. Protectionfurther downstream is reduced by tributary flows and by run-off from land adjacent to the river. Protection may also decreaseover time if the reservoir capacity is diminished by siltation.Surface reservoirs have the greatest potential to mitigate floodswhen they are empty.

Flood mitigation reservoirs are mostly used on small andmoderate-sized streams. The large areas of land required tostore the flood flows of major rivers are generally no longeravailable, especially where they involve the flooding of valuableagricultural lands. Many sites that are geologically andtopographically suitable may require very considerable andexpensive land acquisition and the displacement of largepopulations. The cost of large reservoirs can generally only bejustified where they protect heavily developed urban areas andare the only practical means for significantly reducing flooddamages. It is usual practice to reserve a component of theavailable storage capacity in multi-purpose dams for floodmitigation purposes. In such cases, careful coordination isnecessary to permit flood mitigation reservoirs to serve also forwater supply or irrigation purposes.

A major disadvantage of flood mitigation reservoirs is thatdownstream residents often do not appreciate that they canonly control floods up to the peak rate for which they weredesigned. Complementary land use controls need therefore to


be enforced to prevent unsafe development and encroachmenton the downstream floodplain.

(vi) Drainage Evacuation Systems(vi) Drainage Evacuation Systems(vi) Drainage Evacuation Systems(vi) Drainage Evacuation Systems(vi) Drainage Evacuation Systems

Drainage water produced by storm runoff from within theprotected area behind levees or floodwalls may be disposed ofby various means, which include:

o gravity release through pipes fitted with gates duringperiods of low river flow;

o temporary accumulation of drainage flow in storageareas;

o pumping of interior drainage water during periods whengravity drainage outflow is restricted by backwater.

Pumping is usually required for the disposal of interiordrainage water whenever sufficient discharge by gravity flowcannot be achieved, which may be because of limited outletcapacity, insufficient storage capacity or the effects of backwatercaused by flooding. The design of drainage works for the removalof flood waters accumulating within the low-lying areas behindlevees or floodwalls requires consideration of the entire drainagenetwork servicing the protected area. Coordinated use of storageareas, channels, pipe systems and gravity outlets is needed sothat the pump capacity, size and period of operation can beoptimized. The efficient planning and design of pumping plantswill involve careful selection of the required water removalrate, the auxiliary drainage facilities needed to minimize thepumping requirements and the location of the pumping plantto provide an effective outlet to the entire drainage system.

The period of pumping may be reduced by increasing theamount of available storage. This may be achieved by excavation.Where this is not practical, adequate pumping capacity mustbe installed to safely discharge any drainage inflow volume inexcess of the available storage capacity.

Water-induced Land InstabilityWater-induced Land InstabilityWater-induced Land InstabilityWater-induced Land InstabilityWater-induced Land Instability

There is a variety of structural or mechanical measureswhich can be applied to reduce the potential for land instability

in areas where occupation cannot be prohibited. These measuresmight include the following:

o preventing or diverting runoff flows around critical sites;

o de-watering sites using drainage systems;

o planting trees or shrubs which remove sub-surface waterby transpiration;

o planting deep-rooted vegetation to bind sub-soil material;

o underpinning foundations to stable rock;

o battering slopes to stable grades;

o constructing retaining walls along the toes of criticalslopes.

Drought ManagementDrought ManagementDrought ManagementDrought ManagementDrought Management

There is a variety of structural measures which can betaken to mitigate the effects of severe drought. These essentiallyrevolve around the careful management and conservation ofsurface and groundwater water resources. They can beconsidered in two categories-large-scale measures and smallscale or on-farm measures.

Large-scale surface-water conservation measures revolvearound the provision of large water storage reservoirs for theregulation of natural streamflow and the delivery of this waterto critical areas, sometimes over considerable distances, throughirrigation, stock or domestic water supply systems.

The availability of suitable and economical sites for largedams is limited and new sites need to be chosen with care.Unfortunate experiences with very large storages in manydeveloping countries, particularly in tropical regions, have shownthat they can have serious adverse environmental, social andeconomic consequences and they need to be planned anddesigned with very considerable care.

Efficient utilization of available damsites and economicconsiderations suggest that where possible, large water storagesshould be designed and operated as multi-purpose structures,incorporating where possible and appropriate irrigation, flood


mitigation, power generation and recreational functions. Thesemay not be mutually consistent, so that multi-purpose designrequires a comprise solution based on the best overall netbenefits to all potential users.

Irrigation, stock and domestic water supply delivery anddistribution systems also need care in their design and location.Increasingly, environmental considerations may impose specialrestraints where proposed channel or pipeline routes maytraverse areas of natural significance, wildlife habitat orhistorical or cultural value.

Unfortunate experience in many countries, where large-scale irrigation districts have been developed on semi-arid landson the flood plains of major rivers, has been the developmentof salinity and water-logging in irrigated soils. In some cases,this has led to the total devastation of irrigated land and madeit unsuitable for any form of agricultural activity. Within theESCAP Region, it has occurred extensively in Australia, China,India, Pakistan and Thailand.

To avoid the possibility of future degradation from thiscause, new irrigation areas need to be carefully sited andselected on the basis of the soil type, the nature of the underlyingstrata, the quality of the irrigation water to be use, and theability to provide an adequate drainage and disposal system.The build up of salts in the soil, and the potential for water-logging, can be substantially reduced or eliminated through theprovision of an appropriate drainage infrastructure and thismust be considered an essential component of any irrigationsystem. Drainage water may be too high in salinity for safedisposal into a major watercourse, in which case an effectivedisposal process, such as transpiration from an irrigated salt-tolerant woodland or evaporation from an evaporation basin,could provide an effective solution.

In the ESCAP Region, groundwater is used extensively forirrigation, domestic and stock water supply purposes.Groundwater required careful management if it is to be availablein adequate quantity and quality on a long-term basis, andparticularly through prolonged drought conditions. There are

some structural devices that can be used to improve theavailability of groundwater supplies.

On the larger scale, groundwater distribution systems needspecial construction measures to control losses and optimizedelivery efficiency. Artesian bores should always be capped andprovided with adequate control valves, whilst all bores shouldbe fitted with flow meters. Substantial seepage and evaporationlosses may be experienced when groundwater supplies aredelivered over considerable distances through unlined earthenchannel systems, and pipeline delivery is much to be preferred.At the delivery end, temporary storage in tanks and theinstallation of well-designed domestic, irrigation delivery orstockwater troughing systems is highly desirable.

Where possible, groundwater supplies should be managedin conjunction with surface water supplies on an integrated,conjunctive use basis. Where appropriate, groundwaterresources might be able to be replenished using surface water,particularly when excess water flows are available during floodperiods. Detention storages designed to hold back floodwatersfor a sufficient period of time to enable infiltration into anunderlying aquifer are generally used for this purpose. Theserecharge storages need to be carefully sited over foundationswhich are permeable and facilitate the infiltration process, bycontrast with more normal dam construction where a siteoffering low seepage losses is desirable.

On the small of farm-level scale, a variety of solutions isalso available. In arid areas with intermittent rainfall, or onhigher rainfall areas with marked seasonal rainfall patterns,the construction of appropriately designed and sited surfacereservoirs is a common practice. These are principallyconstructed by excavation and/or by building an earthembankment. If they are to be used for irrigation, they needto be as large as possible and located on sites which providea maximum of storage capacity per unit of excavation requiredfor their construction. For stock and domestic use, particularlyin arid areas, they need to be as deep as possible, with minimalsurface area, to reduce long-term evaporation losses.


Where farm storages are filled by surface runoff, they shouldbe equipped with an emergency spillway of adequate capacity.Where runoff is low and intermittent, the catchment orwatershed area needs to be as large as possible and might needto be extended by the construction of diversion and collectiondevices such as catch drains. Under extremely arid conditions,the use of sealed catchment areas, with paved or rolled earthsurfaces, might be necessary where the high cost of doing sois not an important factor.

Where groundwater or intermittent streamflow is available,above-ground reservoirs may be constructed and filled bypumping. Large offstream storages, called ring tanks, filled bypumping from a sump adjacent to a watercourse during floodflow periods, are commonly used in inland Australia forirrigation purposes. Elsewhere, smaller circular reservoirs calledturkey's nest tanks, constructed by pushing soil from the outsidearound their perimeter and filled by windmills from anunderlying aquifer, are widely used for stock water purposes.

Non-structural MeasuresNon-structural MeasuresNon-structural MeasuresNon-structural MeasuresNon-structural Measures

The vulnerability of land and property to water-relatednatural disasters can be reduced by structural works. Thepotential impact of these events can be further reduced by theimposition of land use controls, designed to manage landdegradation and minimize exposure to the risk of disasterswhich cannot be avoided. To achieve this objective, legislativecontrols which empower the relevant government authoritiesto direct land use planning policies and practices related towatershed management need to be adopted and implemented.Whilst most of these measures have been introduced byindividual countries within the ESCAP Region, they have notalways be adopted along with a comprehensive range ofstructural measures in an integrated and coordinated fashion.

Such controls should strive to ensure that an effective andcomprehensive legal and administrative system is adopted whichaddresses the problems of land degradation, environmentalprotection, and disaster mitigation in an coordinated fashionand is consistent with the principles of sustainable resource

development. Such a system requires an integrated approachto the management and protection of natural resources,including land, water, vegetation and human activity,undertaken on the basis of a "total watershed" approach. Thisapproach recognized that changes to the natural environmentin the upper watershed will influence conditions in downstreamareas, and significantly increase their potential for damage byflooding and drought.

Legalization should establish national standards forwatershed management and downstream land occupancy whichrelate to the use, development and protection of land in a waywhich will minimize the risk to populations during theoccurrence of water related natural disasters, particularly whenthey are brought about by the degradation of natural resources.Activities within a watershed should be controlled and protectedthrough a comprehensive watershed management plan whichplaces restrictions on those activities which can increase therisk of damage. Under this type of legislation, consent wouldbe required for:

o large-scale land clearing;

o rural land development and use;

o forestry, mining and extractive industries;

o rezoning of land for urban use;

o occupation of flood plain land, steep slopes and otherhazardous areas.

Where it is economically and socially acceptable, andpopulation pressures and the demand for additional productiveland allow it, land use zoning may provide the most effectiveand least costly solution to the problems of disaster management.This requires the prohibition or restriction of agriculturaldevelopment or urban settlement in locations which areparticularly susceptible to flooding, cyclonic damage or landinstability. Where this is not feasible, land use controls mightstill be employed to restrict the use of the land to activitieswhich are compatible with potential instability or result inminimal damage and loss of life should disaster events occur.


This might include such means as the prohibition or restrictionof clearing or logging of watersheds or the prohibition of urbansettlement from land areas at hazard.

The various categories of non-structural controls availablefor disaster management and mitigation comprise the following:

o Legislative and regulatory measures for controlling landoccupancy, structural standards and emergency policiesand services;

o and-use zoning;

o warning systems;

o emergency agencies, facilities and equipment;

o evacuation and flood relief services;

o community education.

All of these activities must be provided for in an integratedand coordinated fashion and supported by appropriate legislativerequirements and administrative arrangements if they are tobe successful.

Of these devices, all are essential but perhaps the mostlikely to contribute most to overall regional and local disasterprotection and preparedness is the technique of land use control,effected through land zoning plans and regulations.

Carefully prepared zoning plans are the basis for effectiveland use control. A variety of modern techniques, includingremote sensing, satellite imagery, global positioning equipmentand geographical information systems (GIS) provide effectivetools for the preparation of basic topographical and geographicalinformation.

Geographical information systems utilize geographical dataand information with respect to three components: spatial data,which pertain to the locational aspects of geographical features,along with their spatial dimensions; attribute data, whichpertain to the description, measurement and classification ofgeographical features; and time, which is particularly importantin natural hazard assessment because of the rapidity withwhich geographical features may alter during the occurrence

of disaster events. The collection of such data has been greatlyfacilitated by the availability of various kinds of remote sensingsystems. Its incorporation into a computer-compatible format,and its ability to be manipulated within the computer for rapiddata analysis, classification and presentation, has been furtherfacilitated by the ready availability of digital mapping devicesand software programmes, which allow the ready transformationof analogue data from maps or remote sensing images intocomputer-usable format.

A GIS has four functional components, which comprise:

o a data input subsystem, which collects and processesspatial data from sources such as existing maps andremote-sensing imagery;

o a data storage and retrieval sub-system, which organizesdata in a structured form and allows it to be retrievedin various forms for subsequent manipulation, analysisor display;

o a data manipulation and analysis sub-system allowingthe modification or reorganization of data according togiven rules and providing a basis for the preparationand manipulation of models of the geographic area; and

o a data-reporting sub-system capable of displaying all orselected parts of the data base in chosen tabular orcartographic formats.

A key advantage of the GIS approach is that it permits theintegration of a wide range of categories of data and the mergingor overlaying of various groupings of data, which greatlyfacilitates the use of the data for design, planning or policy-implementation purposes.

By way of example, plans of urban and industrialdevelopment can be superimposed on topographic maps andplans of communication systems and the whole overlain bymaps of major flood level contours to provide a basis forfloodplain zoning rules. A further key advantage is that theGIS system permits the aggregation of spatial and attributedata into models of the land or resource system under study


and provides a basis for the simulated operation of such modelsaccording to a variety of scenarios as a basis for planning anddesign problem-solving. In integrated catchment management,as well as disaster management, the model-forming capabilitiesof GIS packages are of very substantial potential value formanagement purposes, particularly as a basis for optimizingmodels, decision support systems and expert systems.

There is also a number of non-structural techniquesavailable for drought mitigation. These include a variety offarming and stock management measures, as well as a varietyof government policy, legislative, administrative and fiscalmeasures.

At the farm level, effective drought management proceduresmay include the following:

o conservation farming practices designed to improve theinfiltration and retention of soil moisture;

o pasture improvement;

o the application of fodder conservation techniques;

o the management of stocking rates to avoid overgrazingand fodder shortage;

o the introduction of more drought-resistant plant andlivestock varieties.

At the government level, effect drought managementpractices may include the following;

o the provision of drought-relief funding;

o the use of taxation relief and other fiscal measuresincluding long-term, low-interest rate loans to encourageconservation farming, good stock management practicesand water conservation;

o the organization and coordination of governmentagencies for the provision of drought relief and assistancein drought management;

o the development and implementation of advisory andextension services to educate and assist the farmingcommunity;

o the development, in association with other nations whenappropriate, for research into the factors causing droughtconditions, the forecasting of drought events and theoperation of drought warning systems.

Where relevant, these measures need to be backed byappropriate legislation, policy promulgation and agencyresponse.

WATER-RELATED HAZARDS IN THE ESCAP REGIONWATER-RELATED HAZARDS IN THE ESCAP REGIONWATER-RELATED HAZARDS IN THE ESCAP REGIONWATER-RELATED HAZARDS IN THE ESCAP REGIONWATER-RELATED HAZARDS IN THE ESCAP REGION

As has been indicated above, water-related natural disastersin the form of tropical cyclones, floods, landslides and mudflows are periodical occurrences in the majority of the countriesof the ESCAP Region. In many places land degradation, theconsequence of poor land management, has served to aggravatethe seriousness of such disasters.

The available data indicate that whilst not all the ESCAPcountries are affected by tropical cyclones, very few of them arefree from damaging flood events. These data also indicate thatwhilst tropical cyclones and associated storm surges are likelyto cause the highest numbers of fatalities, floods are the mostfrequently occurring disaster events and the ones which causethe greatest total amount of damage.

Tsunamis are also the cause of substantial destruction incoastal regions. Elsewhere, landslides and mud flows followingvery heavy rainfalls may cause considerable damage in bothurban and rural communities.

Droughts are a frequently occurring natural disaster inmany countries, impacting particularly upon rural communities.Land degradation may exacerbate and prolong the adverseconsequences of such events.

The Country ExperienceThe Country ExperienceThe Country ExperienceThe Country ExperienceThe Country Experience

Water-related natural disasters are of common occurrencein the Philippines, where they may produce massive devastation.They include cyclones, floods, mass movement and drought.The severity of the impact from such disasters varies fromregion to region according to geographical location and


topographical features. This country lies within the tropicalcyclone belt and is affected by cyclones associated with thesouth-west monsoon during May-September and the north-east monsoon during November-February.

Flooding is the most commonly occurring form of naturaldisaster and includes both riverine flooding and coastal flooding.Coastal areas are particularly susceptible to flooding fromtsunamis, which may be aggravated at high tide periods. Floodsoften cause tremendous damage to prime agricultural landsand to government infrastructure such as roads, bridges,irrigation dykes and flood-control structures. Landslides arethe most commonly-occurring form of mass movement disasterin the Philippines, and may affect pristine, disturbed ordeveloped land areas.

Climatic conditions in Indonesia are dominated by thetropical monsoon which extends from December to May eachyear. Flooding is the most frequently occurring natural disasterphenomenon, but tidal waves, landslide and droughts mayhave severe effects on local populations. The occurrence andseverity of such events varies widely across the many islandregions of which Indonesia is composed.

Generally speaking, the upper watersheds of most largerivers are characterized by very steep slopes which areoccasionally subject to very high intensity rainfall. Under suchconditions, flash flooding and landslides are commonoccurrences. On the coastal plains, extensive and protractedflooding occurs from time to time.

On the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, and along thecoastline of Sabah and Sarawak, flooding is commonly associatedwith the north-east monsoon during the months of Novemberto February. Intense, localized and short-durationthunderstorms are often the cause of flash flooding on the smallbut steep watersheds along the West Coast of PeninsularMalaysia.

In urban areas of Malaysia, intensive convectivethunderstorms during the monsoon season are often the causeof flash flooding, particularly in Kuala Lumpur. Landslips or

mudflows are an occasional consequence of heavy localizedrainfall. Generally speaking, however, Malaysia is relativelyfree from massive flooding caused by severe tropical cyclones.

The Republic of Korea is located in the temperate monsoonregion. About two-thirds of the annual rainfall is received duringthe monsoon period from June to August. During these months,tropical cyclones and intense depressions bring heavy rainfallwhich often results in major flooding. Prior to the monsoonseason, occasional droughts affect the agricultural and industrialsectors and impact upon rural communities. Tsunamis andlandslides produce less frequent and less harmful naturaldisaster events.

Tropical cyclones can occur along the entire Chinese coastand the inland areas adjacent to it. The eastern and southerncoastal regions are particularly vulnerable but all inland areas,with the exception of the north-western region, are within therange of cyclone damage. Most of the tropical cyclones affectingChina approach from the China Sea. They may cause heavydamage along both large and small rivers, as well as along thecoastline. Flooding may also be caused by heavy rainstorms,ice jams or landslides.

Apart from these effects, landslides and mud flows can beproblems across substantial areas of China. Many areas arealso affected by droughts, often occurring sequentially, whichresult in severe impacts upon agricultural production and theoverall national economy.

In Cambodia, major flooding can be caused by the MekongRiver, as a consequence of heavy monsoon rainfalls over itsupper catchment. Flash flooding is also common on smallerhigh-level watersheds across the country. Landslides caused byheavy rainfalls are also a common occurrence on uplandwatersheds.

Along the coast of Myanmar, widespread damage can resultwhen tropical cyclones coincide with storm surge conditions.Cyclones occur during the months of June to December. Severetropical storms are also experienced during April, May, Octoberand December.


Flooding during the south-west monsoon may severely affectthe lower reaches of the Ayeyawaddy River. Flash flooding isalso experienced over upstream tributaries and smallerwatersheds as a consequence of heavy rainfall. Damages fromlandslides, mudflows or droughts are essentially negligible bycomparison with the severe damages that results from cycloneand flood events.

India has a long coastline which is exposed to tropicalcyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.These cyclones are usually associated with high winds, torrentialrains, flooding and storm surges.

Elsewhere in India, flooding occurs during the monsoonseason and is a consequence of heavy rainfalls associated withcyclone events, the monsoons, or intense tropical storms. Flashflooding is a problem on steep watersheds.

Landslides are also a common and frequent form of naturaldisaster in India, a consequence of heavy rainfalls and land andsoil degradation resulting from inappropriate human activitieson steep country. The highest incidence of landslide disastersis to be found in the Himalayan Region.

Many parts of India are also subject to severe droughtevents, a consequence of the erratic occurrence and behaviourof local rainfall conditions. It is estimated that 70 percent ofthe agrarian districts of India are drought-prone.

Pakistan does not suffer from the damaging effects of tropicalcyclones, but is subject to devastating floods originating frommonsoon rainfalls and snowmelt. The most widespread floodingoccurs on the floodplains of the larger river systems, butupstream flooding resulting from landslides or the blocking oftributaries by glacial dams is also a common problem.

Drought is a common feature of climatic conditions in thearid regions of Southern Pakistan and may have severe adverseeffects, not only in economic and social terms but also in itsland degradation consequences.

Cyclones, floods and drought are the worst forms of naturaldisaster to affect Bangladesh, although droughts occur only

comparatively rarely. Tropical cyclones originating in the Bayof Bengal are usually associated with heavy rainfalls, strongwinds and storm surges. Tidal waves often accompany cyclonicstorm events. Tidal wave and storm surge conditions have fromtime to time been responsible for very heavy loss of life andextensive property damage.

Severe flooding occurs along the main rivers in Bangladeshand smaller tributary streams may also experience seriousflooding as a result of intense local rainstorms. BecauseBangladesh has only a small area of hilly country, flash floodingor mass movement are not significant problems.

In Vietnam, the northern and central regions are oftenaffected by tropical cyclones during the rainy season, whichoccurs between July and October. Storm surges may also bea problem along the coastline. Flash flooding occurs on themany small, steep watersheds in the central region, whilstextensive and protracted flooding can be experienced in theRed River Delta region to the north. Although tropical cyclonedamage is rare in southern Vietnam, the Mekong Delta regioncommonly experiences major flooding as a result of heavy rainfallon the upper catchment.

The major forms of water-based natural disaster to affectthe Lao People's Democratic Republic are droughts and floods.Whilst tropical cyclones are not a direct threat, they can producevery heavy rainfalls leading to devastating flooding on themany smaller tributaries throughout the country. Floodingalong the Mekong River results from heavy monsoon rainfallsduring the period of August to September. Droughts may beexperienced between May and July, before the arrival of themonsoon season.

In Thailand, major natural disasters are mainly theconsequence of flooding caused by heavy rainfalls associatedwith tropical cyclones. Landslides may also cause severeproblems, whilst droughts are a common occurrence in themonths preceding the rainy season.

Tropical cyclones and deep tropical depressions may extendacross Thailand between May and October. These are associated


with very heavy rainfalls which can produce major andprotracted flooding along the larger rivers and their flood plains.Destructive flash flooding is also a common occurrence on thesmaller watersheds scattered through the country.

The climate of Nepal is largely controlled by the monsooncycle. The principal flood season coincides with the period ofmaximum monsoonal rainfall, which usually occurs in August.High altitude watersheds are subject to major flooding fromsnowmelt. Flash flooding may also occur in the higherwatersheds as a result of heavy rainfall. Glacial outburst floodsmay occur as a result of the sudden release of ponded glaciallakes and landsliding is also a common occurrence in highwatersheds.

Sri Lanka may be subject to a variety of natural disasterevents, which include tropical cyclones, floods, oughts, landslidesand coastal erosion. Heavy rainfalls occur during both thesouth-west monsoon period, from October to February, and thesouth-east monsoon period, from May to September. Tropicalcyclones occur only rarely, but they can cause severe destructionand heavy loss of life. Floods are a common occurrence and theyare often associated with landslips. Flash flooding is experiencedon the high watersheds of the central mountain range and itsslopes. Drought is also a common occurrence in the northernand eastern districts.

CATEGORIES OF WATER-RELATED NATURALCATEGORIES OF WATER-RELATED NATURALCATEGORIES OF WATER-RELATED NATURALCATEGORIES OF WATER-RELATED NATURALCATEGORIES OF WATER-RELATED NATURALDISASTERSDISASTERSDISASTERSDISASTERSDISASTERS

As has already been indicated, the occurrence of waterrelated natural disasters is common in the ESCAP Region andtheir impact is becoming more devastating. Increasingpopulations and the denser occupation of hazardous areascontribute to the growing costs of damage and disruptionresulting from such disasters. Unwise land-use is a significantfactor in these escalating costs.

A collation and description of the major categories of water-related natural disasters which afflict the Region is presentedin the following sections.

Tropical CyclonesTropical CyclonesTropical CyclonesTropical CyclonesTropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure rotating windsystems, which develop over warm oceans in low-latitudes andmove onto adjacent land masses, where they may havetremendous destructive potential. In the ESCAP region, suchphenomena are called "typhoons" in the north-west Pacific andthe South China Sea, or "tropical cyclones" in the Indian Ocean,the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the northern coasts ofAustralia and the South Pacific. In North and Central Americaand the Caribbean they are called "hurricanes". All these termsare taken to be synonymous in this document.

A major tropical cyclone may affect an extensive area fora period from a few days to a week or more. Its passage isassociated with extremely heavy rainfalls and extremely highvelocity winds which can lead to major and extensive flooding,enormous property damage, human injury and heavy loss oflife. During its life it may vary in intensity and destructivepower and move along a variable path, affecting a number ofcountries.

The tropical cyclone cell is a circulatory wind system havingan intense low pressure core. Wind circulation around the cellis clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise inthe Northern Hemisphere. The diameter of a mature tropicalcyclone varies from as little as 100-200 km to as much as 1000km in a large system. Wind velocities around its centre mayexceed 200 km/h.

A tropical cyclone forms over the open sea where the surfacetemperature is 26.5o C or more and the latitude about 5o to20o. Its movement is generally along a curved westerly andpolewards track. Once over land its power dissipates as aconsequence of the lack of moisture supply and the friction dueto the land's roughness, and it eventually deteriorates into atropical rain depression. The time from its detection to itsdisappearance is commonly around 5-6 days.

Tropical cyclones occur more frequently in Asia, andparticularly in the Northwest Pacific, than in any other partof the world. In the ESCAP region, the most frequent source


for the formation of tropical cyclones is just east of thePhilippines, where the main tropical cyclone season extendsfrom July to October and the frequency of occurrence in thosemonths is about five cyclones per month.

Tropical cyclones spawned in this region generally trackwestward and may later turn north-west, first affecting thePhilippines and then moving on to the Asia mainland orrecurving north-eastward towards Japan.

Those tropical cyclones which move westward acrossIndochina tend to lose their intensity after crossing the coastline.They may redevelop, however, over the Bay of Bengal andcontinue to move westwards over India or recurve northwardstowards Bangladesh or Myanmar.

In the Bay of Bengal, in addition to those cyclones originatingin the Northwest Pacific, tropical cyclones commonly developover the southern section of the Bay and move in either awesterly or northerly direction to affect India, Bangladesh orMyanmar. These cyclones are more likely to occur before April/May or after October/November and may be accompanied bystorm surges.

Some tropical disturbances track across India or developover the Arabian Sea and more towards Pakistan, Eastern Iranor the Sultanate of Oman. The occurrence of damaging tropicalcyclones which affect these countries is infrequent.

Tropical cyclones originating within the SouthernHemisphere zone of the ESCAP Region have an extensivespawning area which includes the Indian Ocean, the TimorSea, the Arafura Sea, the Gulf of Carpentaria, the Coral Seaand the South Pacific.

Within this region, the frequency of occurrence of tropicalcyclones is about half that which is experienced to the northof the Equator and the tropical cyclone season is restricted tothe period December to April. These Southern Hemispheredisturbances tend to have more erratic tracks and slower travelspeeds that those formed in the Northern Hemisphere, althoughtheir destructive effects may be just as severe.

FloodsFloodsFloodsFloodsFloods

The Nature of FloodingThe Nature of FloodingThe Nature of FloodingThe Nature of FloodingThe Nature of Flooding

A flood can be defined as an excess flowing or overflowingof water, especially over land which is not normally submerged.The source of the flow of water which produces disastrousflooding can have various origins, which include intense andprolonged rainfall, snowmelt, the downstream blocking of riverchannels by landslides or avalanches, the upstream failure ofdams or river blockages, storm surges, abnormally high tides,and tidal waves.

Within the ESCAP region, the extent and cost of disastrousflooding has been intensifying as a consequence of increasingpopulations, denser occupancy of floodplains and other flood-prone areas, and the expansion of adverse forms of watershedland use. Within this region, floods are the most frequentlyoccurring and the most destructive of all the forms of naturaldisaster which affect the area, although tropical cyclones havecaused heavier loss of life. The most serious flooding experiencedin the region comes from intense rainstorms associated withtropical cyclones or widespread and prolonged heavy rainfallassociated with monsoonal depressions. Cyclonic storms mayoccasionally produce more than 1000 mm of rainfall per dayand monsoonal flood rains may persist for many days. Theresulting floods may produce inundation over periods lastingfrom a few hours to three weeks or more, depending upon thesize of the catchment and the characteristics of the river channeland its floodplain.

Flooding is a natural phenomenon which occurs inevitablyfrom time to time in a river or drainage basin and cannot beprevented. The problems associated with disastrous floodingarise because of man's deliberate occupancy of flood-prone areas,undertaken for a variety of good reasons. These include thesuitability of flood plains and river banks for agriculture andother forms of primary production, for convenience for transportand navigation, for appropriate topography for towns and cities,and for proximity to domestic, industrial and irrigation watersupply. The very existence of the flood plain is, however, clear


evidence that floods will occur and flooding cannot be avoided.There can be no such thing as flood prevention: the best thatcan be expected is flood damage mitigation, which can beachieved only to the extent that the community is prepared tomeet the costs incurred.

The important characteristics of floods, which determinethe magnitude and cost of their disastrous effects, comprise thefollowing:

o the peak depth of inundation, which determines theextent and cost of damage to buildings and crops andthe cost and feasibility of mitigation measures;

o the areal extent of inundation, which determines similarfactors;

o the duration of flooding, which is an important factorin determining the degree of damage and inconveniencecaused;

o the rate of rise of the flood event, which determines theeffectiveness of flood warning and evacuation procedures;

o the velocity of flood flow, which determines the cost offlood damage and the feasibility and design of leveesand floodproofing structures;

o the frequency of flooding, which expresses the statisticalcharacteristics of flood events of a given magnitude anddetermines the long-term average costs and benefits offlooding and flood mitigation;

o the seasonability of flooding, which determines the costof flood damages, particularly when agricultural areasare inundated.

To understand the nature of flooding, and to provide a basisfor assessing the likely effects of different forms of land use onflood behaviour, it is necessary to consider briefly the mechanicsof the runoff process. This is a complex hydrological process inwhich many variable factors and influences may be at work.Its complexity increases with the size of the catchment underconsideration, so that the flood behaviour of a small uplandwatershed may be entirely different from that of a large river

basin of which it is a part, even though they are both subjectto the same flood-producing storm rainfall conditions.

When heavy storm rainfall occurs, the precipitation willinitially be intercepted on vegetation or infiltrated into the soil,where it will build up soil moisture levels and reduce infiltrationcapacity. When this capacity is exceeded, overland flow willcommence and a build-up of surface runoff, flowing towards thenearest watercourse, will commence. Once this runoff reachesa watercourse, the rate of streamflow will commence to increaseand, if the supply of runoff continues, to cause the stream torise and perhaps overflow its banks. At the same time,precipitation which has infiltrated into the soil may movelaterally as interflow or, at a deeper level, as groundwater flow,and eventually enter the watercourse and supplement the floodstreamflow.

In a large valley, this process will be repeated on many sub-catchments, all of which may contribute surface andgroundwater runoff to channel flow. A combined flood wave ofincreasing magnitude will move downstream through tributariesto the main river channel, where it may eventually exceed thecapacity of the river channel and overflow its banks to inundatethe flood plain.

A significant and fundamental aspect of this process is thatat every stage and in every component of it, there are variousforms of temporary storage through which the water must passas it moves through the catchment. Examples of such storageinclude interception storage, soil moisture storage, groundwaterand interflow storage, surface depression and detention storage,channel storage and floodplain storage. As it fills andsubsequently empties, the effect of each component of thecatchment storage is to delay and attenuate the flow of floodwater, so that the peak of the flood hydrograph occurs sometime after the peak rate of the storm rainfall which producedthe flood flow. On very small watersheds, this delay may bea matter of minutes or at worst a few hours; on large riverbasins it may be several weeks and in extreme examples, ason very long, low-gradient inland rivers in some parts of theRegion, several months.


As a flood moves down a large valley, storage effects in theriver channel system become increasingly dominant in thedetermination of the magnitude and time distribution of theflood wave. As the contributing catchment area increases, thepeak rate of flow may be expected to increase but the rate ofrunoff per unit of contributing catchment area can be expectedto decrease.

The shape of the flood hydrograph will become increasinglyattenuated as the flood wave moves down-catchment and theeffects of variations in such contributing factors as the intensityand time-distribution of the storm rainfall, the nature of thevegetative cover and land use on the upper catchment, or theextent and effectiveness of upstream flood control measuressuch as soil conservation works or small detention reservoirswill become increasingly less significant. This is primarilybecause the channel storage effects become increasingly moresignificant and eventually, as the catchment size and the storagecapacity of the channel system increase, become totally dominantin determining the shape of the flood hydrograph.

The importance of the relative storage effects to themechanics of the runoff process is such that it is possible toclassify catchments according to the level of their significance.Small watersheds are highly sensitive to changes in rainfallintensity and duration, the effects of changes in land use andthe effects of other factors which determine overland flowcharacteristics. As the size of the watershed increases, theeffects of channel flow and basin storage become increasinglydominant and sensitivities to variations in rainfall, interceptionor infiltration become increasingly suppressed.

Thus it is possible to classify an "hydrologically small"watershed as one so small that its sensitivities to short-termvariations in rainfall intensity and changes in land use are notsuppressed by its channel storage characteristics. An"hydrologically large" watershed can be classified as one inwhich the channel storage effects are dominant in determiningflood behaviour and the sensitivities to rainfall and land useare largely suppressed. In terms of actual area, the upper limitfor an "hydrologically small" watershed may vary considerably

according to a variety of catchment characteristics, but is likelyto be in the range of hundreds of hectares to a hundred or moresquare kilometres.

If the runoff behaviour of a watershed is such as to bringit within the hydrologically small category as defined above,the application of appropriate forms of land use can be expectedto be a particularly effective method of flood mitigation. On theother hand, if a catchment falls clearly into the hydrologicallylarge category, there will be substantial limitations upon theeffectiveness of such measures for major flood disaster reduction,at least over the lower reaches of the river basin and particularlyon the flood plain.

This is not to suggest, however, that land use managementon the upper watershed should not be undertaken. First of all,such management is of substantial value for direct floodmitigation in upper watershed locations.

Further downstream, whilst it might not substantiallyreduce major flood peaks, it may be of significant value inreducing catchment and streambank erosion and reducing thetransport of sediment downstream. Watershed management onthe upper catchment may be seen to have a range of otheradvantages, which include maintaining the integrity andproductivity of the catchment soils, maintaining the productivityand sustainability of forestry and agriculture, preserving theintegrity of natural vegetation and wildlife habitat, maintainingthe quality of the catchment ecosystem and the catchmentenvironment, and improving the quality of life of the catchmentcommunity. Furthermore, upper watershed land use controland management may have very significant effects in terms ofthe maintenance or improvement of water quality throughoutthe entire river system, and may be desirable for this purposealone.

Riverine FloodingRiverine FloodingRiverine FloodingRiverine FloodingRiverine Flooding

Riverine flooding occurs when the flow in a river channelexceeds its bankfull capacity, overflowing the normal banksand inundating the adjacent floodplain. It is a phenomenonassociated with hydrologically large catchments and its most


significant effect is the widespread, comparatively shallowinundation of large expanses of flat terrain.

The most important factors determining the magnitudeand severity of riverine flooding are the total depth of theexcess rainfall producing the flood in question, the total areaof the contributing catchment, and the lag or delay time betweenthe occurrence of the storm peak and the passage of the floodhydrograph peak. The factors will particularly affect the depthand areal extent of flooding, matters which will also bedetermined by the topography of the inundated areas andparticularly the lateral slope and width of the floodplain. Theduration of the flood-producing rainfall, as well as the catchmentlag characteristics, will also affect the duration and timedistribution of the flood event.

Within the ESCAP region, riverine flooding is a commonoccurrence which involves substantial average annual flooddamage costs. In this region, a very high proportion of thecommunity in many countries occupies floodplain sites whichexperience frequent and devastating flooding. The most commoncause of disastrous riverine flooding is prolonged intense rainfall,although is some parts of the region, in the Himalayas or athigher latitudes, snowmelt may be a contributing factor.

The most severe flooding experienced in the region is causedby very intense rainfall associated with major tropical cyclones,particularly where the influence of the cyclone extends over aconsiderable area. Intense long-duration rainfall associated withmonsoonal depressions is also an important cause of seriousriverine flooding.

In the large river basins of the region, such as the Ganges,the Mekong and the Yangtze, flooding is usually seasonal andmay last for many weeks. These basins are subject to continualrainfall during the wet season and exhibit a long high waterperiod, with a comparatively slow rise and fall, during thisseason. Major flooding can result if intense storm rainfall occursduring such conditions. On smaller drainage basins, on riverssuch as those of north China, Japan and the Republic of Koreawhich are subject to occasional tropical cyclones and intense

convective storm activity, basin lag times are shorter and markedfluctuations of river level can occur during wet season conditions.

There is a variety of techniques which can be used tomitigate the damage caused by riverine flooding. Because thiskind of flooding is a feature of river basins which arehydrologically large, there are limitations upon the extent towhich the use of land use practices and land use control measureson the upper watershed can reduce the magnitude of disastrousriverine flooding. Within the floodplain areas subject toinundation, however, land use management practices, andspecifically land use control by zoning, may be an importantaspect of flood mitigation and a key component of the overallintegrated watershed management programme for the riverbasin concerned.

Flash FloodingFlash FloodingFlash FloodingFlash FloodingFlash Flooding

Flash flooding is a phenomenon principally associated withwatersheds which are hydrologically small. It is commonlycaused by intense convective storms of comparatively shortduration but producing highly intense rates of rainfall. Theseverity of flooding is increased if the watershed is steep andits surface has low infiltration capacity. The duration of theflooding is short but the depth of flooding can be considerableand very extensive damage may result. Because they occurvery rapidly and with little warning, flash floods can causesubstantial injury and loss of life.

In the ESCAP region, flash flooding can be experiencedwherever high intensity thunderstorms are common during thesummer months or wherever intense thunderstorm activityassociated with the passage of strong monsoonal depressionscan be expected. It is most damaging in mountainous areas onsmall, steeply sloping catchments which have been cleared ofprotective vegetation. This type of flooding appears to bebecoming more prevalent and more costly in terms of life andproperty because of increasing population density in districtssubject to deforestation.

Because flash flooding is a phenomenon which is principallyassociated with watersheds which are hydrologically small,


changes in land use practices and the use of land use controlscan be effective means of flood mitigation. Such land usepractices as forest revegetation or the use of farming techniquessuch as terracing or strip cropping can substantially reduceflood damage and corresponding land degradation.

Land use controls, such as the zoning of flash flood pronelands to prohibit village occupancy, can also be most effective.

Urban FloodingUrban FloodingUrban FloodingUrban FloodingUrban Flooding

Urban flooding can be experienced in watersheds of allsizes, wherever the community has occupied locations whichare susceptible to inundation by floodwater. In watershedswhich are hydrologically small, it results from cyclonic or stormrainfalls falling on local areas, within or adjacent to urbansettlements, where the process of urban development itself hasdramatically altered the runoff-producing characteristics of thecatchment. In watersheds which are hydrologically large, it isessentially an aspect of riverine flooding, which occurs becauseof overbank flow from major rivers onto floodplains which havebeen intensely developed for urban settlement.

When a catchment becomes wholly or partially occupied byurban development, this development can increase the volumesand rates of runoff from storm rainfall dramatically, partlybecause of the extent to which it decreases surface infiltrationcapacity and partly because of the extent to which it reducestimes of concentration. In a dense urban environment, ascompared with a natural rural environment, the enormousincrease in impervious roofing surfaces and sealed pavementsurfaces such as roads and parking areas results in muchreduced infiltration of rainwater and a much greater volumeof runoff.

The increase in paved ground surfaces, together with theinstallation of a more efficient drainage system, greatly reducessurface depression and detention storage, reduces the time ofconcentration and delivers runoff to the nearest watercoursein a fraction of the time that this would have taken prior tourbanization. The result is a much sharper rise in the rate offlood runoff, which greatly increases the peak discharge rate

from the catchment and substantially increases the subsequentdepth and severity of flooding. For these reasons, urbanizationcan significantly increase the peak discharges in smaller,comparatively frequent storms. Even in larger, rarer stormsthe peak discharges can be double those of an equivalent ruralcatchment.

For urban development on upland areas away from thefloodplain, where the urbanized catchment behaves as anhydrologically small watershed, the extent to which land-useplanning and management can be utilized to assist in floodmitigation is limited. Zoning of the urban area to provideadequate flood disposal waterways, to provide flood runoffdetention storage sites and to prohibit residential developmentin highly flood-prone areas are some of the measures commonlyadopted.

For intensely developed urban areas on floodplains, wherethere is a high risk of disastrous flooding, land use planningand control measures have an important role to play in anyflood mitigation strategy. In particular, land use zoning torestrict or prevent housing development in areas subject todeep or high-velocity flooding is a widely-used technique undersuch conditions.

Coastal FloodingCoastal FloodingCoastal FloodingCoastal FloodingCoastal Flooding

Coastal flooding can be caused by a number of factors. Inthe ESCAP region, the most serious forms of coastal floodingmay be due to storm surge, storm tides or tidal waves (tsunami).

Storm surge flooding occurs when a tropical cycloneapproaches a coastline. The low atmospheric pressure at thecentre of a tropical depression causes the water surface belowit to become elevated above the level of the surrounding ocean.As the cyclone approaches the coast, strong winds may pile upthe already high sea waters against the shoreline, thusaggravating the rise in water level. The combined effect canproduce serious flooding in low-level coastal areas.

A storm surge can be expected to be accompanied by highwinds, wave action, intense rainfall and major flooding. Although


its effects are restricted to a relatively narrow strip of coastline,it has the potential to cause substantial loss of life and propertydamage, particularly in coastal regions which are heavilypopulated.

When the landfall of a tropical cyclone coincides with a hightide, the depth of the storm surge is augmented by the tidalrise and the rise in sea level may exceed several metres abovenormal. The combined effect is termed a "storm tide". Thisphenomenon can be particularly devastating.

A tsunami is a different form of coastal flooding, generatedby a submarine earthquake which causes a travelling oceanwave. As this wave approaches the coast its height increasesrapidly and it can become very destructive as it inundates theshoreline zone.

Within the ESCAP region, many of the most severe disastersassociated with tropical cyclones have involved storm surges.These phenomena are most severe in coastal regions within thetropical cyclone belt, although coastal flooding can also occurin extra-tropical and temperate regions. Countries/areas whichare particularly susceptible to storm surge disaster includeAustralia, Bangladesh, China, the Philippines, the Republic ofKorea, Thailand, the Pacific Island countries, Hong Kong, China.The northern sector of the Bay of Bengal, where the coastgeometry exacerbates the phenomenon, is reported to beparticularly at risk.

Because the disasters resulting from coastal flooding arelocation-specific, land use planning and management offerssignificant potential mitigation potential. In particular, zoningto limit or prohibit high-risk development in areas highlysusceptible to storm surge flooding, if acceptable, is a highlyeffective mechanism.

Land InstabilityLand InstabilityLand InstabilityLand InstabilityLand Instability

The term "land instability" is used here to apply to thosekinds of disaster which involve the sudden movement of massesof earth and rock material down slopes and hillsides, principallyas a consequence of heavy and prolonged rainfall. Such disasters

include landslides, earth slips, mud flows, talus slides anddetritus flows and they are assumed to be associated withabnormal meteorological phenomena such as tropical cyclones,heavy thunderstorms, or intense and prolonged storm rainfallevents associated with monsoonal fronts and extra-tropicalcyclones. Land instability can also be initiated by earthquakeaction, which in some cases may aggravate the effects of rainfallsaturation and gravity sliding.

The stability of a hillside or a man-made slope dependsupon the weight of the overlying material, the steepness of theslope and the strength of the underlying layer or foundation.If the gravitational forces tending to cause sliding exceed theshearing strength of the underlying material along any potentialfailure surface, failure by slipping or sliding will occur.

When such instability does occur, the soil or rock materialmoves downwards and outwards-the upper part of the slidearea, or root, subsides and the lower part, or tongue, bulgesand extends outwards from the foot of the slope. In some typesof slide, where the moving material is very soft and unstableor temporarily in a liquefied condition, the tongue may moveoutwards for some hundreds of metres from the toe of the slopeand completely block the valley floor.

The area encompassed by an individual landslide is usuallycomparatively small and self-contained, although it may extendacross many hectares. Even on relatively uniform slopes ofgreat length and approximately uniform height, all subject tothe same extreme weather conditions, slides usually occur onlyat a comparatively small number of isolated places, separatedby considerable distances.

If the land surface overlying the slide area, or the land inthe locality below the tongue of the slide, has been developedfor forestry or agriculture or more seriously, is occupied bydomestic or industrial development, the result of a majorland instability event may be disastrous, causing serious lossof production and land productivity, dramatic damage tobuildings and property, and potentially extensive injury andloss of life.


Disastrous land instability is generally a consequence ofthe presence of excess water in the sliding material and theunderlying foundation. The source of this water may beinfiltration, interflow or shallow groundwater consequent uponheavy or prolonged rainfall, and the condition is aggravated bypoor drainage. The presence of excess water greatly reducesthe stability of the slope for several reasons: it increases theweight of the overlying material; it increases the pore pressurein the underlying material; it lubricates the underlying failuresurface; and it seriously reduces the shear strength of thematerial along the failure surface. In extreme cases, the presenceof water may cause the complete liquefaction of the materialon the slope, leading to the phenomena known as mud slidesor flow slides.

The susceptibility of a given hillside or mountainside tosliding is dependent upon the nature of the overlying materialand the geology of the underlying strata. The most commontypes of troublesome material include layers of weathered schistsor shales, very loose water-bearing sands, homogeneous softclay, stiff fissured clay, clay with sand or silt partings, andbodies of cohesive soil containing pockets or layers of water-bearing sand or silt.

An underlying geological structure with slip or fissure planeslying approximately parallel to the slope offers particularproblems. On natural slopes, the propensity to sliding may beaggravated by poor drainage conditions, works or land treatmentmeasures which encourage the infiltration of surface water intothe unstable material or its foundation, or the removal ofvegetation, particularly large tree species which have extensiveroot systems capable of providing resistance to sliding forces.In developed regions, the existence of large engineering workssuch as quarries or road and railway cuttings is particularlylikely to increase the risk of disastrous land instability unlessappropriate and adequate engineering precautions are taken.

The term "landslide" is generally applied to the suddenmovement of a large mass of soil and/or rock material downa steep slope, with the damage extending over a comparatively

large area. "Landslip" are much smaller phenomena, althoughin country susceptible to landslip failure a great many individualslips may occur over a significant area in a short period of time."Landcreep" failures, on the other hand, occur very slowly,allowing time for the taking of ameliorative or correctivemeasures.

"Mud flows" and "flow slides" occur when the overlyingmaterial is thoroughly saturated and, as a consequence ofvarious initiating forces, becomes suddenly liquefied. Failureoccurs rapidly and the moving material travels a considerabledistance outwards from the toe of the slope, causing extensivedamage and devastation.

"River blockages" are a consequence of land instability,occurring when the outwards movement of material from thetoe of a large landslide or flow slide completely blocks a rivervalley, forming a high dam behind which flood wateraccumulates to form a large reservoir. Such a dam is naturallyunstable and extremely likely to fail suddenly, either byovertopping or by slumping, allowing the sudden release of alarge volume of water and causing a flood wave to surgedownstream. This may result in substantial injury and loss oflife, serious property damage, damage to the river channelbecause of severe bank erosion and the destruction of anyinfrastructure, such as bridges, roads, or railways, which liesin the path of the wave.

In the ESCAP region, water-based disasters due to landinstability are of widespread occurrence and periodically leadto significant damage and loss of life. They are particularlyprevalent within the tropical cyclone belt, on steep hillside andmountain country which has been cleared of native vegetationand developed intensively for agriculture or rural villagesettlement. In more temperate regions, land instability canalso be a serious problem in mountainous areas where intenseand prolonged rainfall events can occur. For example, landslidesare a common occurrence in the Himalayas, whilst extensiveland slip disasters are occasionally experienced in othercountries, such as Thailand.


Because the susceptibility of specific localities to landinstability can usually be predicted and is generally well-known,land use planning and management tools and techniques offerconsiderable potential for disaster mitigation. Where it isfeasible, land use zoning can be employed to prohibit or restricthuman settlement or agricultural development in high-riskareas. Where the occupation of such areas is unavoidable, thereis a variety of land use control techniques, such as the restrictionof logging or overgrazing or the application of precautionaryland management practices, which can be utilized to assist indisaster prevention or mitigation.

DroughtDroughtDroughtDroughtDrought

Drought is a quite different form of water-based naturaldisaster from those previously described, because it is consequentupon a severe deficiency of water, not an excess of it. It can,however, be equally devastating in its effect, bringing severeeconomic and social consequences and resulting in serious lossof rural productivity and wide-spread and long-lastingdegradation of land and other natural resources.

Drought might be briefly defined as a serious water shortage.This implies some specification of the amount of water requiredand the purpose for which it is to be used, both of which willdetermine whether a drought condition exists. What constitutesa drought for a given use in a given location may not beconsidered a drought elsewhere. By way of example, in Bali adrought is defined as a period of six days without rain, whereasin Central Australia an annual rainfall total of less than 200mm might be considered normal and a severe drought mayhave a duration of several years.

It is generally accepted that there are at least three typesof drought:

o A "meteorological drought", which can be defined as asignificant decrease in the normally expected seasonalrainfall, extending over a substantial area-theparameters used to measure and express its effect arethe total rainfall depth and the duration of the droughtperiod.

o An "agricultural drought", which can be defined as aperiod during which the amount of rainfall and soilmoisture content are inadequate for crop and pasturegrowth and animal production-the parameters used toexpress its severity are rainfall depth and soil moisturecontent.

o An "hydrological drought", which can be defined as aperiod of below average water content in rivers,reservoirs, lakes, groundwater aquifers and soils-theparameters used to indicate its magnitude are given interms of water storage volumes and available flow rates.

The adverse consequences of drought may be both short-term and long-term. Droughts produce immediate and relativelyshort-term disastrous effects upon a wide range of economicactivities from crop and livestock production to water navigationand hydro-electric power production. In the longer term,droughts may result in significant loss in agriculturalproductivity, a forced move to less economic forms of land use,progressive land degradation or desertification, landabandonment, depopulation and the failure of communications.

A further consequence of prolonged drought, not normallyexpected, can be the severe increases in flooding and soil erosionwhich may occur if heavy storm rainfall occurs at the end ofa drought, when protective vegetative cover has been lost andrunoff rates may be substantially increased.

Because the nature and severity of a drought event isdetermined by weather conditions, it is difficult to predict itsonset, its intensity or its likely duration. In the ESCAP region,this is particularly the case in higher latitude, continentalregions which are outside the Tropics and away from monsoonal,trade wind or other seasonal rain pattern influences. There isincreasing evidence, however, that in those parts of the regionlying around the western Pacific rim, the occurrence of severedrought is associated with the El Niño phenomenon.

Drought is an intermittent problem in all the countries ofthe ESCAP region, even including the Philippines, Indonesiaand the islands of the South Pacific. Major drought disasters


are experienced from time to time in Australia, India andNorthern China, where the consequences of a drought eventmay be of very considerable significance to the national economyover a long period.

Heavy loss of livestock, human disease and starvation, lossof wildlife and natural vegetation, and extensive and long-lasting land degradation, are all likely outcomes of droughtdisaster.

Land use planning and management can provide a rangeof tools and techniques to assist in the mitigation of droughtdisaster. These include a wide range of special agriculturalpractices aimed both at improving preparedness for droughtand managing drought conditions more effectively.

Conservation farming practices are designed to increasethe intake and storage of soil moisture, to reduce the rate ofusage of soil moisture, and to mitigate the in-drought and post-drought effects of wind and water erosion.

The conservation and storage of food, fodder and water anda variety of livestock management techniques are also employedboth as drought survival tools and as safeguards againstdrought-induced land degradation.

Water conservation and the careful management of surfaceand underground water resources are key elements in anydrought mitigation strategy.

In drought-prone areas, the provision of adequate waterstorage and distribution systems and facilities for water supplyand irrigation is essential, along with the careful andconservative development and husbandry of groundwaterresources. Watershed management practices aimed at increasingand stabilizing the long-term supply of surface and groundwaterand recharging groundwater aquifers have an important partto play in drought management practice.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGSSUMMARY OF FINDINGSSUMMARY OF FINDINGSSUMMARY OF FINDINGSSUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Each year, natural disasters can result in serious loss oflife and extensive property damage throughout the ESCAP

Region. During the period under review, losses caused by naturaldisaster events were particularly damaging, depriving countriesof resources which could have otherwise been used for economicand social development.

The toll from such disasters was most severe in thedeveloping countries of the region, which may have had theirdevelopment goals set back years and even decades as aconsequence of major disaster impacts. Water-based disastersinclude tropical cyclones or typhoons, floods, droughts, coastalsurges, tsunami, mud slides and water-induced landslips. Morethan 50 percent of the world's disasters from these causesoccurred within the ESCAP Region.

In recognition of the severity and serious consequences ofnatural disasters, the United Nations in 1989 declared the lastdecade of the millennium to be the International Decade forNatural Disaster Reduction. Since the inception of the Decade,the countries of the Region have taken considerable individualand cooperative action to put its objectives into effect.

At the regional level, ESCAP has taken the lead in fosteringactions and activities connected with the Decade within theAsian and Pacific region. This report has reviewed their progressin the context of water-based natural disaster prevention andpreparedness at the regional and national levels.

Summary of Findings at the Regional LevelSummary of Findings at the Regional LevelSummary of Findings at the Regional LevelSummary of Findings at the Regional LevelSummary of Findings at the Regional Level

For many years, ESCAP has collected and processed annualreports prepared by each of the member countries. These annualreports have given information regarding the types and locationsof the disasters they have experienced, together with informationabout the extent of the damage in terms of loss of life, injury,damage to property and total cost.

Participation of the ESCAP members in these annualactivities has become increasingly more active, particularlyafter the United Nations declared the IDNDR. Copies of thesereports can be provided to those participants interested inthem. An examination of these reports together with the resultsof the regional survey conducted jointly be ESCAP and IDNDR


showed that disasters continue to wreak serious damage acrossthe Region. Indeed, the total costs of damages associated withtropical cyclones and floods together appear to be increasingat a rate of about 4 percent per annum.

It should be emphasized that the cost of damages issignificantly underestimated in the reports, since the reportingcountries only list the costs of direct damages that can bemeasured in monetary terms, and not the indirect damagesresulting from social impacts and losses. During the Decade,1998 appeared to be the most critical year in terms of water-related disasters in the Region.

The severity of such events was emphasized in 1998, whenpersistent and very heavy rains, which appeared to be relatedto the La Niña phenomenon, fell across a number of countriesin the Region and caused devastating floods, with serious lossof life and substantial property damage.

In China, flooding along major rivers in the central andnorth-eastern part of the country was described as the worstin many decades and the second-worst in more than 130 years.3000 lives were lost, some 14 million people were renderedhomeless and some 5 million houses were destroyed. The totalcost was estimated at more than $US 20 billion.

In Bangladesh, heavy monsoon rains over the same periodcaused extensive flooding which inundated two-thirds of thecountry, producing the highest flood levels ever recorded. Morethan 600 people were killed and 25 million people weresignificantly affected. There was also substantial loss of livestockand crops. An initial estimate of total damage was about US$1 billion.

The Republic of Korea was subject to very heavy rainfallwhich flooded large areas of farmland, destroyed most of therice crop, resulted in the deaths of a total of nearly 800 peopleand caused losses having an estimated total cost of more thana billion $US.

Late in the year, Typhoon Dawn struck Vietnam withvengeance, causing flooding which affected more than 2.4 millionpeople. Loss of life exceeded 270 and 10,000 buildings were

completely destroyed. The total cost of this disaster was of theorder of $US 90 million.

The regional experience of the Decade can be summarizedas follows.

• The four water-related hazards i.e., cyclones, stormsurges, floods and land instability frequently result inmajor disasters in the ESCAP region.

i. All countries are affected to a greater or lesserextent by one or more of these hazards.

ii. The death toll resulting from these disasters can beextremely high and the damage inflicted onindividual countries can cripple their fragileeconomies.

iii. The vital role of risk assessment has been largelyoverlooked. Unless this task is accelerated, theabsence of information will impact adversely onfuture disaster mitigation plans.

iv. Disaster management in the region is biased towardsdisaster preparedness, particularly response andrelief. Many Governments find it more acceptableto seek financial assistance from international donorsto overcome disaster situations in preference toimplementing comprehensive disaster preventionprogrammes utilizing their own resources.

v. There cannot be any significant improvement indisaster management until the emphasis is switchedfrom disaster preparedness to disaster prevention.For this to happen there needs to be a change inphilosophy by the individual countries and theinternational organizations and donors in theirsupport of disaster prevention activities.

Findings at the National LevelFindings at the National LevelFindings at the National LevelFindings at the National LevelFindings at the National Level

At the national level, it becomes evident from the carefulstudy of all information available in this review that all countriesin the Region have made significant advances in their attempts


to develop appropriate disaster prevention and preparednessmeasures.

There would appear to have been a focus more uponpreparedness than on prevention, evident in the fact that theloss of life has been reduced in many countries but that theamount of physical damage appears to be continuing to increase.It may be noted that disaster prevention is concerned with theintroduction of procedures and techniques which serve to reducethe impact of disasters by structural and non-structural means.

It is undertaken before the onset of disaster events and hasa permanent effect. Disaster preparedness is concerned withthe introduction of methods for reducing social impact andproperty loss when a disaster event becomes imminent, andmay be effective only for the duration of a given disaster event.

Most countries in the Region have recognized the value ofestablishing a permanent framework for disaster response,rather than continuing to adopt an ad hoc approach each timedisaster appears imminent, and their institutional mechanismshave been strengthened accordingly.

Substantial progress appears to have been made inmeteorological forecasting and the development of warningsystems for tropical cyclones and major floods. This has beenstrengthened through the cooperation and assistance ofinternational organizations such as ESCAP, WMO, UNDP andother organizations and the formation of the Typhoon Committeeand the Panel on Tropical Cyclones. Such activities have alsobeen assisted in many countries through the intensified use ofradar and weather satellites for forecasting and the extensionof telemetric weather and flood recording systems.

On the other hand, few countries have achieved very muchin the undertaking of risk assessment and hazard mappingprocedures, and this kind of activity clearly needs to be extendedand accelerated.

In the area of disaster prevention, most countries appearto have relied heavily upon traditional structural approaches,generally aimed at the protection only of specific and restricted

locations. Whilst there have been many attempts to implementnon-structural solutions, many of these have met with limitedsuccess and this area of activity needs much further specialattention, perhaps with significant international assistance.

Most countries in the Region have enacted special legislationto provide for disaster control and established organizationsand agencies for their development and implementation.Although statutory controls are now available for the controlof development in disaster-prone areas, improved buildingconstruction and so on, many Governments appear to havebeen reluctant to invoke them.

The needs to create central organizations for thecoordination of disaster management, to upgraded civil defencecapabilities and to develop effective community education andinvolvement have been well recognized and acted upon.

The national experience of the Decade can be summarizedas follows.

i. Only the more advanced countries of the region haveimplemented non-structural measures such as land-usecontrols, building controls and the siting of essentialservices to provide protection against the water-relatedhazards.

ii. Those countries which have a long history of flood andstorm surge disasters have progressively implementedmitigation programmes based on structural measures.Lack of funds, increasing populations and theencroachment of further development into vulnerableareas all tend to negate the effects of these programmes.

iii. Impediments to the solution of disaster problems arelargely political, social and economic. Governments findit socially unacceptable to relocate populations awayfrom vulnerable areas when sufficient funds are notavailable to provide substitute facilities. Land tenure,local customs, etc. also act as impediments to theimplementation of many of the available mitigationmeasures.

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects210210210210210 Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management... 211211211211211

iv. Disaster preparedness measures, especially responseand relief, are more acceptable to Governments of theregion as a means of handling disasters. The principalreason for this is that support, both technical andfinancial, is more forthcoming from the internationalagencies and donor countries when a disaster strikes.It is a difficult task for developing countries to marshalthe massive funds required to implement structuralmeasures to combat future disasters from their ownresources or from overseas aid.

All in all, the Governments of the Region have respondedpositively to the objectives of the International Decade forNatural Disaster Reduction and made significant advances intheir abilities to cope with such disasters, particularly in thearea of disaster preparedness. They have also confirmed theneed to continue strengthening existing frameworks, to upgradeactivities in some priority areas, and above all, to focus upona fully integrated approach to disaster management issues andto involve the entire community. They have also confirmed theneed to continue fostering national and international cooperationfor advancement of disaster management in the Region by wayof technology transfer and the encouragement of financialsupport from the more developed countries.

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RRRRREGIONALEGIONALEGIONALEGIONALEGIONAL C C C C COOPERATIONOOPERATIONOOPERATIONOOPERATIONOOPERATION ONONONONON D D D D DISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER

MMMMMANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT ANDANDANDANDAND P P P P PREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESSREPAREDNESS

RISK PROFILE OF CENTRAL ASIARISK PROFILE OF CENTRAL ASIARISK PROFILE OF CENTRAL ASIARISK PROFILE OF CENTRAL ASIARISK PROFILE OF CENTRAL ASIA

The Central Asian region is prone to a variety of naturaldisasters that occur frequently and on a very large scale, withpotential to affect or kill large numbers of people. Earthquakes,landslides, and floods characterize much of the region, butdrought, sandstorms, hailstorms, and snowstorms also causeperiodic damage. While progress is being made, inadequatedam safety still creates risks from flooding, including the riskof hazardous mine tailings entering downstream water bodies.Appendix 1 describes some of the recent disasters in the region.

A quantitative risk assessment undertaken in 2003 by theWorld Bank confirms that natural disasters can have asignificant consequence for the economic performance of CentralAsian countries. More than 90% of the loss potential is fromearthquakes, floods, and landslides. A quarter of the totalexpected loss is caused by events that are predicted to occuron average once every 20 years.

Another 38% originate from events that have a returnperiod of 20-25 years. Catastrophic events with an annualprobability of occurrence of 0.5% (events expected to occur oncein every 200 years) would have a major impact on alreadyvulnerable economies. Expected economic losses from suchevents exceed 20% of GDP in Armenia, Azerbaijan, andTajikistan; 10% of GDP in the Kyrgyz Republic; and 5% of GDPin Kazakhstan.

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...Regional Cooperation on Disaster Management...212212212212212 213213213213213

Evidence shows that the social and economic costs of naturaldisasters are increasing. From the 1970s to the 1990s, thenumber of people affected globally tripled while the decadaleconomic cost increased by a factor of $5 billion to more than$600 billion. More recently, global climate change has becomerecognized as an additional risk incubator. Increases infrequency and intensity of climatic hazard impacts couldexacerbate trends in many vulnerable locations.

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENT

National PreparednessNational PreparednessNational PreparednessNational PreparednessNational Preparedness

The Central Asian countries have ministries for emergencysituations, which deal with policy aspects, provide training,manage state disaster reserve resources, and providecoordination among different levels of government in developingand implementing emergency plans. The People's Republic ofChina (PRC) has, since January 2005, a State Disaster ReductionCommission.

o Legal Framework. Each country has each own decrees,acts, and laws that serve as legal basis for disastermanagement.

o Hazard/Risk Mapping. Most countries have risk maps.Those in the Central Asian countries were preparedduring the Soviet era, but their scale is not suitable forrisk management activities. Most of these maps areoutdated.

o Disaster Preparedness Plans. Countries in the regionhave made different levels of progress in developingdisaster preparedness plans. The PRC has a capacity-building program and is making safe storage sites forwaste products from metal processing.

o Structural Measures. In the Central Asian countries,many protective structures remain from the Soviet era-such as dams, dikes for flood protection, and sedimentcontrol devices. These structures lack maintenance,which not only decreases their protective value but alsocan amplify a disaster when they collapse.

o Community Involvement. General awareness for naturaldisasters, preparedness, and mitigation is very low. Inthe PRC, a community-based disaster reduction outreachcampaign has been launched.

Regional and International CooperationRegional and International CooperationRegional and International CooperationRegional and International CooperationRegional and International Cooperation

The emergency policies of the five Central Asian countriescurrently include a regional mechanism through the relevantministries. In 1993, an Interstate Council for EmergencySituations Regarding Natural and Man-made Disasters wasestablished to coordinate disaster management policies.

Central Asian countries also cooperate with each otherthrough a number of regional and bilateral agreements,including

o 1996 agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic,and Uzbekistan on joint collaboration for therehabilitation of tailing sites that have a transboundaryimpact.

o 1998 agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic,Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan on the joint use oftransboundary rivers, water bodies, and hydraulicinfrastructure.

o 1999 joint program of action to rehabilitate tailing sitesin the countries of the Central Asian EconomicCommunity.

Most Central Asian countries participated in the SubregionalInitiative for Disaster Risk Management organized by the UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2003 in Iran, toconsider DRM initiatives in Central Asia and neighboringcountries, including two related subsequent meetings. The PRCis a signing party to the Shanghai Cooperation OrganizationAgreement on Intergovernmental Mutual Assistance forDisaster Relief and sponsored the Asian Conference on DisasterReduction, the first ministerial meeting of its kind in Asia.

Central Asian countries are parties to many internationaldeclarations and summit agreements that stipulate increased


preparedness for natural disasters on a national and regionalbases. For example, all Central Asian countries, exceptTurkmenistan, sent a delegation to the World Conference onDisaster Reduction held in January 2005 in Kobe, Japan, andbecame parties to the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015(HFA) to pursue "substantial reduction" of disaster losses duringthat period and which calls for increased international andregional cooperation.

Two good examples of regional cooperative arrangementsare the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), a nonprofitorganization based in Bangkok, set up in part by ADB in 1986;and the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR).ADPC's main role is to enhance the national and regionaldisaster management capacities. It undertakes this through avariety of modes, including training programs, promoting andsupporting the mainstreaming of DRM in developmentprocesses, identifying national and regional DRM issues, andassisting development of strategic solutions. The ISDR is thesuccessor to the United Nations's international Decade ofNatural Disaster Reduction 1990-1999. The decade wasdedicated to promoting solutions to reducing risk from naturalhazards. ISDR was created to move this momentum forwardby fostering greater awareness, public commitment, knowledge,and partnerships to implement risk reduction measures of allkinds, at all levels, in all countries.

On the donor side, many agencies give assistance forpreventive as well as humanitarian emergency actions. TheSwiss Agency for Development and Cooperation has a regionalproactive strategy in operation, while the European has ageneral humanitarian plan of action. Other agencies areproviding country-specific assistance. All the multilateraldevelopment banks have policies for disaster assistance.

ADB has also been active in providing disaster assistance.For ADB, responding to disaster impacts in unprepareddeveloping member countries (DMCs) means diverting badlyneeded development funds to replace social and economicinfrastructure that has been lost or dislocated. Carefully

prepared country strategies and plans can be destroyed literallyovernight, resulting in a huge loss in effort and time. In 2004,ADB adopted a proactive Disaster and Emergency AssistancePolicy (DEAP), which aims to integrate DRM into thedevelopment process of DMCs, build DMC disaster and hazardrisk management capacity, and take disaster risk into accountin preparing ADB country strategies and plans and projects.A key element of DEAP is institutionalizing DRM by identifyingrisks during ADB's country programming schedules and buildingrisk reduction strategies into the project plan. Regardingpostimpact recovery, the policy emphasizes (i) rehabilitatingcritical physical and social infrastructure; (ii) revitalizing basicservices; and (iii) jump-starting economic productivity, all in aDRM framework. The principles underpinning DEAP and theaction plans stemming from it are similar to the HFA to whichADB, like most nations in this region, is a signatory. ADB is,therefore, assisting DMCs meet their HFA goals.

In spite of these efforts, disaster preparedness remainsinadequate in much of the region. At the national level, thereare needs to update (and in some cases, initiate) disasterlegislation, enhance (and in some cases, establish) the nationalfocal agency, and strengthen interinstitutional andintergovernmental (national-regional-local) coordination. Inaddition, there are needs to improve risk mapping, preparednessplanning, improve protective infrastructure, and increaseawareness and preparedness in communities. The need forcapacity building underlies effective future actions in theseareas. Regional cooperation in many of these areas is alsonecessary, and while some measures are underway, the presentsituation indicates that more intense cooperation is desirable.

STRATEGY AND APPROACH TO MORE EFFECTIVESTRATEGY AND APPROACH TO MORE EFFECTIVESTRATEGY AND APPROACH TO MORE EFFECTIVESTRATEGY AND APPROACH TO MORE EFFECTIVESTRATEGY AND APPROACH TO MORE EFFECTIVEDISASTER MANAGEMENTDISASTER MANAGEMENTDISASTER MANAGEMENTDISASTER MANAGEMENTDISASTER MANAGEMENT

An analysis of what transforms a natural event into ahuman and economic disaster reveals that the fundamentalproblems of development in Central Asia are the very sameproblems that contribute to the region's vulnerability to thecatastrophic effects of natural hazards.


The principal causes of vulnerability in Central Asia include:

(i) the persistence of widespread urban and rural poverty,

(ii) degradation of the region's environment frommismanagement of natural resources,

(iii) inefficient public policies, and

(iv) lagging and misguided investments in infrastructure.

Development and disaster-related policies have largelyfocused on emergency response, leaving a seriousunderinvestment in natural hazard prevention and mitigation.It follows that the most effective way to reduce losses fromnatural disasters is to integrate disaster risk into overalleconomic and development processes, i.e., mainstreaming DRM.

To mainstream DRM at the national level, the followingpoints comprise a useful general course of action:

(i) The first overarching issue is to improve governance forDRM. Most countries in this region still deal with disasterrisk through response-focused civil defense-typestructures. Risk considerations have to be factored ininto all aspects and levels of government and society.

(ii) Disaster risk analysis should be undertaken for all newdevelopments. This not only means ensuring that newdevelopment is located and built in such a way as to bemore secure but also ensure that new development doesnot generate new risk.

(iii) Post-disaster recovery, if not undertaken correctly, toooften rebuilds risk and creates the conditions for furtherand worse disasters in the future. The post-disasterperiod is, therefore, a unique opportunity to factor riskconsiderations into development.

(iv) Treating hazards as dynamic is important: hazardcharacteristics change, and with it so do the risks. Forexample, climate change is already altering thefrequency, severity, and intensity of hydrometeorologicalhazards.

To give an example of the benefits of mainstreaming a

DRM approach, the World Bank recently estimated that, onaverage, countries can save $7 in disaster recovery costs forevery $1 spent on risk reduction measures.

Infrastructure InvestmentInfrastructure InvestmentInfrastructure InvestmentInfrastructure InvestmentInfrastructure Investment

Infrastructure is a key issue because infrastructure is basicnot only for economic growth but also to bring the benefits ofa higher economic performance to people living in rural andisolated areas as well as to enable them participate inmainstream economic activities. Moreover, damage toinfrastructure can slow down response and recovery operations.Nevertheless, critical infrastructure-the systems, facilities, andnetworks that support health, safety, and well-being of citizens(e.g., utilities, transport, and health services)-is destroyed orincapacitated during disasters. Infrastructure damage isestimated to make up two thirds of all flood losses. About 70%of all damage from the December 2004 tsunami disaster wasto infrastructure.

Clearly, critical infrastructure needs to be protected frompotential natural disasters. At the national level, mainstreamingDRM implies careful land-use planning of such critical facilitiesas power plants and major roads with consideration to possibleoccurrence of natural disasters that would help minimizedamage. Attention is also needed to building code regulationsand enforcement.

FUTURE REGIONAL COOPERATIONFUTURE REGIONAL COOPERATIONFUTURE REGIONAL COOPERATIONFUTURE REGIONAL COOPERATIONFUTURE REGIONAL COOPERATION

Since many disasters transcend national borders, mitigationwould clearly benefit from regional cooperation by sharingresources, experience, and expertise. However, the effectivenessof the existing national and regional mechanisms for naturaldisaster preparedness in Central Asia is limited due toinadequate funding and capacity, while internationaldevelopment partners, though quick to provide assistance inthe event of disaster, have paid little attention to supportingprevention and disaster preparedness.

Similar to the Asia and Pacific region as a whole, disastermanagement in Central Asia has been badly neglected. ADB


estimates that 1% (about $40 billion) of the entire Asia and thePacific region's gross national income of $4 trillion is neededto put the needed disaster management infrastructure in place.

While developing and mainstreaming national DRM systemsare essential, regional initiatives are important. In a regionsubject to sudden-onset disasters that have wide geographicalcoverage (earthquakes are the classic example), and wheremuch of the region's transport and communicationsinfrastructure crosses several borders, the need for regional-level services is obvious. Conversely, failure to implement DRMin any one country can affect such infrastructure and, thus, theregion as a whole.

Regional cooperation for DRM, including infrastructuredevelopment, is essential not only to cope with the impacts ofdisasters but also to help ensure that the region sustainseconomic growth. Regional cooperation in DRM in the 21 stcentury is expected to respond to development needs in a moreflexible manner than the past. Future regional cooperation isexpected to focus on emerging natural hazards of increasingintensity or to be incorporated into the DRM process of regionaland national development programs.

From an international development partner perspective,enhanced regional cooperation in DRM offers attractiveopportunities to provide resources. Some partners (includingADB) have separate funds for regional versus individual countryallocation. Thus, assistance in regional cooperation serves toenhance, not detract from, country assistance. Internationalpartners can assist countries in the region to meet their domesticneeds and international obligations (e.g., HFA) through technicalassistance and loan support for regional cooperation in suchareas as the following:

(i) Building Capacity, Training, and Public Support forDisaster Management and Mitigation. To be successful,regional cooperation needs to build on a strong nationalinstitutional base.

(ii) Assistance in Development of National DisasterManagement Plans. Harmonization of such plans across

the region would greatly enhance mutual understandingand sharing of resources during emergencies. This mustbe supported by enabling disaster managementlegislation.

(iii) Development of National Disaster Information Systems.Monitoring and reporting on all data related to disastersis essential, not only of occurrences but also types ofhazards, potential risks, and available resources andinstitutions.

These also form the basis of public awareness campaigns andcommunity involvement in disaster preparedness andmitigation.

(iv) Improving Legislative and Institutional Arrangementsand Enhancing Political Will. A cooperative approachto disaster management and mitigation among countriesof the region would result in harmonized legislation,enabling cross-border or region-wide actions to proceedrapidly in the event of disaster.

(v) Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction into NationalDevelopment Processes. As noted, only by suchintegration can disaster risk management considerationsinfluence decisions of the planning bodies and besupported by adequate investment and expertise in asustainable manner.

(vi) Scientific and Technical Inputs for Disaster Management(including early warning). There is great scope not onlyfor new research in disaster management in the region,but also for collation, interpretation, adaptation, andapplication of existing knowledge. Clearly, this wouldbe most effective at the regional level and throughregional institutions.

Establishment of a task force to develop a regional strategyand determine priorities from among the many DRM needswould be a most useful first step. A partnership of nationalstakeholders and international development partners wouldprovide a firm basis for future assistance. In this way, bilateraldonors, international agencies, and multilateral development


banks would be able to coordinate and complement each other'sactivities toward the goal of optimizing DRM in the region.

Natural Disasters in the Central Asian RegionNatural Disasters in the Central Asian RegionNatural Disasters in the Central Asian RegionNatural Disasters in the Central Asian RegionNatural Disasters in the Central Asian Region

In the Central Asian countries, during 1991-2001, around2,500 people were killed and 5.5 million (10% of the totalpopulation) were affected by natural disasters in Tajikistan,Kyrgyz Republic, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan.

Tajikistan is the most affected Central Asian country interms of disasters, level of damage and loss of life. Tajikistaneach year experiences 50,000 landslides, 5,000 tremors andearthquakes, and hundreds of avalanches and debris flows.According to CRED Database, during 1991-2001 over 66,000people were made homeless due to natural disasters. The 2003United Nations Consolidated Appeal for Tajikistan identifieddisaster response as a priority area because during the first 9months of 2002, 65 small-and medium-scale natural disastersaffected 200,000 people. The most common were floods,earthquakes, mudslides, and landslides. The floods in southernTajikistan in 1992 that killed 1,300 persons and resulted in90% loss of gross domestic product that year are indicative ofthe extent of destruction of life, property, and natural resourcesthat individual disasters in that country can cause.

The Kyrgyz Republic is characterized by frequent small-ormid-scale disasters, low levels of awareness and preparedness,and inadequate response capacity. In 2001-2002, the Ministryof Emergencies and Ecology recorded 784 floods, 91 landslides,37 avalanches, 18 earthquakes, and nearly 10,000 earth tremors.Seepage from more than 20 nuclear waste storage sites inMailuu-Suu District in Jalalabad is a permanent and large-scale threat. More than 1,200 natural disasters were registeredduring 1992-1999, killing more than 400 people and damagingmore than 50,000 houses, 222 schools, and 127 health carefacilities, as well as roads, electricity transmission lines, waterfacilities, and others.

Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan are the least vulnerable tonatural disasters and best able to respond without externalassistance.

The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in the People'sRepublic of China is subject to frequent natural disasters. In2003 alone, there were 12 earthquakes measuring five or aboveon the Richter scale, killing 289 people with over 2 billion yuan(about US$240 million) in economic loss. In the same year,spring sandstorms led to a drop in farm yields, with almost noharvest in some places. Storms and hail in the summer monthsaffected 1.8 million people with a loss of 36 lives. As well, therewere many floods and landslides. Mongolia had several yearsof drought and mass deaths of livestock beginning in 1999.Other sources of disaster in recent years include blizzards andheavy snowfalls, dust storms, floods, earthquakes, and forestand steppe fires. The United Nations Development Programmehas been assisting the Government strengthen its disastermanagement system; change the focus from a military civil-defense approach to a civilian-led mitigation and managementapproach; and create partnerships between government, donors,nongovernment organizations for cooperation, coordination, andallocation of resources for disaster mitigation.

ADB ASSISTANCE IN DISASTER MITIGATION ANDADB ASSISTANCE IN DISASTER MITIGATION ANDADB ASSISTANCE IN DISASTER MITIGATION ANDADB ASSISTANCE IN DISASTER MITIGATION ANDADB ASSISTANCE IN DISASTER MITIGATION ANDRECOVERYRECOVERYRECOVERYRECOVERYRECOVERY

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) adopted a policy ondisaster rehabilitation assistance in 1987 for small developingmember countries (DMCs) and broadened and extended this toall DMCs in 1989. The rationale for assistance was to providetimely interventions that would enable an affected DMCmaintain its development momentum. The policy was reviewedin 2002. Analyses showed that three main factors are crucialfor project effectiveness:

o good project design;

o effective operation and maintenance of mitigationstructures; and

o strong institutional development to support structuraland preventive measures, e.g., increased disasterawareness, community preparedness, early warningsystems, effective land-use planning, and sound andenforceable building codes.


Such measures should be part of the core design of naturaldisaster mitigation projects and should be integrated intocountry strategies and programs.

A new policy-the Disaster and Emergency Assistance Policy-was adopted in 2004, which takes a more proactive stance asdescribed in the text. ADB assistance for emergencyrehabilitation and disaster mitigation, including conflict andepidemic situations as well as natural disasters, totaled some$3.9 billion during 1987-2005.

This amount comprised 22 project preparatory assistancefor a total of $15 million; 55 advisory and operational technicalassistance, including 14 regional technical assistance (RETAs),for a total of $48 million; 26 grants for a total of $954 million;and 52 loans, mostly in the category of "multisector," totaling$2,903 million.

APPROACHES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION INAPPROACHES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION INAPPROACHES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION INAPPROACHES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION INAPPROACHES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION INDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENTDISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENT

Initiatives Fostering Regional CooperationInitiatives Fostering Regional CooperationInitiatives Fostering Regional CooperationInitiatives Fostering Regional CooperationInitiatives Fostering Regional Cooperation

o Periodic information dissemination in the region,whereby a regional information documentation anddissemination center would disseminate information toimprove information exchange.

o Ministerial meetings on disaster management, whichwould involve organizing a high-level Central AsianMinisterial Meeting on Disaster Management to securepolitical support for disaster management.

o Multistakeholder conferences, which would be largemeetings at the Central Asian level with cross-sectoralparticipation from government, United Nations agencies,nongovernment organizations, scientific and technicalorganizations, donors, and regional institutions.

o Preparation of Central Asian and national disastermanagement reports.

o Vulnerability Atlas for Central Asia, which would maphazards, vulnerabilities, and risks in countries of the

region, similar to the vulnerability atlas of India andthe hazard atlas of the People's Republic of China.

o Scientific and technical cooperation in disastermanagement, which would bring existing informationon scientific and technical issues into the public domainthrough dialogue with those national and regionalinstitutions that have hazard, risk, and disastermanagement information.

Capacity Building of National SystemsCapacity Building of National SystemsCapacity Building of National SystemsCapacity Building of National SystemsCapacity Building of National Systems

To be successful, regional cooperation needs to build on astrong national institutional base. Disaster managementtraining and capacity building may be needed to strengthen

(i) national disaster management agencies/committees,which should be established and/or strengthened inevery country by developing human resources andenacting necessary enabling national disastermanagement legislation;

(ii) development of disaster management plans, which arethe cornerstone of a national disaster managementsystem and must be backed up by national legislationand prepared at different levels: national, state, anddistrict levels;

(iii) national disaster management information systems toroutinely monitor and report on all data related tohazards and vulnerabilities, resources, andorganizations;

(iv) public awareness and media campaigns, which areneeded to create a greater constituency for disasterpreparedness and mitigation; and

(v) integration of disaster mitigation in national planning.The integration of disaster management planning andmitigation into national development processes isnecessary to influence decisions of the planning bodiesat the national and subnational levels (e.g., settlementplanning and housing are important subsectors forenforcing disaster prevention and mitigation measures).

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects224224224224224 Satellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster Management 225225225225225

Some RecommendationsSome RecommendationsSome RecommendationsSome RecommendationsSome Recommendations

Examples from elsewhere in the world show that risks canbe substantially reduced through proper preparedness and earlywarning systems; through insurance mechanisms that not onlyhelp respond financially after a disaster strikes, but also provideeffective incentives for better construction standards and locationdecisions; and through coordinated regional responses.Community and civil society involvement is critical.

For regional organizations:

o Make disaster preparedness and response programs highpriorities, and clarify the mandates of regionalorganizations.

o Develop regional risk assessment and planningcapacities, early warning systems (especially for naturaldisaster "hot spots"), and systematic links amongrelevant national and regional agencies.

o Strengthen information collection and sharing systemsat the regional level for disaster management. Regionalorganizations can provide an opportunity to foster debateon alternatives and bring in experiences from the restof the world on disaster prevention and preparedness.

For the international community:

o Focus more donor attention on regional natural disasterpreparedness and prevention.

o Better regional coordination among donors wouldenhance their effectiveness.

o Donor funding for research, training, and informationmanagement involving regional experts and institutionsis critical.

99999

SSSSSATELLITEATELLITEATELLITEATELLITEATELLITE T T T T TECHNOLOGYECHNOLOGYECHNOLOGYECHNOLOGYECHNOLOGY FORFORFORFORFOR D D D D DISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER

MMMMMANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT

INTEGRAL VIEW OF SPACE TECHNOLOGIESINTEGRAL VIEW OF SPACE TECHNOLOGIESINTEGRAL VIEW OF SPACE TECHNOLOGIESINTEGRAL VIEW OF SPACE TECHNOLOGIESINTEGRAL VIEW OF SPACE TECHNOLOGIES

India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasterslike cyclone, drought, floods, earthquakes, forest fires, landslideson account its unique geographical position, climate andgeological setting, Each year disasters account for loss of millionsof rupees in terms of social and community assets besideseconomic losses that are both immediate as well as long termin nature. Disaster management is a typically multi-disciplinaryendeavour, requiring many types of data with spatial andtemporal attributes that should be made available to key playersin the right format for decision-making In recent years, thefocus of disaster management community is increasingly movingon to more effective utilization of emerging technologies suchas remote sensing, Geographic Information System, and SatelliteCommunication, enabling to prepare for and mitigate potentialimpacts. Several critical inputs are required in order to takepreventive measures through vulnerability analysis, hazardzonation and prior risk assessment at regional and local levels.The volume of information needed for natural disasters farexceeds the capacity to deal with them manually.

Information derived from GIS and Remote Sensed satelliteimagery plays an important role in disaster management andcrisis prevention. Their effective application depends not solelyon technical specifications, but is influenced by factors such asdata collection, processing and distribution, capacity building,

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Satellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster ManagementSatellite Technology for Disaster Management226226226226226 227227227227227

institutional development and information sharing. In thiscontext contemporary technology such as GIS, GPS, database,Internet etc will play an important role. Indian spaceinfrastructure consisting of Indian Remote sensing satellites &INSAT system, is uniquely placed to provide services relatedto Disaster watch, Warning dissemination, Data collection,Monitoring and damage assessment, Vulnerability mapping,Communication support etc The recent tsunami disaster in theIndian Ocean demonstrated the extent that space technologiescan contribute to emergency response and disaster reduction.

The use of such technologies has been proven useful in therisk assessment, mitigation and preparedness phases of disastermanagement. It is imperative that recent technological advancesbe fully harnessed to aid the disaster managers towards reducingloss of life and property. Disaster information involves morethan just data and several interconnecting steps are typicallyrequired to generate the type of action-oriented products thatare needed by the disaster management community.

The exact steps taken depend on the disaster phase andhow time critical the need is. Technology support required fordisaster management fall in the category of observations, datacollection, networking, communication, warning dissemination,service delivery mechanisms, GIS databases, expert analysissystems, information resources etc. However, there are severaltechnological challenges constraining their effective utilizationdown the line at community level.

This paper highlights the potential of these technologies fordisaster management and state of art of application of thesetechnologies at Decision Support Centre, (DSC), which isestablished at National Remote Sensing Agency under DisasterManagement Support Programme, Department of Space, Govt.of India. The use of satellite remote sensing data for generationof information on the six natural disasters Flood, cyclone,Drought, Forest fires, Landslides and Earthquakes areaddressed here and the dissemination of the value addedinformation to the end users through the network connectivityis discussed.

MAXIMIZING USE OF SPACE-BASED OBSERVINGMAXIMIZING USE OF SPACE-BASED OBSERVINGMAXIMIZING USE OF SPACE-BASED OBSERVINGMAXIMIZING USE OF SPACE-BASED OBSERVINGMAXIMIZING USE OF SPACE-BASED OBSERVINGPLATFORMS FOR CRITICAL APPLICATIONSPLATFORMS FOR CRITICAL APPLICATIONSPLATFORMS FOR CRITICAL APPLICATIONSPLATFORMS FOR CRITICAL APPLICATIONSPLATFORMS FOR CRITICAL APPLICATIONS

As an integrated observing strategy, the concept of sensorweb for Earth observations is appealing in many aspects. Forinstance, by increasing the spatial and temporal coverage ofobservations from space and other vantage points, one caneventually aid in increasing the accuracy of the atmosphericmodels which are precursor to hurricane track prediction,volcanic eruption forecast, and trajectory path oftranscontinental transport of dust, harmful nuclear and chemicalplumes.

In reality, there is little analysis available in terms ofbenefits, costs and optimized set of sensors needed to makethese necessary observations. This is a complex problem thatmust be carefully studied and balanced over many boundariessuch as science, defense, early warning, security, andsurveillance.

Simplistically, the sensor web concept from the technologicalpoint of view alone has a great appeal in the defense, earlywarning and security applications.

In fact, it can be relatively less expensive in per unit costas opposed to building and deploying it for the scientific use.However, overall observing approach should not be singled outand aligned somewhat orthogonally to serve a particular need.On the other hand, the sensor web should be designed anddeployed to serve multiple subject areas and customerssimultaneously; and can behave as directed measuring systemsfor both science and operational entities. Sensor web can bedesigned to act as expert systems, and/or also provide a dedicatedintegrated surveillance network.

Today, there is no system in the world that is fully integratedin terms of reporting timely multiple hazards warnings,computing the loss of life and property damage estimates, andis also designed to cater to everyone's needs.

It is not an easier problem to undertake and more so is notpractically solvable. At this time due to some recent events in


the world, the scientific community, social scientists, andoperational agencies are more cognizant and getting togetherto address such colossal problems. Increasing our knowledgeof the home planet, via amplified set of observations, is certainlya right step in a right direction. Furthermore, this is a pre-requisite in understanding multiple hazard phenomena's. Thispaper examines various sensor web options and observingarchitectures that can be useful specifically in addressing someof these complex issues. The ultimate goal is to serve thesociety by providing potential natural hazards information tothe decision makers in the most expeditious manner so theycan prepare themselves to mitigate potential risks to humanlife, livestock and property.

MAINSTREAMING EARTH DECISION SUPPORT FORMAINSTREAMING EARTH DECISION SUPPORT FORMAINSTREAMING EARTH DECISION SUPPORT FORMAINSTREAMING EARTH DECISION SUPPORT FORMAINSTREAMING EARTH DECISION SUPPORT FORDISASTER MANAGEMENT IN MESOAMERICADISASTER MANAGEMENT IN MESOAMERICADISASTER MANAGEMENT IN MESOAMERICADISASTER MANAGEMENT IN MESOAMERICADISASTER MANAGEMENT IN MESOAMERICATHROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THETHROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THETHROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THETHROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THETHROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THEREGIONAL VISUALIZATION AND MONITORINGREGIONAL VISUALIZATION AND MONITORINGREGIONAL VISUALIZATION AND MONITORINGREGIONAL VISUALIZATION AND MONITORINGREGIONAL VISUALIZATION AND MONITORINGSYSTEM (SERVIR)SYSTEM (SERVIR)SYSTEM (SERVIR)SYSTEM (SERVIR)SYSTEM (SERVIR)

The Regional Visualization and Monitoring System forMesoamerica (SERVIR, in Spanish) has been established at theWater Center for the Humid Tropics for Latin America and theCaribbean (CATHALAC). SERVIR utilizes NASA data,technologies, and products to collect, archive, process, modeland distribute raster and vector data. SERVIR implementsdecisions support tools fpr climate change, disaster management,land planning, terrestrial carbon stocks, forest fires monitoring,water resources and coastal zone management.

This presentation will discuss SERVIR program efforts toenhance the capacity of the Mesoamerican disaster managementcommunity. Topics will include the implementation of a textmessage fire alert system, distribution of weather and climateprediction models, advanced visualization of real-time weatherdata, and the development of a Natural Disasters Atlas underthe auspices of the Plan Puebla Panama Initiative. Discussionwill focus on existing data and analysis gaps in the region, theconsequences this has for the disaster management community,and how the SERVIR program will address these.

DEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH RESOLUTIONDEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH RESOLUTIONDEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH RESOLUTIONDEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH RESOLUTIONDEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH RESOLUTIONPOPULATION DYNAMICS MODEL FOR DISASTERPOPULATION DYNAMICS MODEL FOR DISASTERPOPULATION DYNAMICS MODEL FOR DISASTERPOPULATION DYNAMICS MODEL FOR DISASTERPOPULATION DYNAMICS MODEL FOR DISASTERMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

The unanticipated occurrences of most natural andtechnological disasters put a large number of people at risk.The lack of efficient advanced warning systems compelsemergency responders to quickly assess the extent of the inflicteddestruction and the magnitude of impacts on human population.Disaster preparedness aims at assessing population at riskbased upon scenario driven modeling and simulation of disasters.Geospatial information has been clearly recognized as thecommon element in all preparedness, response, and recoveryactivities as it enhances situational awareness and analysisleading to improved information communication, sharing, anddecision making.

High resolution population distribution data is nucleus tothe essential geospatial information for disaster management.Commonly available data from Census has traditionally beenthe exclusive source for population information. However, typicalCensus data is constrained both in space and time and fails tocapture the obvious dynamic behavior of population as functionsof space and time. This imposes a significant negativeconsequence on the fidelity of event based simulation modelswith sensitive space-time resolution. Given the spatial (where)and temporal (when) uncertainty of disasters, the static natureof Census data is largely a paralyzing factor in disaster impactassessment approaches.

From a spatial perspective, Census data is limited by Censusaccounting units (such as blocks), there often is great uncertaintyabout spatial distribution of residents within those accountingunits. This is particularly appropriate in suburban and ruralareas, where the population is dispersed to a greater degreethan urban areas. From a temporal perspective, Census countsrepresent "residential" or "nighttime" population and its usagein a daytime event simulation is illogical. Because of thisuncertainty, there is significant potential to misclassify peoplewith respect to their location from, for example pollution sources,and consequently it becomes challenging to determine if certain


sub-populations are actually more likely than others to getdifferential environmental exposure.

For example, in the US, the source for population data isthe US Census Bureau, which reports population counts bycensus blocks (smallest polygonal unit), block groups (aggregatedblocks), and tracts (aggregated block groups). At the highestresolution (block level), a uniform population distribution isassumed and the population values are typically an attributeof the block (polygon) centroids.

Similarly, population values for block groups and tracts arereported at the centroids of the block group and tract polygons.In geospatial analyses, these points are used to represent thepopulation of a census polygon.

For example, calculation of travel time to health careproviders considers these centroids as the starting points fortravel. For exposure and risk analyses, these centroids oftenserve as "receptor" points for calculating exposure or dosagefrom any dispersed agent.

In common practice, census data are intersected with buffersof influence (such as polygons representing disaster impactzones) using two primary to quantify population at risk:

a. count the entire population (if the centroid is inside thebuffer) or zero population (if the centroid is outside thebuffer)

b. an area weighted population accounting approach (basedon the ratio of the areas of the polygon included in andexcluded from the buffer).

These limitations, to a large degree, can be overcome bydeveloping population data with a finer resolution in bothspace and time at sub-Census levels. Geodemographic data atsuch scales will represent a more realistic non-uniformdistribution of population.

Using an innovative approach with Geographic InformationSystem and Remote Sensing, Oak Ridge National Laboratory(ORNL) has made significant progress towards solving thisproblem (Bhaduri et al., 2002; Dobson et al., 2000). ORNL, as

part of its LandScan global population project, has developeda high resolution population distribution model (LandScanGlobal) for the entire world.

At its finest resolution, the global model is spatially resolvedat 30 arc seconds per cell. LandScan is the finest globalpopulation data ever produced and is 2400 times more spatiallyrefined than the previous standard. As an expansion to globalLandScan, ORNL is currently developing a very high-resolution(90m cell) population distribution data (LandScan USA) for theUS. At this resolution population distribution data includesnighttime (residential) as well as daytime distributions.

The LandScan population distribution model is a multi-layered dasymetric spatial modeling approach, which is alsoreferred to as smart interpolation technique. It collects bestavailable census counts (usually at sub-province level) for eachcountry, calculates a "likelihood" coefficient for each cell, andapplies the coefficients to the census counts which are employedas control totals for appropriate areas.

For LandScan USA, census blocks serve as the polygonalunit control population. Census blocks are divided into finergrid cells (90m) and then each is evaluated for the likelihoodof being populated based on a number of relevant spatialcharacteristics (including land cover, slope, proximity to roads,and nighttime lights).

Criticality of such spatial indicators from remotely senseddata has been well recognized (Elvidge et al., 1997; Sutton etal., 1997). The total population for that block is then allocatedto each cell weighted to the calculated likelihood (populationcoefficient) of being populated.

Large volumes of satellite derived spatial data includingland cover and nighttime lights are used in developing LandScandatabases and verification and validation (V&V) of thepopulation model. Locating daytime populations requires notonly census data, but also other socio-economic data includingplaces of work, journey to work, and other mobility factors suchas daytime business and cultural attractions/populated placesdatasets. The combination of both residential and daytime


populations will provide significant enhancements to geospatialapplications ranging from homeland security to socio-environmental studies.

This discussion will describe ongoing development of thecomputational framework for spatial data integration andmodeling framework for LandScan. A large number of disparateand misaligned spatial data sets are spatio-temporally correlatedand integrated in the modeling framework to understand, model,validate, and visualize dynamics of population.

Discussions will cover development of algorithms to utilizepopulation infrastructure datasets (such as residences, businesslocations, academic institutions, correctional facilities, and publicoffices) along with behavioral or mobility datasets forrepresenting temporal dynamics of population.

In addition, we will discuss development and integrationof transportation, physical and behavioral science computationalalgorithms; the integration of these models that address differentscales and different time frames; and the development ofdynamic optimization routines to take advantage of real-timedata from sensor networks.

We will also demonstrate utilization of such high resolutionpopulation distribution data within an integrated modelingand simulation framework of a transportation network creationmodel, a demographic model generator, and a traffic simulationmodel to enhance the fidelity of an evacuation model.

Satellite Data Acquisition Planner for DisasterSatellite Data Acquisition Planner for DisasterSatellite Data Acquisition Planner for DisasterSatellite Data Acquisition Planner for DisasterSatellite Data Acquisition Planner for DisasterManagementManagementManagementManagementManagement

In this paper, we present a semi-automated tool that enablesoptimum utilization of satellite resources for disastermanagement. Satellite data plays an important role in disastermanagement due to it's synoptic coverage and coverage byoverhead imaging of those areas which are inaccessible duringdisasters.

Data is also used in different phases of disaster managementlike monitoring, analysis and rescue operations. A number ofsatellites/sensors varying in resolution and revisit capabilities

and operating in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrumare available for managing different types of disasters. Thisgives rise to multiple observation opportunities of a given areaby various satellites differing in resolution, extent of area coveredand date of coverage. In order to use satellite imagery fordisaster management, the first step is to obtain best possibleand most suitable data.

Space agencies provide highest priority for covering disasteraffected areas. Satellite data users can decide their datarequirements using satellite reference charts and other softwareutilities. Currently, to determine imaging opportunities ofmultiple satellites, different packages and methods have to beused. Each agency comes with it's own user interface andoutput formats. The sequence of steps to be followed can alsovary greatly. A number of satellites are available to the disastermanager for analysis.

Many packages are specific to a set of satellites. SPA,provided by Radarsat International (RSI) is specific toRADARSAT. DESCW provided by Eurimage caters to a set ofsatellites and allows one to know whether the area is coveredon a specific date. A software like IDRS provided by ISRO canbe used to decide coverage of the area of interest by IndianRemote Sensing satellites.

Satellite coverage charts along with path calendars helpdeciding dates of coverage. This interactive process varies acrosspackages and the whole sequence has to be followed each time(like entering area of interests, time period etc.). In a timecritical application like disaster management, this step ofdetermining suitable data to order is currently time consuming.To know available options, it requires technical expertise in theuse of different packages which may or may not be available.

The outputs from different packages have to then becompared and a decision has to be made about which data toacquire. This is again manual and may change from person toperson. All this can now be done by any person without thetechnical expertise of the packages in a matter of a few minutesby the Data Acquisition Planner application. With its easy to


use Graphical User Interface(GUI), it can be used by anyone.This application determines which data is available for a disasterbased on it's location, extent and time. It then identifies whichdata is most appropriate among the available data for aparticular disaster at that time.

Suitability is calculated based on a number of factorsincluding disaster type, type of data required, resolution andother parameters like date and extent of coverage. Differentproperties desired in the satellite imagery that make it suitablefor different disasters are given by experts in their respectivedomains. These include type of data, resolution and viewingangles. In addition, weights are given to different propertiesof the imaging opportunity like date of coverage, resolution,viewing angle and extent of coverage. These weights are alsodecided by experts.

User inputs geographical location, extent, type of disasterand the time period for which data is to be acquired. Imagingopportunities are determined for multiple satellites. Based onthe properties of the imaging opportunity and weights givento each of the factors, percentage of suitability is calculated foreach opportunity. Opportunities are then displayed in order ofsuitability. At this stage, the user can choose the most suitableor override it for a particular scenario.

Outputs can be stored in a convenient format. Filling theappropriate order forms and sending can also be automated.Data ordered can be stored in a database for future retrieval.The map output can be exported and used to generate reports.Orbit prediction is based on orbital information in Two LineElement Sets (TLE) format.

This tool has the following advantages. The user candetermine most suitable data without having proficiency in theuse of multiple packages. All imaging opportunities are availableon a common platform. Their spatial extent can also be visualizedon a common background map. Also, the technical expertise ofa few experts is made available to more people. This tool givesthe most suitable data to be acquired and does it in a fewminutes. This in turn leads to better analysis and will be more

beneficial for the management of the disaster. In case of multipledisasters, optimization techniques are used to decide whichsatellite data is more suitable for each disaster location. Thisis a light-weight application with a very user-friendly graphicaluser interface. It is developed using Visual Basic and a GISlibrary. It can be used on any windows platform.

THE UNIQUE PROTOTYPE REMOTE SENSING DATATHE UNIQUE PROTOTYPE REMOTE SENSING DATATHE UNIQUE PROTOTYPE REMOTE SENSING DATATHE UNIQUE PROTOTYPE REMOTE SENSING DATATHE UNIQUE PROTOTYPE REMOTE SENSING DATAINTEGRATION SYSTEM CEOP FOR THEINTEGRATION SYSTEM CEOP FOR THEINTEGRATION SYSTEM CEOP FOR THEINTEGRATION SYSTEM CEOP FOR THEINTEGRATION SYSTEM CEOP FOR THEATMOSPHERIC STUDIESATMOSPHERIC STUDIESATMOSPHERIC STUDIESATMOSPHERIC STUDIESATMOSPHERIC STUDIES

Monitoring the earth and atmosphere from space is animportant task. Remote sensing from space satellites enablesuniform and periodic monitoring. The unique internationalprogramme Coordinated Enhanced Observation Period (CEOP)is having the capability of providing the key elements for energyand water cycle observing system studies. An integrated energyand water cycle observational system brought together thecapabilities of both satellites based and ground based (remoteand in-situ) observing systems for the period 2001 to 2004.These observing systems would support research activitiesdealing with the role of the atmospheric energy and water cyclein climate, and prediction systems through the specificationsof initial and boundary conditions.

This study explains the capability of following differenttypes observations namely:

(1) sub-surface-soil profiles

(2) surface-stand meteorological radiation parameters

(3) near surface-flux tower

(4) atmospheric profiles-rawinsonde, profiles etc.

These CEOP data components are necessary to integrateobservations based on coordination among field science groups,space agencies, and numerical weather prediction centers inthe local, regional and global scales. This CEOP data set is aunique tool, which is accessible through web, collective,coordinated information, as readily available, comparable withother sources. The accomplishments of CEOP-I called (a) global

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects236236236236236 Gujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management Policy 237237237237237

versus regional products, (b) desired assimilation output,(c) interval and length of free-running forecasts, (d) operationalversus reanalysis data are also explained. Few atmosphericdisasters have been presented in this study for the Asian region.

These studies present the following spaces-based futureplan. The importance of 10-year implementation plan for EarthObservation adopted at the third earth observation summit toarchive the Global Earth Observation System of Systems(GEOSS), International efforts to comprehensive monitor theEarth by integrating various satellites, in-situ measurements,and models are gaining importance. As a contribution to GEOSS,the Global Change Observation Mission (GCOM) to performclimate change observations succeeding the observations ofMidori-II and Aqua. GCOM will consist of two different typesof satellites over three consecutive generations and will establisha continuous long-term data record. The GCOM mission willcomplement the worldwide operational Earth observationmissions, including NPOESS from United States, and theEuropean mission METOP also explained. The promisingmicrowave radiometer constellation for the Global PrecipitationMeasurement (GPM) is presented.

1010101010

GGGGGUJARATUJARATUJARATUJARATUJARAT S S S S STATETATETATETATETATE D D D D DISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER M M M M MANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT

PPPPPOLICYOLICYOLICYOLICYOLICY

NEED FOR A POLICYNEED FOR A POLICYNEED FOR A POLICYNEED FOR A POLICYNEED FOR A POLICY

The state of Gujarat ('the state') has been prone to disasters.Over the years, these disasters have caused extensive damageto life and property and have adversely impacted economicdevelopment.

The Government of Gujarat ('GoG') recognises the need tohave a proactive, comprehensive, and sustained approach todisaster management to reduce the detrimental effects ofdisasters on overall socio-economic development of the state.GoG believes that there is a need for a policy that articulatesits vision and strategy for disaster management in the state.In this context the Gujarat State Disaster ManagementAuthority (GSDMA) provides guidelines to various entitiesinvolved in disaster management in the state to discharge theirresponsibilities more effectively. With this in view, the GSDMAhas formulated the Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy('GSDMP'or 'the Policy').

AIMAIMAIMAIMAIM

The aim of the Gujarat State Disaster Management Policyis establishing necessary systems, structures, programs,resources, capabilities and guiding principles for reducingdisaster risks and preparing for and responding to disastersand threats of disasters in the state of Gujarat in order to savelives and property, avoid disruption of economic activity and

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Gujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management PolicyGujarat State Disaster Management Policy238238238238238 239239239239239

damage to environment and to ensure the continuity andsustainability of development.

OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVESOBJECTIVESOBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

To assess the risks and vulnerabilities associated withvarious disasters;

To develop appropriate disaster prevention and mitigationstrategies;

To provide clarity on roles and responsibilities for allstakeholders concerned with disaster management so thatdisasters can be managed more effectively;

To develop and maintain arrangements for accessingresources, equipment, supplies and funding in preparation fordisasters that might occur;

To ensure that arrangements are in place to mobilize theresources and capability for relief, rehabilitation, reconstructionand recovery from disasters;

To create awareness and preparedness and provide adviceand training to the agencies involved in disaster managementand to the community;

To strengthen the capacities of the community and establishand maintain effective systems for responding to disasters;

To ensure co-ordination with agencies related to disastermanagement in other Indian states and those at the nationaland international level;

To ensure relief/assistance to the affected without anydiscrimination of caste, creed, community or sex.

To establish and maintain a proactive programme of riskreduction, this programme being implemented through existingsectoral and inter-sectoral development programmes and beingpart of the overall development process in the state;

To develop and implement programmes for risk sharingand risk transfer for all types of disasters. To address genderissues in disaster management with special thrust onempowerment of women towards long term disaster mitigation.

To develop disaster management as a distinct managementdiscipline and creation of a systematic and streamlined disastermanagement cadre.

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GUJARAT STATE DISASTERKEY ELEMENTS OF THE GUJARAT STATE DISASTERKEY ELEMENTS OF THE GUJARAT STATE DISASTERKEY ELEMENTS OF THE GUJARAT STATE DISASTERKEY ELEMENTS OF THE GUJARAT STATE DISASTERMANAGEMENT POLICYMANAGEMENT POLICYMANAGEMENT POLICYMANAGEMENT POLICYMANAGEMENT POLICY

GoG will have the prerogative to define the occurrence ofa disaster and define the boundaries of the disaster-affectedsite by issuing a "disaster declaration". The declaration can bemade on the recommendation of SRC or DC.

GoG views disaster management as a long-term processthat involves the creation of disaster management andmitigation capacity in the state, in addition to developing systemsand processes designed to provide relief and rehabilitation.

The establishment of the Gujarat State DisasterManagement Authority ('GSDMA'or 'the Authority') as a nodalagency is an important element in the overall framework fordisaster management in the state. GSDMA will facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor work for mitigation and preparedness fordisasters. It will also coordinate and monitor emergency reliefmeasures, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation. TheAuthority would be provided with statutory powers in its role,as per the proposed Gujarat State Disaster Management Act,2002.

The Revenue Department, through the offices of the StateRelief Commissioner and the District Collectors along withrelevant Government departments will be responsible forimplementing emergency relief measures and relief after adisaster. GSDMA will facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor theactivities related to disaster management of the RevenueDepartment and other relevant Government Departments,where necessary.

State Relief Commissioner and District Collectors will beprovided special powers to deal with emergency situationscreated by disasters. When a disaster impacts an area coveringseveral towns and cities within a district, the Governmentpersonnel and their facilities shall be placed under the


operational control of the respective District Collector for theduration of the emergency. Government departments willsimplify procedures to mobilize resources in these emergencysituations.

Development planning will incorporate disastermanagement principles as an integral part of the overallplanning process.

GoG will look at all aspects of risk sharing and risk transferto ensure that the costs associated with managing disasters aredistributed across a wider population. Links will be establishedbetween the nodal agency (GSDMA), Government departments,local authorities, NGOs, research agencies, public sector, privatesector, community groups and other stakeholders to shareknowledge, establish coordination mechanisms and augmentcapacity of all the stakeholders.

A mechanism of continuous feedback shall be instituted sothat learnings can be translated into more effective relief,rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts and the process ofcapacity creation and relief, rehabilitation and reconstructionfeed into each other.

Self-reliance shall be developed by promoting andencouraging the spirit of self-help and mutual assistance amonglocal authorities and constituents.

All administrative subdivisions of the state will developand maintain documented plans of their disaster managementfunctions and activities.

To ensure that all responsible agencies, their staff and thepublic are familiar with policy, plans and procedures relatedto disaster management, periodic exercises and drills shall beconducted at all levels, with specific emphasis at the districtand local levels.

KEY RESPONSIBILITIESKEY RESPONSIBILITIESKEY RESPONSIBILITIESKEY RESPONSIBILITIESKEY RESPONSIBILITIES

Responsibility for the declaration of a disaster at any levelin the state rests with State Government. The declaration canbe made on the recommendation of the State Relief

Commissioner ('SRC') or a District Collector ('DC').Responsibility for initiation and execution of emergency reliefmeasures and relief in times of disasters rests with state RevenueDepartment, in conjunction with other relevant Governmentdepartments. The state Revenue Department shall act throughits functionaries at the state level (the State ReliefCommissioner) and the district level (the District Collector).

Responsibility for facilitation, coordination and monitoringof the development and implementation of reconstruction andrehabilitation activity following disasters rests with GSDMA,utilizing the resources and expertise of relevant Governmentdepartments, district administration, local authorities, non-governmental organizations ('NGOs'), the public sector, theprivate sector, international development agencies, donors andthe community.

Responsibility for coordinating the development,implementation, review and maintenance of disastermanagement plans and programmes rests with GSDMA,utilising the resources and expertise of relevant Governmentdepartments, district administration, local authorities, NGOs,the public sector, the private sector, international developmentagencies, donors and the community.

Responsibility for coordination and monitoring of theprogrammes of risk reduction rests with GSDMA. Responsibilityfor initiation and implementation of the risk reductionprogramme rests with the relevant Government departments,NGOs, the private sector and the community.


The state of Gujarat has been prone to disasters. Thesedisasters have caused extensive damage to life and propertyand have adversely impacted economic development. Examplesinclude the persistent droughts in the state and the devastatingearthquake that hit Gujarat on January 26, 2001. In responseto this, the Government of Gujarat has decided to formulatea policy that addresses various aspects of management of thesedisasters in a systematic and sustained manner.


The Government of Gujarat has envisaged the developmentof a holistic approach designed to manage disasters on a moreproactive basis. The approach involves formulating acomprehensive policy on all phases of disaster management,and addresses the entire gamut of disasters arising from natural(droughts, floods, earthquakes, cyclones etc.) and manmade (oilspills, forest fires, chemical catastrophes etc.) causes. This policytakes full cognizance of other related policies and initiatives atboth the national and state level. In particular, this policy isintended to be consistent with the disaster management policyat the national level.

In order to achieve its objective of institutionalising adisaster management ('DM') framework in the state, the GoGhas established a nodal agency, namely the Gujarat StateDisaster Management Authority, to facilitate, coordinate andmonitor disaster management activities and promote gooddisaster management and mitigation practices in the state. Theestablishment of the GSDMA is a key element in the overalldisaster management policy of the State Government. The GoGalso proposes to introduce legislation in the form of a GujaratState Disaster Management Act to provide a legal frameworkfor disaster management in the state.

GoG acknowledges its responsibility to proactively managedisasters. Hence, this policy document articulates GoG's visionand strategy for managing disasters proactively, systematicallyand in a sustainable manner. The document also providesguidelines to various entities involved in disaster managementin the state for discharging their responsibilities more effectively.

PRINCIPLES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENTPRINCIPLES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENTPRINCIPLES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENTPRINCIPLES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENTPRINCIPLES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Principles of Gujarat State Disaster Management PolicyPrinciples of Gujarat State Disaster Management PolicyPrinciples of Gujarat State Disaster Management PolicyPrinciples of Gujarat State Disaster Management PolicyPrinciples of Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy('GSDMP')('GSDMP')('GSDMP')('GSDMP')('GSDMP')

Disaster management is not a separate sector or disciplinebut an approach to solving problems relating to disastersimpacting any sector-agricultural, industrial, environmental,social etc. Ultimately, disaster management is the responsibilityof all sectors, all organisations and all agencies that may be

potentially affected by a disaster. Utilising existing resourcesensures efficiency in resource utilisation and lower costs. Withthis background in mind, GoG has outlined a set of key principlesthat will guide the development and implementation of the DMpolicy in Gujarat. These principles are designed to provideguidance during all phases of disaster management and areconsistent with internationally accepted best practices.

Integrating Disaster Management into DevelopmentIntegrating Disaster Management into DevelopmentIntegrating Disaster Management into DevelopmentIntegrating Disaster Management into DevelopmentIntegrating Disaster Management into DevelopmentPlanningPlanningPlanningPlanningPlanning

The objectives of the DM policy or any sectoral policy shouldsub-serve the overall goals of the state relating to economic andsocial development. Hence, policies on sustainable developmentshould seek to reduce possible losses from disasters, as a matterof course. In other words, disaster prevention and preparednessshould be an integral part of every development policy.Therefore, the state's development strategy shall explicitlyaddress disaster management as an integral part of mediumand long-term planning, especially for disaster prone districtsin the state.

Multi-hazard Approach to DisastersMulti-hazard Approach to DisastersMulti-hazard Approach to DisastersMulti-hazard Approach to DisastersMulti-hazard Approach to Disasters

The GoG recognises that disasters can either be man-made,natural or even arising out of technological causes. Althoughthe preparedness for long-gestation disasters such as droughtsis fairly adequate in the state, the existing DM frameworkneeds to be augmented to meet the needs in the aftermath ofunexpected and large-scale disasters such as cyclone andearthquake. A robust DM policy must therefore provide, planand prepare for all types of hazards and disasters that may bereasonably expected to occur in a region.

Sustainable and Continuous ApproachSustainable and Continuous ApproachSustainable and Continuous ApproachSustainable and Continuous ApproachSustainable and Continuous Approach

One of the objectives of sustainable development is toincrease the inherent strength of all agencies, including thecommunity to deal with disaster situations. Achieving thisobjective requires sustained initiatives encompassing social,economic and infrastructure issues. Further, once capacity isbuilt, it must be sustained and this would be an ongoing and


continuous activity. The Government of Gujarat aims to improveon a continuous and sustainable basis, the infrastructure andprocesses for relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction andinstitutionalise capacity building at all levels within the statein order to be able to mitigate the impact of disasters.

Leverage Existing Government MachineryLeverage Existing Government MachineryLeverage Existing Government MachineryLeverage Existing Government MachineryLeverage Existing Government Machinery

The GoG shall strive to ensure that the long-term approachto disaster management utilises the existing administrativemachinery of the State Government at all levels within thestate in order to undertake communication, capacity creation,relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction, information collectionand dissemination and sharing of disaster management bestpractices. All Government departments, bureaus, corporations,authorities and agencies are encouraged to utilise all availableresources within their respective areas for disaster managementbefore seeking assistance from entities in other areas or higherauthorities. New institutions may be established where theexisting mechanisms are found inadequate.

Effective Inter-agency Co-operation and Co-ordinationEffective Inter-agency Co-operation and Co-ordinationEffective Inter-agency Co-operation and Co-ordinationEffective Inter-agency Co-operation and Co-ordinationEffective Inter-agency Co-operation and Co-ordination

Successful disaster response requires a quick and organisedresponse. The active participation of affected communities,NGOs, private sector and various Government departmentslike Fire Brigade, Police, Health etc. is thus critical to anyresponse activity. Therefore, the DM policy in Gujarat shallfocus on establishing response mechanisms that are quick, co-ordinated and participative.

Capacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity Building

Managing disasters using only a handful of stakeholderswould be inefficient. The Government of Gujarat thereforerecognises that the DM policy will need to strengthen theresilience and capacity of NGOs, private sector and the localcommunity to cope with disasters while simultaneously buildingthe capacity of the Government machinery to manage disasters.Effective disaster management requires that the communityespecially vulnerable groups like women, landless labour etc.be fully aware of the extent of their vulnerability to disastersto reduce its impact, prior to its actual occurrence. Further,

NGOs, private sector and the community must understand andbe familiar with DM principles and practices, what their ownresponsibilities are, how they can help prevent disasters, howthey must react during a disaster and what they can do tosupport themselves and relief workers, when necessary. Trainingis an integral component of capacity building. Development ofDisaster Management as a distinct managerial discipline willbe taken up to create a systematic and streamlined disastermanagement cadre. Gender issues in disaster managementwill be addressed and the empowerment of women towardslong term disaster mitigation will be focused upon.

Autonomy and EquityAutonomy and EquityAutonomy and EquityAutonomy and EquityAutonomy and Equity

Disasters are catastrophic events whose impact is felt acrosssocio-economic boundaries. Consequently, any DM effort shouldbe neutral and non-discriminatory. To that extent, it is necessarythat the DM institutions possess the autonomy to make decisionsin a fair, scientific and systematic manner. Disaster assistanceand relief must also be provided in an equitable and consistentmanner without regard to economic or social status ofbeneficiaries. Relief / assistance must be provided without anydiscrimination of caste, creed, religion, community or sex.

Legal SanctionLegal SanctionLegal SanctionLegal SanctionLegal Sanction

The institutions/ individuals responsible for implementingdisaster-management activities must have the necessary legalsanction and validity with requisite powers for managingemergency situations. This is necessary to ensure that they arerecognised by all stakeholders as the legitimate policy makingand/or implementation authorities. The GoG aims to create alegal framework that incorporates the roles of all relevantinstitutions responsible for managing disasters through theproposed Gujarat State Disaster Management Act, 2002.

Accommodating Aspirations of PeopleAccommodating Aspirations of PeopleAccommodating Aspirations of PeopleAccommodating Aspirations of PeopleAccommodating Aspirations of People

The objective of any effort relating to disaster managementis to benefit the community. People are central to the decision-making process for disaster management and their prioritiesshould be reflected in the programmes undertaken.


Accommodating Local ConditionsAccommodating Local ConditionsAccommodating Local ConditionsAccommodating Local ConditionsAccommodating Local Conditions

Disaster management efforts should be sensitive to localcustoms, beliefs, and practices and be adapted to local conditions.In addition, changes in the community and evolving social andeconomic relationships must be borne in mind to avoidconfrontation and bottlenecks. This will ensure participation ofthe local community and foster a culture of joint responsibilityfor disaster management at all levels.

Financial SustainabilityFinancial SustainabilityFinancial SustainabilityFinancial SustainabilityFinancial Sustainability

GoG is committed to allocating funds in the long term toensure the sustainability of disaster management effort. Oneof the key elements in ensuring the long-term sustenance andpermanency of the organisation is the manner in which fundswould be generated and deployed on an ongoing basis. This isnecessary in view of GoG's focus on disaster mitigation.

Cost Sharing and Cost RecoveryCost Sharing and Cost RecoveryCost Sharing and Cost RecoveryCost Sharing and Cost RecoveryCost Sharing and Cost Recovery

The GoG encourages citizens and Government agencies toproactively enhance their capacity to deal with disasters. It isnot possible for the GoG to bear all the costs of disasters ona sustainable basis, or provide rehabilitation on a long-termbasis. The long-term approach is to move towards spreadingthe risks through various risk transfer mechanisms andincentivising individuals and other entities to protect theirinterests through insurance. However, in doing so, GoG wouldseek to protect the interests of poorer sections of the societythrough appropriate mechanisms.

Develop, Share and Disseminate KnowledgeDevelop, Share and Disseminate KnowledgeDevelop, Share and Disseminate KnowledgeDevelop, Share and Disseminate KnowledgeDevelop, Share and Disseminate Knowledge

No single organisation can claim to possess all thecapabilities required to provide effective disaster management.The disaster management entities within Gujarat will typicallynetwork with a number of other entities to augment theircapabilities. In addition, an institute dedicated to conductingresearch, development and training activities related to disastermanagement, shall be set up in the state. This institute wouldaid in the sharing and dissemination of specialised knowledgerelated to disaster management among various implementation

agencies, NGOs, private sector and the community in the state.Also, basic concepts related to disaster management and therole of the community therein shall be included in the curriculumof schools. This shall serve to sensitise people to the participativeapproach needed for effective disaster management. Informationand knowledge embracing all facets of disaster-from mitigationto amelioration-shall be infused in schools, colleges and teacher'straining syllabi.

APPROACH AND STRATEGYAPPROACH AND STRATEGYAPPROACH AND STRATEGYAPPROACH AND STRATEGYAPPROACH AND STRATEGY

The Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy considersthe understanding of hazards and disasters, their behavior,and the risks they pose to the community as fundamental toachieving successful disaster management. Thus, the strategyfor implementing the GSDMP emphasises an integratedapproach to disaster management, covering the following phasesof managing disasters as essential components of any disastermanagement program:

• Pre-disaster Phase

• Disaster/ Impact Phase

• Post-disaster Phase

In order to carry out the prescribed activities containedwithin this policy, the GoG has defined a framework of operationfor a set of agencies that play a key role in disaster management.The GSDMP envisages a DM framework where the followingentities play significant roles:

• Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority;

• State Relief Commissioner;

• Government Departments;

• District Administration, headed by the District Collector;

• Local Authorities, including Municipal Corporations,District, Talukas, Gram

• Panchayats etc.;

• Voluntary agencies, including NGOs;


• Public sector,

• Private sector;

CommunityCommunityCommunityCommunityCommunity

The implementation framework is based on the premisethat disaster management is not a separate sector or disciplinebut an approach to solving problems that facilitates disastermanagement, harnessing the skills and resources acrossstakeholders. Therefore, a key element of the policy frameworkis to leverage the resources and capability of existing entitiesand build new capabilities, wherever necessary. While for mostactivities, the implementation agencies remain the localauthorities and Government functionaries, at the state level,GSDMA provides the overall direction and guidance that keepsthe focus of various entities on disaster management.

Approach and Strategy for ImplementationApproach and Strategy for ImplementationApproach and Strategy for ImplementationApproach and Strategy for ImplementationApproach and Strategy for Implementation

Pre-Disaster Phase-Prevention, Mitigation &Pre-Disaster Phase-Prevention, Mitigation &Pre-Disaster Phase-Prevention, Mitigation &Pre-Disaster Phase-Prevention, Mitigation &Pre-Disaster Phase-Prevention, Mitigation &PreparednessPreparednessPreparednessPreparednessPreparedness

The pre-disaster phase includes prevention, mitigation, andpreparedness activities. These activities involve extensive datacollection, maintaining directories of resources, developing actionplans, capacity building, training and community awarenessactivities, among others.

Government departments, district administration, localauthorities and other relevant agencies will develop plans forprevention and mitigation of disasters and will build capacityand ensure preparedness in the event of a disaster actuallytaking place. The private sector, NGOs and the communitywould actively co-operate with the relevant agencies and wouldparticipate in training and other activities, conducted to augmenttheir disaster management capabilities.

In this context, GSDMA will act as the nodal agency formitigation, preparedness and capacity creation and wouldfacilitate and monitor the same. GSDMA will develop linkageswith other stakeholders such as lending agencies, Governmentdepartments, local authorities, NGOs, private sector andcommunity groups, national and international agencies in order

to share knowledge and augment capacity on a holistic basis.The capabilities developed in this phase will play a critical rolein all subsequent phases.

Key Activities in Pre-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Pre-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Pre-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Pre-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Pre-Disaster Phase

The following are the primary activities that will be carriedout in this phase:

Planned development: There is a significant relationship inthe way disasters and development affect each other. A long-term disaster management approach requires that planningactivities for development should include robust mitigationpractices. GoG would ensure that the planning activities of thestate administration and local authorities take into accountdisaster risks and provide for suitable preventive and mitigationmeasures.

Development of policies and guidelines: Effective disastermanagement requires the formulation of clear guidelines andsubsequent compliance by all Government authorities, privatesector entities and the public at large. GoG would developappropriate guidelines that would include:

Civil/ architectural/ structural/ land use planningspecifications; Other guidelines specific to disaster type, likequarantine (epidemic), cropping patterns (flood), evacuation(flood/ cyclone) etc.; Development of laws/ by laws that assistthe implementation of a framework for disaster management.

Establishing a proper chain of command: It is imperativethat a clear chain of command is established for effectivelymanaging activities that immediately follow a disaster. TheGoG will establish a clear chain of command with GSDMA asthe nodal agency for all disaster management activities andcoordination mechanisms across all entities responsible forimplementation in the state.

Risk assessment: Before commencing preventive andpreparedness activities, it is important to identify and assessdifferent types of risks for the state or parts of the state.Relevant departments would co-ordinate with GSDMA for athorough assessment of:


Hazards: Classification of the region into zones based onhazard potential; and Vulnerability: Assessment of degree ofvulnerability of any given structure/ people / region to theimpact of the hazard.

The assessment will be used for developing detailedcontingency plans and mitigation measures.

Develop disaster management plans: Detailed disastermanagement plans that are tailored to local needs would enablethe relevant authorities and the community to respondsystematically and effectively to disasters. The guidelines forsuch plans will be prepared by stakeholders like Governmentdepartments, district administration, local authorities andexpert agencies etc., in consultation with GSDMA. The relevantauthorities will prepare plans using these guidelines and ensurethat these are constantly reviewed and updated. Existingprocedure manuals viz. Relief Manuals and Flood Memorandumetc. would be reviewed and updated by the relevant Governmentdepartment, under the overall guidance of the Authority. Inaddition, GSDMA and the relevant Government departmentswill prepare, and constantly update, a master contingency planfor the state based on the local plans. All District Collectorsshall, in advance, designate evacuation areas for use inemergencies and define plans for providing essential servicesto those areas, when in use.

Develop repositories of information: It is critical that therelevant authorities should be in a position to quickly establishcontact with people and resources in the aftermath of a disaster.GSDMA and the relevant Government departments will ensurethat a comprehensive repository of information such as names,contact details, etc. is created, maintained and made easilyaccessible to the relevant authorities at all times.

Establish communication and technology networks: A robuststate-wide information network is critical not only for managingdisasters but also for effective functioning of the stategovernment. Hence, the GoG will ensure that a comprehensiveinformation network is available. This network must enabletimely collection of hazard-related information and rapid

dissemination of relevant information and warnings. GoG, inconjunction with GSDMA, will ensure that appropriate levelsof redundancies are built into the network from a disasterperspective.

Developing early warning mechanisms: Early warningmechanisms help the relevant authorities in taking timelypreventive measures and thereby, reduce the damage causedby disasters. Wherever possible, the relevant authorities, inconjunction with Government departments, shall set up earlywarning mechanisms to give advance warning for hazards likecyclones, floods etc. This shall include the setting up of RegionalResponse Centres, if necessary, for providing key early warninginformation and preparing for a response, in the event ofoccurrence of disaster. GSDMA shall ensure that thesemechanisms are aligned with the overall disaster managementplan for the state.

Establish flexible procedures: Emergency situations maywarrant simplified procedures for decisions relating toevacuation, procurement of essentials, deployment of resourcesand such other activities. The relevant Government departmentsshall accordingly define flexible procedures for emergencysituations. Building capabilities & expertise: It is necessary tobuild strong capabilities and expertise for handling variousaspects of disasters. GSDMA shall network with a number ofentities such as disaster management agencies, researchinstitutions, disaster management specialists, NGOs,community groups, line departments, local Governmentauthorities and other stakeholders to augment the capabilitiesof all relevant entities.

In addition, GoG would set up an institute dedicated toconducting research, development and training activities relatedto disaster management in the state. This institute would aidin the sharing and dissemination of specialised knowledgerelated to disaster management among various implementationagencies, NGOs, private sector and the community in the state.This institute will develop disaster management as a distinctmanagement discipline for streamlined disaster managementcadre.


Capacity Building: Capacity Building: Capacity Building: Capacity Building: Capacity Building: The capacity of a community towithstand disasters is a function of :

• awareness of the risks associated with disasters;

• understanding of appropriate responses to disasters;

• possessing the capacity to respond (training, research,availability of resources, skilled cadres);

• setting up emergency response mechanisms that mobiliseand deploy these trained resources in a quick, efficientand systematic manner.

Hence, GSDMA and the relevant authorities shall ensurethat the required awareness, resources and training are providedto the community. The community will also be urged to developself-reliance by promoting and encouraging the spirit of self-help and mutual assistance. GSDMA shall support theseinitiatives by providing necessary resources and expertise fromtime to time. Also, basic concepts related to disaster managementand the role of the community therein shall be included in thecurriculum of schools.

This shall serve to sensitise people to the participativeapproach needed for effective disaster management. GSDMAand the relevant Government departments shall ensure thatpersonnel in specialised areas (medical care, rescue etc.) areadequately trained and available for deployment in emergencysituations. Disaster management capacity building will havespecial thrust on empowering women towards long-term disastermitigation

Health and medical care: Health and medical care is oneof the most critical and immediate response component in anydisaster response situation. The capacity for providing medicalassistance in disaster situation including the emergencyresponse quality will be developed through trained personneland appropriate infrastructure. Knowledge management: Theexperience from previous disaster situations can providevaluable insights in managing disasters.

It is vital that these learnings be captured in a systematicmanner and utilised through knowledge management systems,

feedback mechanisms etc. GSDMA and relevant authoritiesshall develop systems and processes that enable knowledgemanagement by capturing, storing and effectively utilisinginformation related to previous experience in disastermanagement.

Information and knowledge embracing all facets of disastersfrom prevention to amelioration shall be disseminated in schoolsand colleges.

Funds generation: Disasters can cause extensive strain onfinancial resources because of relief, reconstruction andrehabilitation activities.

In addition, activities relating to mitigation of andpreparedness for disaster situations require funds. GoG intendsto have a budgetary allocation for disaster management.Further, funds would be made available through the CalamityRelief Fund. In addition, GSDMA, as nodal agency, would alsoidentify alternative sources of funds for activities related todisaster management in the state.

Identifying avenues for risk sharing and transfer: Risksharing or risk transfer is a means of transferring a part of thedisaster risk to a third party, which is willing to indemnify thebeneficiary against the disaster for a specified premium. GoGwould explore innovative means of sharing the costs associatedwith disasters through risk sharing, risk transfer and othermeasures since this would alleviate the burden on the stateexchequer.

This could be done through tax surcharge levies, impositionof local taxes, beneficiary funding, disaster insurance, microfinance and loans, bonds, tax saving schemes linked to disasterrelief investments etc.

Pre-disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPre-disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPre-disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPre-disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPre-disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant Agencies

The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority :The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority :The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority :The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority :The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority :The Authority, in close co-ordination and with assistance ofrelevant Government departments would:

• Develop, maintain and update the Gujarat State DisasterManagement Policy;


• Develop risk assessment programme and emergencyplans that focus on disaster preparedness and mitigation;

• Establish an effective disaster management structurethat can compile, implement and monitor plans, as perthe state policy;

• Incorporate disaster reduction, prevention andmitigation in socio-economic development planning;

• Give recognition to and ensure that districtadministration and local authorities are able to enforcesafety standards and rules, and strengthen theirinstitutional capacity to deal with disasters andimplement disaster management plans;

• Streamline the development, implementation andmaintenance of contingency plans, and ensure thatlifeline support systems are in place or enhanced;

• Enhance the existing capacity to limit damage byimproving surveillance and early warning systems;

• Facilitate in establishment of an enabling legislativeand financial framework for disaster management, withdue attention to the role of the different tiers ofGovernment, the private sector and individuals;

• Develop and implement educational and informationprogrammes to raise public awareness with specialemphasis on risk reduction and preparation;

• Stimulate the active involvement of the community,local groups, women, and disabled people in disastermanagement programmes with a view to facilitatingthe capacity of the community to deal with disasters;

• Promote and support research, development of newtechnologies and the use of local knowledge in measuresthat are aimed at supporting risk reduction and relateto disaster management activities;

• Ensure that regional and international experience,knowledge and resources are made available to supportefforts in risk reduction and disaster management inthe state.

Government DepartmentsGovernment DepartmentsGovernment DepartmentsGovernment DepartmentsGovernment Departments

Government departments must ensure adequate assistanceto GSDMA, the district administration and local authorities foractivities in this phase. These departments should ensure theiractive co-operation in setting up communication centers, drawingup contingency plans, assisting in capacity building, developingplans, gathering data, and identifying and training appropriatepersonnel, under the overall direction of GSDMA.

District CollectorsDistrict CollectorsDistrict CollectorsDistrict CollectorsDistrict Collectors

The DC plays a co-ordinating role at the district level toensure that the various Government functionaries in the districteffectively carry out the DM activities in this phase. Workingin close co-operation with Government departments and localbodies, the roles of DCs in this phase include:

• Ensuring that prevention, mitigation and preparednessactivities are carried out in accordance with theappropriate guidelines;

• Providing inputs to GSDMA relating to various aspectsof disaster management, including early warnings, statusof preparedness etc.

• Ensuring that relevant officials in the district possessthe knowledge to deal with disaster management issues;

• Developing an appropriate relief implementationstrategy for the district, taking into account the uniquecircumstances of the district and prevailing gaps ininstitutional capacity and resources of the district;

• Facilitating and co-ordinating with local Governmentbodies to ensure that pre-disaster DM activities in thedistrict are carried out optimally;

• Facilitating community training, awareness programmesand the installation of emergency facilities with thesupport of local administration, NGOs, and the privatesector;

• Establishing adequate inter-department coordinationon issues related to disaster management;


• Reviewing emergency plans and guidelines;

• Involving the community in the planning anddevelopment process;

• Ensuring that local authorities, including MunicipalCorporations, Gram Panchayats etc. in the district, areinvolved in developing their own mitigation strategies;

• Ensuring appropriate linkage between DM activitiesand planning activities;

• Revisiting/ reassessing contingency plans related todisaster management;

• Ensuring that proper communications systems are inplace, and contingency plans maximize the involvementof local agencies;

• Ensuring that DM related equipment, especially fire-fighting equipment are well-maintained and ready touse.

Local AuthoritiesLocal AuthoritiesLocal AuthoritiesLocal AuthoritiesLocal Authorities

Local authorities should work in close co-ordination withand provide all assistance to relevant Government departments,under the overall guidance of DC or GSDMA. They shouldensure that staff is adequately trained and all necessaryresources are in a ready-to-use state. They would also beresponsible for ensuring compliance to all specifications, asmay be stipulated by Government departments or GSDMA, forstructures under their jurisdiction.

Private SectorPrivate SectorPrivate SectorPrivate SectorPrivate Sector

The private sector should ensure their active participationin the pre-disaster activities in alignment with the overall plandeveloped by the GSDMA or the DC. They should also adhereto the relevant building codes and other specifications, as maybe stipulated by relevant local authorities.

Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies: Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies: Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies: Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies: Community Groups and Voluntary Agencies: Localcommunity groups and voluntary agencies including NGOsshould actively assist in prevention and mitigation activities

under the overall direction and supervision of the GSDMA orthe DC. They should actively participate in all training activitiesas may be organised and should familiarise themselves withtheir role in disaster management.

Impact Phase-Emergency Relief Measures and ReliefImpact Phase-Emergency Relief Measures and ReliefImpact Phase-Emergency Relief Measures and ReliefImpact Phase-Emergency Relief Measures and ReliefImpact Phase-Emergency Relief Measures and Relief

This phase includes all measures that are taken immediatelyin the aftermath of a disaster. The speed and efficiency of theresponse in this phase will crucially determine the loss to lifeand property. The ability of the state to respond to a disasterwill be developed during the pre-disaster phase and thecapabilities and institutions developed therein will be broughtinto play in this phase. Equally important will be the deploymentof trained personnel, proper flow of information and speed ofdecision making.

The Revenue Department, in conjunction with other relevantGovernment departments would carry out activities in thisphase. GSDMA will facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor theactivities in this phase, wherever required. In case GSDMAbelieves that adequate relief is not being provided, it will beentitled to direct the SRC or the DC in taking requisite measures.The district administration headed by the DC, in conjunctionwith local authorities, shall be responsible for carrying outrelief activities when the impact of a disaster is restrictedwithin the geographical boundaries of a district. The SRC shallcoordinate and support relief activities of districtadministrations, where a disaster has affected more than onedistrict. Recognizing the importance of a clear chain of commandin emergencies, the GoG will provide the SRC and DCs specialpowers to coordinate the activities of all Government authoritieswithin their jurisdiction.

Key Activities in Impact PhaseKey Activities in Impact PhaseKey Activities in Impact PhaseKey Activities in Impact PhaseKey Activities in Impact Phase

The following are the primary activities that need to becarried out as part of emergency relief measures and in therelief phase to implement the policy guidelines:

Search & Rescue: Search & Rescue: Search & Rescue: Search & Rescue: Search & Rescue: The first priority in the aftermath ofa disaster is to minimise loss of lives by undertaking rescue


efforts for the affected people and providing medical treatment.People who are trapped under destroyed buildings or are isolateddue to floods or cyclones need immediate assistance. The DistrictCollector, in conjunction with local authorities will be responsiblefor the search and rescue operations in an affected region. Indoing so, the DC will be guided by relevant disaster managementplans and will be supported by Government departments andlocal authorities.

Subsistence, shelter, health and sanitation: Disasters candisrupt food supply, water supply and sanitation mechanisms.They may also force people to abandon their houses, eithertemporarily or permanently. Such situations typically result inan immediate need for shelter and protection against anincidence of epidemic. The relevant Government departmentsand local authorities would provide temporary shelter, healthand sanitation services to rescued victims in order to preventan outbreak of disease.

Infrastructure and Essential Services: Infrastructure and Essential Services: Infrastructure and Essential Services: Infrastructure and Essential Services: Infrastructure and Essential Services: Disasters cancripple the infrastructure of the state in terms of roads, publicbuildings, airfields, ports, communication network etc. Animmediate priority after a disaster is to bring the basicinfrastructure into operating condition and deal with fires andother hazardous conditions that may exist in the aftermath ofthe disaster. The local authorities would work in close co-ordination with relevant Government departments like R&B,Police etc. to restore infrastructure to normal operatingcondition.

Security: Security: Security: Security: Security: Usually, in a disaster situation, the police andsecurity personnel are preoccupied with conducting search andrescue missions.

Some people could take advantage of the situation andresort to looting and other anti-social activities. Consequently,it is necessary that security agencies functioning under theadministrative control of the district authorities be geared toprevent this and provide a sense of security to citizens. SRCand DCs may invoke special powers vested in him/ her by GoG,if existing powers regarding the same are inadequate.

Communication: Communication: Communication: Communication: Communication: The SRC, the district administrationand local authorities would communicate to the largercommunity the impact of the disaster and specific activitiesthat are being or need to be undertaken to minimize the impact.Some of these activities could include:

Media Management/ PR: Media Management/ PR: Media Management/ PR: Media Management/ PR: Media Management/ PR: To ensure precisecommunication of the impact of disaster and relief measuresbeing taken and generate goodwill among community and otherstakeholders;

Community Management: Community Management: Community Management: Community Management: Community Management: This includes communicatingto the affected communities with a view to preventing panicreactions, while providing relevant information and handlingwelfare enquiries;

Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Using various mechanisms,including the communication network to get feedback on reliefmeasures and urgent needs of various agencies involved inemergency relief measures and relief.

Preliminary Damage Assessment: Preliminary Damage Assessment: Preliminary Damage Assessment: Preliminary Damage Assessment: Preliminary Damage Assessment: In the aftermath ofa disaster, the district administration and local authoritiesreceive simultaneous requests for assistance from scores ofpeople and the resources at the disposal of the localadministration are over-stretched. Hence, it is necessary toutilize and deploy the resources in the most efficient manner.Such deployment is not possible without undertaking apreliminary damage assessment. Once a disaster strikes, theGovernment departments and the local authorities shall carryout a preliminary 'need and loss assessment'and the districtadministration shall mobilize resources accordingly.

Funds Generation: Funds Generation: Funds Generation: Funds Generation: Funds Generation: The GoG allocates funds in the stateBudget for relief activities. In addition, funds may be availablethrough the Calamity Relief Fund. However, these funds maynot be adequate to meet disaster management requirements inthe aftermath of large-scale disasters like the January 2001earthquake in the state. In such circumstances, the GoG shallexplore additional sources of funding through aid, grants, loansetc., as identified in the pre-disaster phase.


Finalizing Relief Payouts and Packages: Finalizing Relief Payouts and Packages: Finalizing Relief Payouts and Packages: Finalizing Relief Payouts and Packages: Finalizing Relief Payouts and Packages: Reliefpackages shall be customized, if required, to the specifics of thedisaster by the GoG. Relief packages would include detailsrelating to collection, allocation and disbursal of funds to theaffected people. Relief would be provided all the affected familieswithout any discrimination of caste, creed, religion, communityor sex whatsoever.

Post-relief Assessment: Post-relief Assessment: Post-relief Assessment: Post-relief Assessment: Post-relief Assessment: GSDMA, with assistance fromGovernment departments, district administration and localauthorities will document learning from the relief experience,which can be inputs into further mitigation, relief orrehabilitation and reconstruction plans.

Impact Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesImpact Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesImpact Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesImpact Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesImpact Phase-Roles of Relevant Agencies

Emergency relief measures and relief in the immediateaftermath of a disaster is primarily carried out under thesupervision of the Revenue Department. As far as possible, therelevant Government departments and district administrationshall carry out their functions in accordance with the appropriateaction plan developed under the guidance of GSDMA.

The Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority

The Authority shall develop policies and principles thatguide and govern the emergency relief measures and relief inthis phase. The Authority would also facilitate, co-ordinateand monitor emergency relief measures and relief being carriedout by relevant agencies, if required, in this phase, GSDMAwould:

• Recommend provision of additional powers to theimplementation agencies to co-ordinate and handleemergency relief measures and relief, if existing powersare inadequate;

• Facilitate, co-ordinate and monitor emergency reliefmeasures and relief efforts of implementation agencies;

• Co-ordinate with agencies of other states and othernational and international agencies, if necessary, toaugment the relief being provided;

• Ensure effective implementation of policy guidelines byproviding guidance to implementing agencies from timeto time.

The State Relief CommissionerThe State Relief CommissionerThe State Relief CommissionerThe State Relief CommissionerThe State Relief Commissioner

The SRC plays a direct and active role in relief. For adisaster that impacts more than one district in the state, theSRC leads the relief efforts using the appropriate action plan.The SRC, either directly or through the respective DistrictCollectors, co-ordinates and monitors the relief efforts using allthe resources available with the State Government. In thisphase, the SRC would:

• Recommend to the State Government when disasterneeds to be declared;

• Supervise and undertake relief, if necessary, wheredisaster is declared;

• Support the DC in carrying out emergency reliefmeasures in respective districts.

Government DepartmentsGovernment DepartmentsGovernment DepartmentsGovernment DepartmentsGovernment Departments

Functionaries of various Government departments will carryout relief operations as per disaster management plansdeveloped, under the overall supervision of the SRC and theDCs. The respective district heads from the various Governmentdepartments shall report to the District Collector for theactivities in this phase.


In this phase, the DC is responsible for all activities relatedto disaster management for his/ her district, including thefollowing:

• Recommend to the State Government, declaration ofdisaster;

• Undertake and supervise emergency relief measuresand relief operations in the district, with assistance ofother relevant Government departments, localauthorities, voluntary agencies, community groups etc.;


• Assess need for additional resources and coordinatewith the SRC and GSDMA for accessing statewideresources, if required.

Local AuthoritiesLocal AuthoritiesLocal AuthoritiesLocal AuthoritiesLocal Authorities

Local Authorities, including Municipal Corporations,Municipalities, District, Taluka, and Gram Panchayats etc.would follow appropriate guidelines and procedures inundertaking emergency relief measures and relief activities,under the overall supervision and direction of the SRC or theDC.


The private sector would participate in the emergency reliefmeasures and relief activities under the overall supervisionand direction of the SRC or the DC. Based on the training andother capacity-building inputs received from GSDMA and otherauthorities, they should be able to mobilise resourcesimmediately and commence emergency relief measures andrelief at the earliest, if required. They should also activelyprovide relevant information regarding magnitude of effect ofdisaster, need for additional resources etc. They should also co-operate with relevant authorities in the conduct of a preliminarydamage assessment etc.

Community Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary Agencies

Local community and voluntary agencies including NGOsare usually the first-responders in the aftermath of a disaster.The community and voluntary agencies should undertake rescueand relief measures immediately, to the extent possible ontheir own, before the district or the state administration steps-in. After the intervention of the district or state administrationthey should continue the works of rescue and relief under theoverall direction and supervision of the SRC or the DC. Theyshould work in close coordination with DC/SRC to avoidduplication and ensure equity. They should take a pro-activerole in assisting the victims of disaster and should provideinputs to relevant authorities as to the magnitude of effect ofdisaster, need for additional resources etc. They should also co-

operate with relevant authorities in the conduct of a preliminarydamage assessment etc.

Post-Disaster Phase-Reconstruction & RehabilitationPost-Disaster Phase-Reconstruction & RehabilitationPost-Disaster Phase-Reconstruction & RehabilitationPost-Disaster Phase-Reconstruction & RehabilitationPost-Disaster Phase-Reconstruction & Rehabilitation

The thrust of Government policy in this phase will be toensure a speedy return to normalcy and mitigation of long-termconsequences of the disaster. The policy objective of theGovernment in this phase will be to focus on economic andsocial consequences of the disaster and directing efforts toimprove the same. The policy objectives will be carried outthrough the machinery of the state as well as with the aid ofother stakeholders with whom long-term relationships havebeen developed in the pre-disaster phase.

Key Activities in Post-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Post-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Post-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Post-Disaster PhaseKey Activities in Post-Disaster Phase

The following activities would be carried out in this phase toachieve policy objectives:

• Detailed Damage Assessment: While a preliminarydamage assessment is carried out during the impactphase, a detailed assessment must be conducted beforecommencing reconstruction and rehabilitation activities.The relevant Government departments and localauthorities shall initiate detailed assessment at theirrespective level for damages sustained in housing,industry/ services, infrastructure, agriculture, health/education assets in the affected regions.

• Assistance to Restore Houses and Dwelling Units: GoGmay, if needed, will formulate a policy of assistance tohelp the affected to restore damaged houses anddwellings. This should neither be treated ascompensation for damage nor as an automaticentitlement.

• Relocation (need based): The GoG believes that need-based considerations and not extraneous factors driverelocation of people. The local authorities, in consultationwith the people affected and under the guidance ofGSDMA, shall determine relocation needs taking intoaccount criteria relevant to the nature of the calamity


and the extent of damage. Relocation efforts will includeactivities like:

• Gaining consent of the affected population;

• Land acquisition;

• Urban/ rural land use planning;

• Customizing relocation packages;

• Obtaining due legal clearances for relocation;

• Getting the necessary authorization for rehabilitation;

• Livelihood rehabilitation measures for relocatedcommunities, wherever necessary.

Finalizing Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Plan: Finalizing Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Plan: Finalizing Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Plan: Finalizing Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Plan: Finalizing Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Plan: Theeffectiveness of any reconstruction and rehabilitation is basedon detailed planning and careful monitoring of the relevantprojects. GSDMA will oversee reconstruction and rehabilitationwork and ensure that it takes into account the overalldevelopment plans for the state.

GSDMA will approve reconstruction and rehabilitationprojects based on:

• Identification of suitable projects by relevantdepartments;

• Project detailing and approval by the relevant technicalauthority.

Funds generation: Reconstruction & rehabilitation projectsare fairly resource intensive. These projects have been financedin the past primarily through the state exchequer. In the recentpast, funds have also been raised from international agencies.GoG shall finalise the fund generation mechanism, includingthe covenants and measures that govern fund inflow anddisbursement and usage. This includes:

• Estimation of funds required based on detailed damageassessment reports and consolidation of the same undersectoral and regional heads;

• Contracting with funding agencies and evolving detailed

operating procedures for fund flow and correspondingcovenants.

Funds disbursement and audit: The funds raised fromfunding agencies are usually accompanied by stringentdisbursement and usage restrictions. It is therefore importantto monitor the disbursement of such funds to ensure that noneof the covenants are breached. GSDMA, in conjunction withrelevant agencies, shall monitor disbursal of funds by:

• Prioritizing resource allocation across approved projects;

• Establishing mechanisms (like a chain of banks,collection centres, nature of accounts, spread etc) forcollection of funds;

• Ongoing monitoring and control of fund usagethroughout actual project implementation.

Project Management: Project Management: Project Management: Project Management: Project Management: Since rehabilitation andreconstruction effort typically involves the co-ordinated effortsof several entities, the GoG shall encourage the respectiveentities to strengthen program management capabilities toensure that synergies across and within entities are managedefficiently. In addition, it is also necessary to constantly monitorthe activity to ensure that the project is executed on time, inaccordance with the technical specifications and to thesatisfaction of the beneficiaries. GSDMA, in conjunction withrelevant Government departments, will monitor thereconstruction activity that is carried out by variousimplementation agencies. Typical implementation activitieswould include:

• Disaster proofing and retrofitting of houses;

• Creation/ Retrofitting of structures-including roads,bridges, dams, canals etc that may have been destroyed/damaged due to the disaster;

• Restoration of basic infrastructure facilities, for example,ports, airports, power stations etc.;

• Creation of health centres, first aid centres, hospitals,groups of doctors and surgeons etc.;


• Restoration of the industrial viability of the affectedarea.;

• Restoration of livelihood.

Communication: Communication: Communication: Communication: Communication: Communication activities are necessaryto convey to the larger community the scope and nature of theproposed reconstruction and rehabilitation effort so as toincrease the stakeholder awareness and buy-in for the ongoingactivities. Hence, GSDMA and relevant Governmentdepartments, district administration and local authorities shallundertake:

Ongoing Media Management/ Public Relations: Ongoing Media Management/ Public Relations: Ongoing Media Management/ Public Relations: Ongoing Media Management/ Public Relations: Ongoing Media Management/ Public Relations: Toensure accurate communication of the reconstruction andrehabilitation measures being taken to various stakeholders;

Community Management: Community Management: Community Management: Community Management: Community Management: This includes communicatingto the affected communities with a view to appraising them ofefforts being made for their relocation/ rehabilitation/reconstruction;

Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback Mechanisms: Using the communicationnetwork to get feedback on reconstruction and rehabilitationmeasures.

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: GSDMA, inconjunction with relevant agencies, shall institutionalizemechanisms to address beneficiary grievances at various levels,as well as explore innovative ways of dispute minimisation likeinvolving the community in reconstruction initiatives.Appropriate mechanism with penalties for dealing with falseclaims will be evolved to prevent misuse of assistance.

Implementing Initiatives for Recovery ofImplementing Initiatives for Recovery ofImplementing Initiatives for Recovery ofImplementing Initiatives for Recovery ofImplementing Initiatives for Recovery ofReconstruction Costs: Reconstruction Costs: Reconstruction Costs: Reconstruction Costs: Reconstruction Costs: The GoG shall finalise and implementselect recovery measures such as:

• Imposing tax surcharge levies (central);

• Imposing local taxes;

• Facilitation of funding responsibility sharing bybeneficiaries etc.

Post-Disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPost-Disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPost-Disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPost-Disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant AgenciesPost-Disaster Phase-Roles of Relevant Agencies

The post-disaster phase will mainly comprise reconstructionand rehabilitation activities. Currently, the activities in thisphase are primarily carried out by the local bodies (GramPanchayats, District, Taluka, Municipal Corporations,Municipalities etc.) and various Government departments andboards. However, their activities in this phase shall be inaccordance with the reconstruction and rehabilitation plansframed by GSDMA, in conjunction with implementingauthorities.

The Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management AuthorityThe Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority

The Authority shall through the line departments / localbodies conduct a detailed assessment of damage, formulateestimates of financial support required and raising the requiredfunds from various Governments, national and internationalfunding agencies etc. The Authority would be responsible forthe deployment of funds, as per identified priorities. TheAuthority would facilitate, co-ordinate and monitorreconstruction and rehabilitation efforts of various Governmentdepartments and other implementation agencies in terms ofproject timelines, processes, funds deployment and benefitsaccruing to the affected community. As part of the same, theAuthority would also be responsible for meeting the guidelinesand providing feedback on various parameters related to theprogress and outcome of the reconstruction and rehabilitationefforts to the various funding agencies and other stakeholders.

Government departments and Local AuthoritiesGovernment departments and Local AuthoritiesGovernment departments and Local AuthoritiesGovernment departments and Local AuthoritiesGovernment departments and Local Authorities

Government departments and local authorities will conductdetailed damage assessment and will carry out thereconstruction and rehabilitation activities, in accordance withthe policies and guidelines specified by the Authority. Theywould also be responsible for reporting various parameters, asmay be required by GSDMA, related to the progress and outcomeof the various projects undertaken by them.


The DC plays a co-ordinating role at the district level to

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ensure that the various Government departments effectivelycarry out the rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in thisphase. The primary responsibilities of the DC in this phase are:

Coordinating the reconstruction and rehabilitation effortsin the district or a part of the district;

Assisting GSDMA in monitoring the progress and outcomeof reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts on the basis of themechanisms established by GSDMA.


The private sector should provide fair estimates of damageassessment to relevant authorities and provide feedback interms of their priorities and concerns for work related torehabilitation and reconstruction. They should participate inthe post-disaster activities, in co-ordination with GSDMA orthe DC and in alignment with the overall policies and guidelinesdeveloped by the Authority. They should co-operate in providingfeedback regarding progress and outcome of rehabilitation andreconstruction projects undertaken in their vicinity.

Community Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary AgenciesCommunity Groups and Voluntary Agencies

Community groups and voluntary agencies, including NGOsshould provide fair estimates of damage assessment to relevantauthorities and provide feedback in terms of their prioritiesand concerns for work related to rehabilitation andreconstruction. They should participate in the post-disasteractivities, in co-ordination with GSDMA or the DC and inalignment with the overall policies and guidelines developedby the Authority. They should co-operate in providing feedbackregarding progress and outcome of rehabilitation andreconstruction projects undertaken in their vicinity.

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NNNNNORTONORTONORTONORTONORTON S S S S SCHOOLCHOOLCHOOLCHOOLCHOOL OFOFOFOFOF F F F F FAMILYAMILYAMILYAMILYAMILY ANDANDANDANDAND

CCCCCONSUMERONSUMERONSUMERONSUMERONSUMER S S S S SCIENCESCIENCESCIENCESCIENCESCIENCES

Good family communication is necessary to effective-ly worktogether to prevent or respond to crises. This fact sheet offersways of developing communication skills that help families notonly to survive crises, but also to improve their daily lives. Itprovides helpful ways to think about communication, explainswhy family communication is sometimes difficult, and showshow family members of all ages can increase their well-beingthrough family meetings by applying simple rules for goodcommunication.

We talk and write to friends, co-workers and fam-ilymembers all the time. But special attention needs to be paidto communication during times of family change or communitydisaster. If it's easier to com-municate respectfully and clearlywith people you hardly know than with your own familymembers, or if communicating under stress feels overwhelming,or even if you feel your family communicates well already, thisfact sheet may be of interest.

It can indeed be hard to communicate calmly with thepeople who share our roof and responsibilities and in whom wehave invested a great deal of ourselves. Adding to the difficultiesof family communication are the strong emotions that relyingon each other brings. Even within the same family, the definitionof good or clear communication may differ for family membersof different generations, cultures, ages, or gender. Furthermore,in a crisis or disaster we may not feel sure of ourselves andhow or if we should share our feelings (e.g., fear, anger, sorrow)

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and thoughts (e.g. of blame, hope, problem-solving). This factsheet can help you improve your existing communication skillsand gain new ones to weather normal family changes andcrises.

COMMUNICATION SKILLSCOMMUNICATION SKILLSCOMMUNICATION SKILLSCOMMUNICATION SKILLSCOMMUNICATION SKILLS

Both listening and speaking are necessary to success-fullycommunicate. Listening gives you valuable in-formation aboutyour family. The information your loved ones share should notbe ignored, even if you dislike what or how it is said. At times,a family mem-ber in crisis may pull away from you. Part of goodcommunication is the ability to accept temporary withdrawalor silence, as even this silence can be in-formative to you andhelpful to your family member. Likewise, speaking up andclearly stating what you feel and think is an important partof coping with your family's immediate needs in daily life andin a crisis. Communication also keeps us connected to familyand community. Being connected helps ground us in realityand reduces the stress we feel due to crises and daily hassles.

ENCOURAGING FAMILY COMMUNICATION AFTER AENCOURAGING FAMILY COMMUNICATION AFTER AENCOURAGING FAMILY COMMUNICATION AFTER AENCOURAGING FAMILY COMMUNICATION AFTER AENCOURAGING FAMILY COMMUNICATION AFTER ADISASTERDISASTERDISASTERDISASTERDISASTER

Crisis Planning and Prevention Require CommunicationCrisis Planning and Prevention Require CommunicationCrisis Planning and Prevention Require CommunicationCrisis Planning and Prevention Require CommunicationCrisis Planning and Prevention Require Communication

Crises come in all shapes and sizes. Communication skills,planning, and practice in dealing with smaller crises can helpfamilies cope with larger problems. The following are examplesof crises and the commu-nication issues they may raise:

• War and terrorism may require rapid and plannedemergency responses. They may also result in difficultdiscussions with children or family disagreement onpolitical issues.

• Major illness is often unexpected, but requiressubstantial ongoing planning, and the sharing ofemotions and concerns after the initial shock of theillness or disability.

• The impact of job loss can be prepared for througheducation and savings, but these preparations may bring

on their own family crises about how to handle familyduties and income.

• Natural disasters may bring neighbors and communityresources to us, but these supports may leave before wehave experienced a full recovery from our loss.

• Family changes (separation, death, adoption or itsdisruption, loss of a pregnancy) may or may not bringfriends closer to us. In such cases, families may chooseto be more private than usual in their communications.These events put as much or more stress on a familythan events such as hurricanes, which are seen as beyondany human's fault or control.

• The developmental transitions of both children andadults can be disruptive.

For example, adjustment is required when children enteradolescence or when adults enter retirement age. Thesenormal changes are also often seen as family crises dueto the conflicts they may create.

While all families experience these changes, we mayfeel alone as we go through them. Such changes demandour best communication skills. Often these "normal"crises bring critical comments from well-meaning friends,relatives and even from ourselves. Clear and opencommunication helps teens, elders and adults weatherthe normal changes that shape and reshape families.

• Family violence and substance abuse can disrupt anyfamily. Frank discussion, willingness to seek help, andspeaking up and listening to others without judgingthem are essential to responding to these commonproblems. Communication without judging allows othersto be open and seek our help. Don't wait until a crisisbefore learning and sharing what communication stylesand tools work for you and your family. In preparingfamilies for change or crisis, it is best to practicecommunication skills. One way to develop skills forgood communication is to have regular family meetings.

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FAMILY MEETINGSFAMILY MEETINGSFAMILY MEETINGSFAMILY MEETINGSFAMILY MEETINGS

Family meetings are a simple but very useful way to helpfamilies deal with their concerns. In these meet-ings work ongoals and problems alike, but begin with issues you know willgo smoothly as you work out the how-to's of your communication(e.g. time and place; show respect even when you disagree). Bymeeting regularly, you will get used to sharing feel-ings, reachingout for support, writing down plans, and coming to consensus(waiting to act until every-body agrees). Most experts andfamilies agree that practicing communication takes time andmay even feel a little awkward or "fake" at first, but it will feelmore natural and the time will feel well spent as your skillsimprove. Simple planning and ground-rules make familymeetings a success:

o Begin your first family meetings with items dealingwith fun or praise. First make them fun; then deal withbusiness. Organize the meeting so that it is not too long.Lengthy meetings may get boring. Let everyone speak.Take turns playing the roles of focus-keeper, note-takerand time-watcher.

o Family meetings during or after a crisis work best ifthey have been a family routine. Develop a traditionthat starts and ends the meeting-traditions anchor usin storms of crisis.

o Use consensus-base a final decision on what everyonehas agreed to or can live with.

o Make sure every family member feels welcome to attendthe meetings but does not feel forced to attend.

o Use "I"-sentences (speak from your own heart) and avoidplacing blame; take a break when tempers flare.

o Keep to one topic at a time. Summarize the discussion.

o End each meeting with something fun or affectionate.

Skills developed in family meetings will help your familycope with disaster and normal family changes. In daily life,family meetings are a great place to set new family rules and

share feelings and concerns. In a crisis, skills developed inregular family meetings will help us feel connected to eachother and to real-ity, and will help us communicate.

COMMUNICATION IN A CRISISCOMMUNICATION IN A CRISISCOMMUNICATION IN A CRISISCOMMUNICATION IN A CRISISCOMMUNICATION IN A CRISIS

When we are in a crisis, we are bound to feel stressed. Thefollowing strategies have been shown to help in-dividualscommunicate more effectively when they are under stress:

o Learn your stress signals and those of your familymembers. Stress signals are the warning lights of angerand "shut down". They include such non-verbal cues asfeeling hot, looking away, etc.

o Be honest, but say what you need to with care, tact, andcourtesy while remaining focused on the issue at hand.

o Think through your problem before you speak; get allthe facts.

o Listen, take turns, lead when necessary, and hearwithout interrupting or criticizing.

o Check your interpretations of what others are tellingyou. Don't assume anything. Using these tips will helpeach person in your family to communicate what helphe or she needs and can offer to others.

ChildrenChildrenChildrenChildrenChildren

Crises may affect each member of a family differ-ently.Each person's resources (e.g., communication skills, knowledge,money, experience, friends, faith) and roles (parent, child, elder,spouse, partner) play a part in how they will respond andcommunicate to others in the family and community. Childrenoften make good problem solvers and rise to the occasion,although they need to be kept informed and support-ed withclear and caring communication. These tips have been foundto be especially helpful to children (and work with most adultsas well):

o Involve children in family meetings based on their ageand ability to understand.

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o Discuss the family's needs and the child's role in helpingto meet those needs.

o Provide simple, honest answers to questions. o Listenwithout judging or criticizing the child's worries.

o Make clear statements of confidence in the family'sability to survive the crisis.

SUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARY

In a crisis, you will want to understand others and havethem understand you. You will want to know if your partner'sor child's silence means agreement, fear or something else.Becoming aware of commu-nication roadblocks (blocking outinformation, ignor-ing warning signs, placing blame or losingcontrol of your temper) and effective communication styles helpfamilies in times of crisis. Tips for keeping com-municationclear include:

o Have regular family meetings before, during, and aftercrises.

o Help family members share what makes for goodcommunication for them.

o Be sure to listen, as advice is not always appropriate-sometimes a good listener is all we need. Use "I"statements, and encourage others to do the same. Worktowards consensus. Be honest but polite.

o Learn your stress signals. Clearly state both what youneed and what you can do to help.

o Check to see if you were understood-don't leave roomfor guessing and bad feelings based onmisunderstanding. Remember, every person, even achild, has something important to contribute.

o Keep breathing and do not sit too long; we were madeto go forward.

Crises come and go, but when we communicate clearly andrespectfully with those we love, when we reach out to give andget help, we are better able to deal with present and futurecrises. Developing our family communication skills can evenhelp us to en-joy family life more.

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DDDDDISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER R R R R RESPONSEESPONSEESPONSEESPONSEESPONSE

COMMUNICATIONSCOMMUNICATIONSCOMMUNICATIONSCOMMUNICATIONSCOMMUNICATIONS

Effective communication is critical to delivering services toMissourians, and is the single most important element toeffectively responding to a man-made or natural disaster.Effective communication is required both vertically and laterally,and becomes more necessary and more difficult prior to, during,and after a natural or man-made disaster. Effectivecommunication is not eloquent speech or flowing prose, butrather is the ability to convey information clearly and conciselyin a manner that is easily understood. Answering the 6 W's(who, what, when, where, why, and how) is always a solidcommunication foundation upon which to build.

Internal CommunicationInternal CommunicationInternal CommunicationInternal CommunicationInternal Communication

Disastrous events occur with and without warning andduring business and non-business hours. Regardless of thedisaster, effective communication is critical to ensure that thedepartment is able to respond quickly, efficiently, and effectively.Additionally, personnel accountability throughout all phases ofthe disaster is of utmost concern, especially if the emergencyoccurs without warning during office hours. Each office willmaintain an up-to-date listing of after hours contact informationand will periodically test its ability to contact individuals afterhours. These tests will also include the ability to communicatewith division management.

Each office shall have a plan in place for the rapid notificationof personnel in the event of a sudden and unexpected disaster.

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This plan should include methodology for communicatingthroughout the chain of command in your office, but also upthe chain of command to division management.

The safety of personnel, if the disaster occurs unexpectedlyduring working hours, is the primary focus and concern.However, this effort should be followed very closely by, or beconducted concurrently with, establishing communicationinternally and with division management.

Traditional means of communication (telephone, cell phone,and e-mail) should be used subsequent to a disaster if they areavailable. While both man-made and natural disasters mayprohibit one or more of these communications mediums,oftentimes (as proven with Hurricane Katrina) at least oneremains viable. The EER spill-line (573-634-2436) is manned24 hours a day and can always be utilized to communicate.

Depending upon the magnitude of the disaster, establishingcommunication may be more difficult and require creativity. Inthese cases, non-traditional communication methods such assatellite phones and hand-held radios should be used. Beyondthese assets, individual creativity must be brought to bear inorder to establish communication, but efforts in this regardmust not cease until communication is established.

Offices should designate specific individuals with theresponsibility for communicating up and down the chain ofcommand during and after a disaster. Managing communicationin this manner better ensures a common and accurate message.

Because of the inherent stress associated with a catastrophe,disaster communication within the department should always:

(1) Present information in sequence.

(2) Omit unnecessary details.

(3) Word the message precisely, making every word count.

External CommunicationExternal CommunicationExternal CommunicationExternal CommunicationExternal Communication

Effective disaster communication with parties outside theagency is facilitated through pre-disaster communication

planning and post-disaster implementation. This communicationmay be with citizens, interest groups, private industries, localofficials, state and federal agencies, local news agencies ornational news agencies.

Division and department public information assets shouldbe utilized and consulted to the fullest extent possible, butthese assets cannot be relied upon to handle all of the externalcommunication requests during and subsequent to a disaster.

Local resources must be able to handle questions andinquiries on their own. Each region/program will have a pre-disaster communication plan to ensure adequate and appropriatecommunication with external entities.

These plans will include:

(1) Designating a primary and alternate Public InformationOfficer (PIO) in each Region or Program.

(2) Pre-selecting disaster/crisis communication teams,designating who will talk with the media, who willanswer phone calls, and who will make decisions aboutwhat to say.

(3) Providing all PIOs with communications-related trainingopportunities.

The pre-disaster communication plan will enable the office,and therefore the department, to communicate more effectivelywith external entities during or immediately following a disaster.PIOs or other employees responsible for externalcommunications should:

(1) Be accessible or designate someone to be accessible tothe media at all times.

(2) Be active, not reactive.

(3) Word messages precisely, making every word count.

(4) Centralize information.

(5) Speak in sync with other related authorities.

(6) Avoid jargon, codes, and acronyms; use common namesfor all personnel and facilities.


CONDUCTING POST-DISASTER ENVIRONMENTALCONDUCTING POST-DISASTER ENVIRONMENTALCONDUCTING POST-DISASTER ENVIRONMENTALCONDUCTING POST-DISASTER ENVIRONMENTALCONDUCTING POST-DISASTER ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENTSASSESSMENTSASSESSMENTSASSESSMENTSASSESSMENTS

Subsequent to any significant man-made or natural disaster,the department will be called upon to conduct environmentalassessments. The nature of the disaster will dictate the typeof assessment, but public drinking water, wastewater, anddebris assessments are likely in almost any instance. The morecatastrophic the disaster, the greater the number of assessments(in various media) that will be required. Regardless of theincident, the following information needs to be gathered assoon as possible:

1. Communities without, or in danger of being without,drinking water.

2. Significant wastewater releases.

3. Type and amount of debris associated with the incident.

4. Hazardous waste releases.

5. Number and type of threats to air quality.

Internal AssessmentsInternal AssessmentsInternal AssessmentsInternal AssessmentsInternal Assessments

Offices should conduct internal assessments of buildings,equipment, vehicles, and workspaces subsequent to a localdisaster. Internal assessments will most likely be requiredfollowing localized severe weather, but man-made disasterscould also prompt assessments.

Internal assessments can be conducted by any employee,but should be routed up the chain of command within theprogram/regional office for validation and prioritization. Noteddamages, and their impact on the ability of the office to conductoperations, as well as any photographs or amplifyingdescriptions, should be communicated to division managementas soon as possible.

External Environmental AssessmentsExternal Environmental AssessmentsExternal Environmental AssessmentsExternal Environmental AssessmentsExternal Environmental Assessments

Each office shall be prepared to conduct environmentalassessments within its region. Each office will establish multi-disciplinary assessment teams prior to an event. Teams shouldrange in size from 3-4, including the designated team leader.

Expertise in drinking water, wastewater, and solid waste (debrismanagement) should reside in each team, with additional areasof expertise represented in teams as resources allow.Establishing teams ahead of time facilitates effective trainingand allows for more efficient deployment. Offices should alsobe prepared to designate individuals to be part of SEMA/FEMAstrike teams deployed to specific locations for specific purposes(such as debris assessments).

Required Training for Assessment Team MembersRequired Training for Assessment Team MembersRequired Training for Assessment Team MembersRequired Training for Assessment Team MembersRequired Training for Assessment Team Members

o ICS 700

o ICS 100

EquipmentEquipmentEquipmentEquipmentEquipment

Carried within each team:

o digital camera

o GPS unit

o food and water

o first aid kit

Carried by each individual:

o hard hat

o reflective vest

o means of communication (radio, cell-phone, PDA,satellite phone)

o department identification

o additional personal protective gear (brush pants, steel-toed boots, latex gloves, rubber boots, chest/hip waders,rain gear, seasonal clothing, etc)

Responsibilities:Responsibilities:Responsibilities:Responsibilities:Responsibilities:

Regional Director:

a. Ensure environmental assessment teams are formedand appropriately staffed.

b. Ensure the preparation and proper training ofenvironmental assessment teams.


c. Deploy environmental assessment teams based onexpertise and external needs.

d. Ensure teams work with a community throughoutrecovery (for continuity).

e. Organize information and communicate regularly withdivision management (department management, SEMAas needed). Copy the EER Duty Officer in the IncidentCommand Center on all reports.

f. Coordinate with other state/relief agencies to determineif assessment teams can assist their efforts, such ascarrying food and water to a distribution point.

g. Assign employees to SEMA/FEMA strike teams asrequested.

h. Ensure that all teams receive a safety briefing prior toinitial deployment.

i. Contact all communities in the affected area(s) as soonas possible after the event.

Environmental Assessment Team LeaderEnvironmental Assessment Team LeaderEnvironmental Assessment Team LeaderEnvironmental Assessment Team LeaderEnvironmental Assessment Team Leader

a. Ensure the preparation and proper training of all teammembers.

b. Ensure the safety of each team member duringassessments.

c. Establish contact and check in with the IncidentCommand Post upon deployment to an affected area.(Assessment team members are not assigned work bythe Incident Command Post.)

d. Represent the department in the affected community.

e. Coordinate and communicate on site with local, SEMA,and FEMA officials.

f. Communicate regularly with the Regional Director,articulating accomplishments, needed resources,community needs and difficulties encountered.

g. Provide technical assistance, as needed, to affectedentities.

h. Provide guidance, direction and oversight to teammembers.

i. Conduct a safety briefing daily prior to beginningassessment work.

Environmental Assessment Team MemberEnvironmental Assessment Team MemberEnvironmental Assessment Team MemberEnvironmental Assessment Team MemberEnvironmental Assessment Team Member

a. Represent the department in the affected community.

b. Apply environmental expertise to identify both problemsand solutions.

c. Communicate continually with the Team Leader.

d. Ensure the safety of each team member duringassessments.

e. Provide technical assistance, as needed, to affectedentities.

f. Be prepared to assume the role of team leader, shouldcircumstances warrant.

g. Be prepared to assist in distributing food and water tocitizens.

Employee Safety When Conducting AssessmentsEmployee Safety When Conducting AssessmentsEmployee Safety When Conducting AssessmentsEmployee Safety When Conducting AssessmentsEmployee Safety When Conducting Assessments

Employee safety supersedes all other concerns whenconducting environmental assessments, and personal safety isthe responsibility of both the individual and other members ofthe assessment team. An environment that demandsenvironmental assessments is inherently dangerous, requiringall team members to look after themselves and those aroundthem.

All team members should have up-to-date tetanusvaccinations. Appropriate team members should have hepatitisvaccinations(water, waste water, solid waste).

Team Leaders are responsible for ensuring that all teammembers possess appropriate personal protective gear prior todeployment.

Team members should be trained on how to deal with thenumerous hazards they are likely to face when conductingenvironmental assessments. These may include:


Hazard Suggested ResponseHazard Suggested ResponseHazard Suggested ResponseHazard Suggested ResponseHazard Suggested Response

Unknown or Hazardous SubstancesUnknown or Hazardous SubstancesUnknown or Hazardous SubstancesUnknown or Hazardous SubstancesUnknown or Hazardous Substances

Avoid the substance. If possible, safely determine and notethe source. Document location (with GPS if possible). Takepictures of substance and source. Communicate location andother details to the Regional Office so that they can bring inadditional resources such as EER or local HazMat Teams.

AnimalsAnimalsAnimalsAnimalsAnimals

Likely to be displaced, hungry, and irritable domestic dogs.Depending on the circumstances, team members need to beprepared for wild animals that have been drawn to food orshelter from damaged homes or facilities. Team members shouldavoid contact with both domestic and wild animals. If animalsprevent assessment, and if the animals are unwilling to leavesimply because of human presence, temporarily bypass andconvey location and type of animal on to the Regional Officefor coordination with local animal control or MDC.

SnakesSnakesSnakesSnakesSnakes

Snakes are a likely hazard, particularly in a floodingscenario. Team members should be cautious in moving debrisby hand or when moving on or amongst debris piles. Additionally,within a structure that has been damaged by a stormaccompanied by significant rain or by floodwaters, any dry orwarm location should be thoroughly examined before reachinginto or entering it.

Ceilings and rafters should also be examined to ensure thatno snakes are at or above eye level. If possible, snake boots orsnakeproof chaps should be worn if feedback or observationsindicate the prevalence of snakes in a particular area. Whenencountered, snakes should be given a safe berth, bypassed,and the assessment should continue.

Downed Electrical LinesDowned Electrical LinesDowned Electrical LinesDowned Electrical LinesDowned Electrical Lines

Very common hazard associated with storms. Downed linesshould be avoided. Note location of lines. Provide descriptionand location to the Regional Office or to the local utility company.

If downed lines prevent assessment, bypass the location untilthe line has been repaired or until assurance is received thatno current is flowing through it.

DebrisDebrisDebrisDebrisDebris

Debris should be expected in the wake of almost everydisaster. Team members who encounter roads blocked by debrisshould not attempt to clear the blockage, as debris can shifteasily and is often heavier than it appears. Note location andrelay message back through the Regional Office to coordinatewith MoDOT, the county, or the city. Team members must alsobe continually on the alert for falling or unstable debris, andshould wear hard hats at all times when assessing debris oradvising on-site about disposal methods and options.

CitizensCitizensCitizensCitizensCitizens

Team members need to be prepared for desperate citizensthat desire only the food, water, clothing, or gas that teammembers have. Teams should carry extra food and water at alltimes, and should share with citizens as appropriate. If teammembers encounter hostile citizens, they should bypass thelocation, relay details back to the Regional Office and allow theRegional Office to work to arrange an escort by MHP, theSheriff's Office, or the municipal police.

PROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO COMMUNITIESPROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO COMMUNITIESPROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO COMMUNITIESPROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO COMMUNITIESPROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO COMMUNITIES

Closely allied with conducting damage assessments isproviding assistance to communities on a variety ofenvironmental topics subsequent to a disaster. Local electedofficials and private citizens will seek guidance on a variety oftopics, and offices need to be prepared to provide guidance onopen burning, public drinking water quality sampling andassessments, and assistance to waste-water facilities inevaluating functionality.

Disasters of significant magnitude may result in anemergency declaration wherein the Governor allows theDepartment Director to suspend some environmentalregulations in order to facilitate cleanup and recovery. Theseregulation waivers will be promulgated from the Department

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Director to the local communities via the Regional Offices. Pastdisasters have revealed that once waivers are granted, it isexpedient for Regional Directors to send a fax to each CountyCommissioner offering assistance, containing a copy of thewaiver signed by the Department Director and any or alldepartment publications listed below. In addition to the CountyCommissioners, Regional Directors should also consider sendingguidance to mayors and city administrators.

Each office should maintain, and periodically update, contactlists (mailing address, phone, and fax) for CountyCommissioners, mayors and city administrators within theirregion.

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CCCCCOPINGOPINGOPINGOPINGOPING WITHWITHWITHWITHWITH D D D D DISASTERSISASTERSISASTERSISASTERSISASTERS THROUGHTHROUGHTHROUGHTHROUGHTHROUGH

EEEEEFFECTIVEFFECTIVEFFECTIVEFFECTIVEFFECTIVE I I I I INTERNTERNTERNTERNTER-----ORGANIZATIONALORGANIZATIONALORGANIZATIONALORGANIZATIONALORGANIZATIONAL

NNNNNETWORKSETWORKSETWORKSETWORKSETWORKS

With very low advanced readiness on the part of civiladministration, the disaster of January 26, 2001 was a momentof reckoning for administration, civil society and internationalcommunity.

If we appear to be critical of ourselves in this narrative, itis only to dispense with niceties and sharpen the lessons thatwe could learn from this experience. We would also like tohighlight some of the positive steps taken by various actors,which could be incorporated, in the future strategies. But theoverall tone is likely to be very critical and this should notretract us from the admirable and extremely enthusiasticresponse from various actors in coping with the disaster. Wedo regret that we have not learnt many lessons even now.

In part one of the chapter we describe the insights fromthe coping strategies adopted by various administrative agenciesand the issues arising therefrom. The issues for the researchare identified in part two.

Insights from the Coping StrategiesInsights from the Coping StrategiesInsights from the Coping StrategiesInsights from the Coping StrategiesInsights from the Coping Strategies

While army and air force rose to the occasion immediately,the civil administration took time. Irony can be imagined fromthe fact that Swiss rescue team was here at the airport withsniffer dogs and other relief equipments within 24 hours butour authorities could not clear the baggage for many more

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hours. There is no justification for not having a drill in eachcrucial infrastructural office to devise immediate course ofaction with sole purpose of saving lives, ensuring communication,security of vital installations and coordination of the supportsystems. Such a drill had apparently never taken place. We didnot have even a list of cranes or other equipments with cleararrangements to move them at short notice to deal with hugeconcrete slabs, which had fallen from the damaged buildings.

Even the hand tools including hammers were not around.People were trying to rescue the buried injured people manuallyto begin with, before fire brigade department could cope withso many calls from so many directions.

The control room set up by the municipal corporation slowlystarted coordinating with army and air force once the scale ofdisaster in Kutchh became apparent. The VIP visits were agreat nuisance because most leaders in our country have notlearnt to be humble, practical and professional at such moments.They somehow could not insist on doing away with protocol andproviding support rather than withdrawing it from moredeserving segments of society. Even the telephone numbers ofcrucial relief organs were not available at one place.

There were some very responsible young officers who realizethe enormity of the problem, developed immediate rapportwith the defense officials and started cutting the red tapetaking far more responsibility than their rank permitted. Thesepeople were saving the day. There was not a single mobileoperation theatre though army relief camp at Anjar and a fewother places was activated immediately.

The transportation was another source of major concernwith one bridge to Kutchh damaged and the other under heavystrain without any discipline about the priority for vehiclescarrying life saving drugs or equipments. Every vehicle was inthe same queue. The helicopters that manage traffic flow duringthe Republic Day Parade could have been moved to manage thetransportation along the life line road to Kutchhh. Vehicleswere stranded for four-five hours and sometime more. Thedisaster tourists made the matter worse.

The railways tried to move heavy equipments but for somereason, the flow of wagons to and from the source points to thedestination was not as expeditious as was necessary. Perhapsthe civic administration did not give them the requisiteinformation.

a. Communication : Soon after the earthquake, there wasa shock and immediate eruption of civil society initiativesto do whatever they could do. Some groups startedcollecting information to find out what was the scale ofdamage so that they could identify the role forthemselves. The media took note of the crisis and flashedit around the world. However, the authorities wereinformed after a lag of few hours because of snag in thelines of communication between he IMD Chief and PrimeMinister who was at the Republic Day Parade. Thesewere crucial two hours, which could have helped inshaping the quality and quantity of immediate relief. Aswe will notice later, the communication bottlenecks werethe most crucial in preventing many more lives beingsaved.

b. Telecommunication: The lines of communication weredisturbed in Kutchh causing tremendous stress on therelief agencies. We tried to mobilize ham radio operatorsfrom around the country and learnt later that they wereat least 500 such operators within Gujarat. The list ofthese people is available today at www.sristi.org/dmis.html, a disaster management information systemsite put together by SRISTI(Society for Research andInitiatives for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions)as a voluntary contribution. But, on that day, suchinformation was not available. Some volunteers hadimmediately set up the facility at Gandhinagar andlater in Kutchh to improve communications. The Telecomdepartment tried to activate the telephone service fastincluding some of the cellular service operators but thisremained a major bottleneck for the first week or so.

c. Transport: The transportation arrangements for Kutchhwere in disarray and the large number of vehicles coming


with relief materials from different states did not knowwhere to go and who to contact. As mentioned earlier,the regulation of traffic, prioritization of movement,stoppage of unnecessary private vehicles (even if well-intentioned) and ensuring close monitoring werenecessary. We are not sure that such a thing wouldhappen if disaster of that scale were to occur again. Wedo not need to give evidence of lack of preparednesseven today.

Railways: Lot of relief material and people were comingthrough railways who were providing help to the extentpossible. However, special warehouses, informationbooth to guide volunteers and direct materials weremissing. Similarly, movement of heavy machinery aswell as concrete cutters and other such equipments washampered in the first few days. We do not have adequateinformation and therefore are unable to appreciate fullythe constraints under which they had to work. However,a system is needed to immediately organize themovement of materials needed for urgent relief incoordination with the civic administration.

d. GIS based Communication Network : For routing varioussupplies to the critical locations and ensuring that nodiscrimination takes place, no needy village or locationis left out and prioritization is need based rather thaninfluence based, GIS linked inventory and logisticssupport system should be in place. We should knowwhat alternative routes exist to go to any majorcoordination center in case the main routes are damaged.It should also be possible to track supplies to variouslocations and get feedback from the users on the same.In Kutchh, perhaps because of security concerns, despiteour best efforts, we could not get the GIS maps linkedwith supply chain software that our students and facultydeveloped for Relief Commissioner in Bhuj.

e. Logistics (transportation, warehouse, supply chainmanagement software and hardware, inventorymanagement systems, sourcing database) : January end

is a cold period and tents and woolens were neededurgently. The contact information of different tentsuppliers was not easily available. The supplier atKumbha Mela when contacted was not willing to helpbecause of some pending bills of past. Internationalsupplies of course were coming. Despite the fact that airforce station in Bhuj had suffered heavy causalities,they were on the job day and night. But, the need oftheir families were not attended to as promptly as shouldhave been the case, given the fact that the officers andsoldiers were giving priority to their service to the societyrather than the need of their families. Our worry is thateven after year and a half of the recent disaster, ourpreparedness has not improved a great deal in thisregard as well.

f. Warehouses: One of the major problems that manyvoluntary organizations as well as government facedwas proper warehousing facilities for rescue and reliefmaterials. Medicines were lying under sun in open inBhuj. We had converted a big hall in our campus toprovide support to citizen's initiative-a conglomerate ofabout 200 NGOs. However, we also did not have facilitiesfor proper storage of medicines.

g. Monitoring of Supplies: After several days, two checkposts were set up on the two main routes to Kutchh tohelp direct the supplies coming from unknown places.However, these check posts did not receive indents fromvarious locations so as to guide the trucks to rightdestinations. The result was that too much was reachingat some locations while nothing much was reached atother locations.

h. Medical Help: The doctors from Ahmedabad and otherlocations had moved immediately to set up camps in theaffected regions but sourcing of supplies were becominga constraint. In the absence of sterilized conditions, inmany places first aid was provided by doctors not trainedin orthopedic assistance. We recall a moment whenoxygen cylinders were required and by the time we


could locate and arrange them, it was too late. Theability of civil society network as well as publicinstitutions to pool their inventories was very limited.There were some NGOs who were very keen to maintaintheir own control over distribution of resources, even ifit meant inefficiency in ensuring right medical help tothe needy people. Large number of companiesmanufacturing drugs were very much willing to providemedicine at short notice besides the devises required forfractures, bandages, etc. Christian Medical College,Ludhiana and their associates were very helpful to bringmobile medical units to provide high quality service.Temporary x-ray facilities were limited in the first fewdays. The nurses were particularly in short supplythough doctors were abundantly available.

i. Disaster Management Information Database: The detailsof the online DMIS developed by SRISTI and IIMACOREare available in annexure one and two. It may sufficeto state here that on 26 January 2002, around the timewhen it was launched, we felt that a great deal had notstill been learnt. This workshop would go a long wayif it could bring in a sense of urgency in giving a wakeup call to our unusually lethargic bureaucratic system.The basic information on communication, health,transport, warehouse, machinery, sanitation, drinkingwater, electrical systems, roads and bridges, etc., withclearly identified nodal points responsible for emergencyrelief must be available all over the country on the webas well as in printed form in public libraries.

We should also have a list of volunteers who would bewilling to move at a short notice within their locality, district,state or country to provide help in various regard. The offerof help in terms of infrastructure such as warehouse,transportation, medical equipments, cranes, concrete cutters,etc., can also be registered in such databases. Every six months,a confirmation letter/mail ought to go to everybody who hasvolunteered to revalidate their offer and also enable them tomodify their offer. The support from the civil society is most

invaluable. At this moment, such a database has not been builtanywhere in the country except for a small initiative at SRISTI.

The advertisements will have to be issued and public mediawill have to be mobilized for seeking volunteers for DMIS. Ourgoal should be to reduce level of deaths in such emergenciesfrom 20000 to may be two or three. This is what the currentlevel is in many disaster prone developed countries. The DMIShad focused on developing database, logistic support, identifyingtechnological needs, self-reliance at community level,communication infrastructure, emergency preparedness andforecasting (see Annexure two).

LESSONS LEARNT AND ISSUES FOR FURTHERLESSONS LEARNT AND ISSUES FOR FURTHERLESSONS LEARNT AND ISSUES FOR FURTHERLESSONS LEARNT AND ISSUES FOR FURTHERLESSONS LEARNT AND ISSUES FOR FURTHERRESEARCHRESEARCHRESEARCHRESEARCHRESEARCH

a. The first lessons that we have to learn with great regretis that we don't seem to learn easily. The experience ofLatur had not taught us much. The problem is not withthe intention of policy makers and administrative leadersbut with the total lack of concern for institutionalizinglearning pedagogies. For instance, we requested GSDMA(Gujarat State Disaster Management Agency) and UNDPto record the experience of NGO workers and officialsabout the problems they faced in first few days. But, itcould not be done. Not only that, most of the experiencenotes prepared afterwards dealt more with what hadbeen done rather than with what could not be done. Itis useful to learn from best practices, on the groundinnovations, and sporadic initiatives that people took tosolve the problems. In one case, there was a serioussituation because of the way concrete slabs had fallen.

A person well-connected politically had his mothertrapped inside, but nobody had the courage to go in andrescue the lady because of the precarious nature of thebuilding. Despite lot of throwing around of weight,nothing was happening. Finally, a young officer offeredto go in to locate the lady's condition and assess thestrategy to bring her out. Only after that other peoplewould venture to help. Such events are not unusual but


a mechanism to record such initiatives and explore bettertechnologies to assess the strength of the structuresmight reduce the reliance on individual valor. CSIRunder the leadership of Dr.R.A.Mashelkar had offeredimmediate help of all his labs for whatever assistancewe needed.

Within 24 hours, structural engineers were mobilizedfrom all over the country to assist local authorities inassessing which buildings to completely pull down andwhich ones to be left for repairs. Likewise, many otherlabs helped by sending ready to eat food mixtures andproviding assistance in other matters. How to mobilizesuch help in disasters should be institutionalized anda database of such experts whether from institutions orfrom civil society, as suggested in DMIS would comehandy on such occasions.

b. The role of NGOs such as Kutch Nav Nirman Abhiyan,Citizen's Initiative, Gantar, Gram Swarajya Sangh, etc.,was very praiseworthy. It is useful to incorporate suchorganizations in the disaster management preparednessdrill. The transaction costs of such organizations aremuch lesser and the response time is much faster. Anetwork of such organizations should be part of theNational Disaster Management Network.

c. Even today we are not prepared much better to dealwith disasters than we were year and a half ago. TheDMIS may be operationalized to include equipmentsand all other resources from private, public and NGOsectors with the contact information for emergency use.

d. Mobile operation theatres, x-ray machines and othersuch facilities should be available in a manner thatthese can be readily mobilized at the site of disaster.

e. The communication infrastructure, particularly hamradio operators, satellite phones, and internetconnections are very weak in many rural areas. Thebuilding of ham radio network (mobile as well asstationery) should be a priority. The database of existing

ham radio operators can also be enriched at DMISplatform or any other such platforms. The use of radioand television (more of the former) could be very effective.Despite our suggestions, even the instructions forconstructing earthquake proof houses were not broadcastadequately so long and the results are obvious.

f. The transportation bottlenecks are to be expected. Needfor air regulation of surface transport could not beorganized despite our appeals. It is surprising that sucha simple thing should be so difficult to organize.

g. The army and the air force played pivotal role in savinglives, rescue injured, provide medical assistance, organizelogistics, and boost the morale of society in distress. Itshould be possible to build similar motivational levelsamong the members of civil society trained for thepurpose. May be a National Disaster Management Corpscould be developed or be evolved through NCC /HomeGuard Network. The coordination between defense andcivil administration was also sometimes strained becauseof weak administrative preparedness. Line of commandin such matters could be made more precise andfunctional.

h. There is no substitute to communities being preparedto deal with disasters on their own through self-defensemechanisms. WE need to develop manuals, FAQs andother self help material for the purpose. Sristi.org/DMIS.html does provide some links to such informationavailable internationally but we need to develop suchmaterial for our own cultural contexts.

i. State administration has to be geared to deal with suchdisasters all over the country. They have the authorityand also the information such as revenue maps, transportnetworks, communication infrastructure and above allthe authority to make things happen. Given the scaleof disaster, unlike the movement of defense forces, stateadministration faced difficulties in putting revenuemachinery in place in the affected region quickly. We


have to increase the capacity of state administration aswell.

There are several more lessons for building inter-organisational networks to cope with disasters that have notbeen mentioned here. Suffice to state that a learning networkrequires periodic exchanges and willingness to recognize one'sown limits and appreciate strength of others. This also requiresa collaborative attitude. Thanks to the positive outlook inGujarat, cooperation was much easy to organize. I remembera remark of a student of NID from Orissa. She asked as to whywhen there was a super cyclone in her state, the response ofCentral Government, civil society and international communitywas not that good or efficient. Perhaps the web of commercialnetwork Gujarat has spawned all over the country and theworld contributed to a much wider response. The inefficiencyin relief and rehabilitation to the extent still existing thusbecomes less excusable.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMDISASTER MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMDISASTER MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMDISASTER MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMDISASTER MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

What is DMIS?What is DMIS?What is DMIS?What is DMIS?What is DMIS?

Natural disasters impart lessons at a very high cost of lifeand property. But if those lessons do not lead to learning andknowledge generation then it is a very heavy cost to bear. Thislack of learning from the past hurts most at the recurrence ofdisasters. The earthquake in Gujarat (26th January 2001, anearthquake of 7.9 magnitude on Richter scale struck Gujarat,India, with its epicentre in Kutch, causing destruction of threetowns and death of more than 20,000 people) and the subsequentchaos was an indicator of how crucial disaster planning is tomanage relief and rehabilitation during disasters.

SRISTI participated in the relief and rehabilitation workin Kutch. But the relief work suffered immensely due to lackof information and proper planning. When we tried to getanswers to important questions that were cropping up-forinstance, whether there exists a database on the distributionof available resources and expertise with individuals, institutionsand corporations-all we got in response was a blank. This

pointed to the urgent necessity of building a system for disastermitigation and for documenting experiences of individuals andorganisations, which might act as a knowledge resource andhelp in better coordination in case of future disasters.

The Disaster Management Information SystemThe Disaster Management Information SystemThe Disaster Management Information SystemThe Disaster Management Information SystemThe Disaster Management Information System

Thus, SRISTI initiated an effort to build a "DisasterManagement Information System". Through this initiative weare trying to develop a database-driven information system forDisaster Management Authorities (DMA) in various states,NGOs and other organisations. We appealed to NGOs, reliefworkers, DMAs and individuals to share their experiences andvolunteer services and resources to the online databasemaintained at our website. The database currently containsmore than a thousand volunteers who have offered to volunteertheir services and resources in time of emergency. About 700organisations and institutions are also listed on the site, besidesother resources and web links.

The DMIS is a wholly voluntary activity run withcontributions in terms of time and services by SRISTI volunteers,NGOs and above all civil society institutions across the world.All the information shared with us is accessible to all, exceptwhere the volunteer has chosen to limit accessibility only to therelevant authorities.

SRISTI focused on developing a template for disastermanagement comprising:

(a) Database: on various resources, skills, and servicesrequired for relief at times of emergencies on shortnotice. This database would have information onresources such as safety equipment, oxygen cylinders,transport, medicines, earthmovers and various otherequipment, their location, quantity, owner organisationetc, and communication information of experts, doctors,engineers and other people required to deal withemergencies.

(b) Logistics: creating systems for logistics, inventory controlmechanisms, network support, information access with


appropriate usage of technology. These systems couldbe integrated with GIS (Geographical InformationSystem) and could be made accessible on Kiosks, WideArea Networks as well as on the Internet. GIS mapswould also help better routing of supplies and reliefmaterial right up to a village.

(c) Technological Needs: Equipment and accessoriesrequired, and the know-how for it, should be accessibleduring an emergency. Technical needs could be anythingfrom fire fighting, debris removal, rescue, maintainingcommunications etc. While developing an effectivedisaster mitigation strategy, a whole range of technicalquestions, regarding buildings, cutting concrete slabs,fire fighting, rescue and relief, have to be answered.Technical know-how, equipment and expertiserequirement need to be identified and the logistics ofmaking it accessible need to developed.

(d) Self Reliance: Communities should prepare their owndisaster mitigation plan and warning systems. Drillsneed to be organised to keep communities prepared fordealing with emergency situations. Each individualasking oneself how prepared he or she is in the eventof a disaster is a step towards getting ready to meeteventualities, at the individual, family and communitylevels. Lesser damage has taken place in situationswhere communities came together to help each other.Therefore the lessons that communities can impart aboutself-help need to be put together. Communities need tothemselves identify people who could coordinate relief.In short, self-reliance is the key.

(e) Communication Infrastructure: Coordination is crucialfor effective relief. An effective communicationinfrastructure, which has layered communicationsystems, such that not everything collapsessimultaneously, needs to be in place. Communicationfailures may lead to severe problems in coordinatingrelief activities while effective communication could savemany lives. When the conventional communication

infrastructure fails, wireless communication systemssuch as ham radios may be helpful in setting up helplines.Hence it is necessary while evolving an effectivecommunication strategy to put in place systems andsupport networks which would continue to work if andwhen the principal network goes down. We would alsohave to create an information dissemination systemand develop mechanisms for capacity building in thecommunity to maintain such systems, which could havemore of human interface than technology, such ascommunity notice boards.

(f) Emergency Preparedness: Information for emergencypreparedness and cautions should be accessible to thelocal community. Manuals related to emergencypreparedness of possible disasters identified for a regionneed to be prepared and made available to the localcommunity. Drills need to be organised to keep societyprepared for dealing with emergencies. Such drills arealso required for DMAs (Disaster ManagementAuthorities) and emergency response units of hospitals,medical institutions, the Police, the Army, publictransport units etc.

(g) Forecasting: Accurate forecasting of natural disasters isnot possible but identification and awareness of calamity-prone areas is. Wherever possible, disasters, which canbe anticipated over time or space, need to be looked into.National forecasting and Early Warning Systems (EWS)should be developed and information on disasters shouldbe accessible to people on public/ mass communicationmedia from time to time. Channels need to be built tomake this information available to remotely locatedcommunities as well.

The SolutionThe SolutionThe SolutionThe SolutionThe Solution

The DMIS is trying to build resources and create aninformation and knowledge bank for individuals, professionals,researchers, organisations, Disaster Management Authorities,institutions throughout the world. Some of the listed resourcesand services are:


• Volunteers databank (Services & Resources)

• Search Databases

• Volunteering services & resources online

• Experiences databank, experiences shared by individualsand organisations on disaster mitigation, relief andrehabilitation

• Read Experiences of disaster relief & rehabilitation

• Share your experiences online

• Resources:

• Databases (Earthquake, Cyclone, Floods, Drought)

• Web Links (Education, training, projects, health,software)

• Disaster Management Authorities in India

• Organisations for Disaster Management in the world

• International Networking of Relief SupportOrganisations

• United Nations Organisations

• International Donor Organisations for disaster relief &rehabilitation

• Asian & Regional Organisations

• National Organisations of countries for disaster relief& rehabilitation

• Organisations involved in disaster relief & rehabilitationin Gujarat

• Papers & Publications (Papers, Journals, Books, Reports,other articles)

• Events & News on Disasters Mitigation and EmergencyPreparedness (News, Workshops, Conferences, Meetings,Seminars)

• DMIS mailing list

• DMIS discussion forum

• Disaster mitigation and emergency preparedness in theevent of disasters (earthquakes, cyclones, floods, drought,fires, volcanoes, landslides). What to do and tips fortrauma management

• Disaster management tool kit, to face emergencies

• Disaster forecasting and warning (earthquakes, cyclones,floods, drought, others)

DISASTER RECOVERY AND BUSINESS CONTINUITYDISASTER RECOVERY AND BUSINESS CONTINUITYDISASTER RECOVERY AND BUSINESS CONTINUITYDISASTER RECOVERY AND BUSINESS CONTINUITYDISASTER RECOVERY AND BUSINESS CONTINUITYAUDITINGAUDITINGAUDITINGAUDITINGAUDITING

Disaster recovery and business continuity refers to anorganization's ability to recover from a disaster and/orunexpected event and resume or continue operations.Organizations should have a plan in place (usually referred toas a "Disaster Recovery Plan", or "Business Continuity Plan")that outlines how this will be accomplished.

The key to successful disaster recovery is to have a plan(emergency plan, disaster recovery plan, continuity plan) wellbefore disaster ever strikes.

When conducting an audit of a disaster recovery plan severalfactors should be considered. These are described below.

Written Disaster Recovery Plan with Continual UpdatingWritten Disaster Recovery Plan with Continual UpdatingWritten Disaster Recovery Plan with Continual UpdatingWritten Disaster Recovery Plan with Continual UpdatingWritten Disaster Recovery Plan with Continual Updating

To be effective the plan must be written, must beunderstandable, and must be accessible to those who need itwhen they need it. Because of the constant changes that occurin the modern business environment, a plan should be updatedfrequently to deal with new and existing threats as they develop.The auditor needs to determine if procedures stated in the planto achieve these ends are actually used in practice.

This can be accomplished through:

• Direct observation of procedures

• Examination of the disaster recovery plan

• Inquiries of personnel

• Testing of processes for reasonableness and validity


Designated Hot Site or Cold SiteDesignated Hot Site or Cold SiteDesignated Hot Site or Cold SiteDesignated Hot Site or Cold SiteDesignated Hot Site or Cold Site

A hot/cold site is a location that an organization can moveto after a disaster if the current facility is unusable. Thedifference between the two is that a hot site is fully equippedto resume operations while a cold site does not have thatcapability. There is also what is referred to as a warm sitewhich has the capability to resume some, but not all operations.The decision a company makes when determining what typeof site to establish depends on a cost-benefit analysis and theneeds of the individual organization. The plan should also spellout how relocation to a new facility is to be conducted. Acompany should have occasional tests and conduct trials toverify the viability and effectiveness of the plan and to determineif any deficiencies exist and how they can be dealt with. Anaudit of a company Disaster Recovery Plan should primarilylook into the probability that operations of the organization canbe sustained at the level that is assumed in the plan, as wellas the ability of the entity to actually establish operations atthe site.

The auditor should:

• Examine and test the procedures involved

• Conduct outside research relating to Disaster recovery

• Determine reasonable standards relating toimplementation

• Tour, examine, and research the outside facility.

Ability to Recover Data and SystemsAbility to Recover Data and SystemsAbility to Recover Data and SystemsAbility to Recover Data and SystemsAbility to Recover Data and Systems

The continual backing up of data and systems can helpminimize the impact of threats. Even so, the plan should alsoinclude information on how best to recover any data that hasnot been copied.

Controls and protections should be in place to ensure thatdata is not damaged, altered, or destroyed during this process.Information technology experts and procedures need to beidentified that can accomplish this endeavor. Vendor manualscan also assist in determining how best to proceed.

Processes for Frequent Backup of Systems and DataProcesses for Frequent Backup of Systems and DataProcesses for Frequent Backup of Systems and DataProcesses for Frequent Backup of Systems and DataProcesses for Frequent Backup of Systems and Data

The auditor should determine if these processes are effectiveand are actually being implemented by personnel. This can beaccomplished through:

• Direct observation of the processes

• Analyzing and researching the equipment used

• Conducting computer assisted audit techniques and tests

• Examination of paper and paperless records

Tests and Drills of Disaster ProceduresTests and Drills of Disaster ProceduresTests and Drills of Disaster ProceduresTests and Drills of Disaster ProceduresTests and Drills of Disaster Procedures

Practice drills should be conducted periodically to determinehow effective the plan is and to determine what changes maybe necessary. The auditor's primary concern here is verifyingthat these drills are being conducted properly and that problemsuncovered during these drills are addressed and proceduresdesigned to deal with these potential deficiencies areimplemented and tested to determine their effectiveness.

Data and System Backups Stored OffsiteData and System Backups Stored OffsiteData and System Backups Stored OffsiteData and System Backups Stored OffsiteData and System Backups Stored Offsite

The auditor can verify this through paper and paperlessdocumentation and actual physical observation. Testing of thebackups and procedures should be done to confirm data integrityand effective processes. The security of the storage site alsoneeds to be confirmed.

Appointed Disaster Recovery Committee andAppointed Disaster Recovery Committee andAppointed Disaster Recovery Committee andAppointed Disaster Recovery Committee andAppointed Disaster Recovery Committee andChairpersonChairpersonChairpersonChairpersonChairperson

The entity needs to appoint individuals responsible fordesigning and implementing the plan when needed. Generally,this consists of a team headed by a project manager, with adeputy manager who has the capability to take over theresponsibilities if needed. The qualities needed for this positionvary depending upon the organization.

The qualities of the project manager generally include:

• Good leadership abilities

• Strong knowledge of company business


• Strong knowledge of management processes

• Experience and knowledge in Information technologyand security

• Good project management skills

Other members of the team need to have a clearunderstanding and ability to perform the requisite procedures.An auditor needs to examine and assess the project and deputyproject manager's training, experience, and abilities as well asto analyze the capabilities of the team members to completeassigned tasks and that more than one individual is trainedand capable of doing a particular function. Tests and inquiriesof personnel can help achieve this objective.

Visibly Listed Emergency Telephone NumbersVisibly Listed Emergency Telephone NumbersVisibly Listed Emergency Telephone NumbersVisibly Listed Emergency Telephone NumbersVisibly Listed Emergency Telephone Numbers

The auditor can verify through direct observation thatemergency telephone numbers are listed and easily accessiblein the event of a disaster.

InsuranceInsuranceInsuranceInsuranceInsurance

The auditor should determine the adequacy of the company'sinsurance coverage (particularly property and casualtyinsurance) through a review of the company's insurance policiesand other research. Among the items that the auditor needsto verify are: the scope of the policy (including any statedexclusions), that the amount of coverage is sufficient to coverthe organization's needs, and that the policy is current and inforce. The auditor should also ascertain, through a review ofthe ratings assigned by independent rating agencies, that theinsurance company or companies providing the coverage havethe financial viability to cover the losses in the event of a disaster.

Procedures Allowing Effective CommunicationProcedures Allowing Effective CommunicationProcedures Allowing Effective CommunicationProcedures Allowing Effective CommunicationProcedures Allowing Effective Communication

Management and the recovery team should have DisasterRecovery Procedures] which allow for effective communication.This can be accomplished by making sure contact informationis easily accessible and drills conducted test communicationabilities. Procedures should include non-technological as wellas technological methodologies in case of power or system

failures. Communications between the organization and outsideindividuals and organizations also need to be taken into accountwhen designing the plan. Procedures to test this communicationability generally mirror those of the organization itself. Theauditor should evaluate these procedures and assumptions todetermine if they are reasonable and likely to be effective.

An auditor evaluation can be accomplished through:

• Testing of procedures

• An inquiry of all employees

• Comparisons to other company plans and industrystandards

• Examination of company manuals and other writtenprocedures

Updated System and Operation DocumentationUpdated System and Operation DocumentationUpdated System and Operation DocumentationUpdated System and Operation DocumentationUpdated System and Operation DocumentationConfirmationConfirmationConfirmationConfirmationConfirmation

Adequate records need to be retained by the organization.The auditor should physically examine records, billings, andcontracts to verify this. Outside research such as contactingvendors may also be conducted to determine the reasonablenessof management's assertions.

Emergency ProceduresEmergency ProceduresEmergency ProceduresEmergency ProceduresEmergency Procedures

Procedures for the stocking of food and water, capabilitiesof administering CPR/first aid, and dealing with familyemergencies should be clearly written and tested. This cangenerally be accomplished by the company through good trainingprograms and a clear definition of job responsibilities. Theauditor can verify this is accomplished through:

• Inquires of personnel

• Physical observation

• Examination of training records and any certifications

Backup of Key Personnel PositionsBackup of Key Personnel PositionsBackup of Key Personnel PositionsBackup of Key Personnel PositionsBackup of Key Personnel Positions

Clearly written policies and specific communication withemployees should be used to substantiate this. There must also


be confirmation that the personnel backups can actually do theduties assigned to them in an event of an emergency. Periodictraining can also help alleviate this. This training should includeupdates to existing job positions and testing to confirmproficiency.

The auditor needs to verify that:

• Policies are being enforced

• Testing is effective

• Training is adequate.

Hardware and Software Vendor ListHardware and Software Vendor ListHardware and Software Vendor ListHardware and Software Vendor ListHardware and Software Vendor List

Copies of this should be periodically updated and stored onand off site, as well as being accessible by those who requirethem. An auditor should test the procedures used to meet thisobjective and determine their effectiveness.

Mission StatementMission StatementMission StatementMission StatementMission Statement

This should clearly identify what the purpose and goals ofthe Disaster Recovery Plan are. The mission statement can alsohelp the auditor obtain a better understanding of theorganization's environment. An auditor should examine this todetermine what the objectives, priorities, and goals of theplan are:

Both Manual and Automated Procedures in PlaceBoth Manual and Automated Procedures in PlaceBoth Manual and Automated Procedures in PlaceBoth Manual and Automated Procedures in PlaceBoth Manual and Automated Procedures in Place

Procedures in place to accomplish the needed objectivesshould take into account the possibility of power failures orother situations in which technology cannot be utilized. Theplan should indicate what procedures to be used in this situationand should also include information on storage of flashlightsand candles, as well as additional safety procedures in case ofgas leaks, fires or other phenomena. Trial runs should beconducted to test the procedures' effectiveness and viability.

The auditor should:

• Examine and test procedures for reasonableness

• Make inquiries on personnel

• Conduct outside research

Contractual Agreements with External Agencies/Contractual Agreements with External Agencies/Contractual Agreements with External Agencies/Contractual Agreements with External Agencies/Contractual Agreements with External Agencies/companiescompaniescompaniescompaniescompanies

The plan needs to take into account the extent of itsresponsibilities to other entities and their ability to make thosecommitments in lieu of a major event. Are their clauses incontracts that minimize against any legal liability for lack ofperformance in the event of disaster or any other unusualcircumstance? Agreements pertaining to establishing supportand assisting with recovery for the entity should also be outlined.

The auditor should:

• Examine the reasonableness of the plan

• Determine whether it takes all factors into account

• Verify the contracts and agreements throughdocumentation and outside research

SummarySummarySummarySummarySummary

In conducting the audit, the individual or team shouldmake use of various other procedures and processes to achievethe objectives of the audit. These objectives should be clearlystated in the audit plan.

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects Improving Military-Civilian Coalition...Improving Military-Civilian Coalition...Improving Military-Civilian Coalition...Improving Military-Civilian Coalition...Improving Military-Civilian Coalition...306306306306306 307307307307307

1414141414

IIIIIMPROVINGMPROVINGMPROVINGMPROVINGMPROVING M M M M MILITARYILITARYILITARYILITARYILITARY-C-C-C-C-CIVILIANIVILIANIVILIANIVILIANIVILIAN C C C C COALITIONOALITIONOALITIONOALITIONOALITION

DDDDDISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER M M M M MANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT P P P P PERFORMANCEERFORMANCEERFORMANCEERFORMANCEERFORMANCE

The present study examines the effects of face-to-face teambuilding, socially modeled decision making norms, and politico-cultural constraints placed on agents in rapidly formed ad hoccoalitions. This inquiry offers a framework for exploringproblems faced by joint civilian-military disaster managementteams. An instantiation of the Dynamic Distributed Decision-making (DDD) simulator provides a medium fidelity, team-in-the-loop simulation of a major disaster. The simulationacknowledges the complexity of civilian-military coalitions byintentionally breaking several of the assumptions of the IncidentCommand System/Unified Command approach, emphasizingthe problem of ambiguous authority relationships. Participantsmust balance authority hand-offs against internal politicalpressures and potential costs to operational awareness. It ishypothesized that social modeling of semantically richcommunication and cognitively ergonomic decisioning rulesduring the simulation will overcome lack prior team buildinginterventions. If supported, the results will auger for theinclusion of embedded meta-communication agents to improvecoalition disaster management performance.


The 2005 hurricane season demonstrated the continuedshortcomings of the federal, state and local disaster responseefforts. Despite the wake-up call provided by the events of9/11 and the development of the National Response Plan (NRP)

and the National Incident Management System (NIMS) (DHS,2004a, DHS, 2004b), response agencies from state to federallevel were taken by surprise and were unprepared to respondeffectively to a mass disaster. The failures of response effortsto hurricane Katrina point to a verity of systemic problems. Inparticular, the issue of coordinated state and local governmentintegration with the US Military continues to prove particularlydifficult. Lack of effective disaster management becomesmagnified when coalitions made up of civil and militaryauthorities form decoupled command structures, oftenamplifying coordination and communication difficulties ratherthan improving them.

Several contradictory, almost paradoxical, motivations existamong joint military-civilian coalition members in US disasterresponse efforts. First, complex legal and historical argumentsabout the involvement of federal troops on domestic soil giverise to conflict between state authorities and federal disastermanagers. While the use of federal troops may assist in disasterrelief by leveraging the effectiveness of military chain ofcommand and resources, states often view federalization of adisaster as usurping regional control. However, a state's failureto allow military resources to be fully utilized at the outset ofa major disaster may have secondary effects that reverberatefor the rest of the relief effort, creating a cascade of sub-optimalresponses that crippled overall performance.

Second, when joint coalitions are created, ambiguousauthority relationships in these rapidly formed ad hoc teamsdisaster managers must follow many masters. They must acceptthe rules and political interests established by their parentagency, commit to the superordinate goals of the coalition, orstruggle to find a balance between these objectives. Effectivedisaster managers must assert authority and transfer it toother agencies represented in the coalition, often oversteppingthe powers vested in them by their parent agency. A tensecontinuum exists, anchored by inaction at one end, modulatedappropriate action in the center, and overreaction at the otherend of the spectrum. For example, overuse of authority assertionsmay cost the coalition in terms of overall operational awareness


as actions begin to deviate too much from initial disaster plans.Finally, if the legal and social considerations are worked out,introducing the military into a coalition disaster response teamis viewed as a slippery slope in which military command andcontrol styles may dominate the coalition's deliberative process.No model of co-equal participation of civilian and militarycoalition representatives exists in which command is distributedamong all parties, yet remains effective. Further, disastermanagers from the various agencies are trained as expertswithin their fields, and may have effective communication anddecisioning skills within their respective teams. However, thesecommunication strategies may not be enough to facilitate theirwork when they become representatives of their parent agencywithin a complex coalition. While the problem of coalitioncommunication has been preliminarily addressed by IncidentCommand System/Unified Command (ICS/UC), typical largescale coalitions are made up of peer-to-peer relationships ratherthan formalized command structures. The shortcomings of ICS/UC were made painfully clear during Hurricane Katrina,underscoring the need for increased research in co-equalcoalition management and improved training for those whomay serve as coalition members.

HOW DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIFFERS FROMHOW DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIFFERS FROMHOW DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIFFERS FROMHOW DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIFFERS FROMHOW DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIFFERS FROMOTHER COALITION ACTIVITIESOTHER COALITION ACTIVITIESOTHER COALITION ACTIVITIESOTHER COALITION ACTIVITIESOTHER COALITION ACTIVITIES

Communication TrainingCommunication TrainingCommunication TrainingCommunication TrainingCommunication Training

While the understanding of large-scale disaster managementis based on findings derived from high reliability organizations(HROs) and military coalitions, joint civilian-military disastermanagement coalitions also differ substantially from thesegroups. For example, HRO organizations are usually made upof teams who have trained regularly together, who share somelevel of technical interoperability, operate using mutuallyunderstood and decisioning rules, employ communicationapproaches that enhance situational awareness, and possess afairly unified politico-cultural background that is implicitlyunderstood by its team members. Other HROs, such ascommercial aviation, can not reliably put the same team

members together for each flight because of operational needs,but have managed to overcome the loss in team cohesion bytraining all flight crew personnel in a shared approach to flightcommunication and decision making. In this way, individualpilots, co-pilots, and flight attendants function fairlyinterchangeably across ad hoc flight crews.

In contrast, because of the fundamentally unpredictablenature of major disasters, the ad hoc teams that emerge duringresponse and recovery often are comprised of individuals whohave never trained together as a group, whose organizationsuse incompatible communication approaches, differentdecisioning rules, are not co-located, and who come fromorganizations with widely differing (potentially competing)cultures and political interests. Even though individual disastermanagers may be competent, overall response effectivenessmay be profoundly impaired by communication problems thatarise at the coalition level. Efforts to increase the ability ofcoalition members to communicate have lead to a wide rangeof technical efforts designed to allow greater information flowbetween response agencies. However, increasing inter-teamcommunication through technology solutions alone has notimproved response performance in disasters.

Time & LeadershipTime & LeadershipTime & LeadershipTime & LeadershipTime & Leadership

The privileges offered by time in ad hoc team developmentare afforded to even the most complex task environments-aviators, naval command teams, and astronauts train untilthey are adequately prepared for the actual task. However, indisaster management the privilege of time is not available.Coalition members must quickly form teams to address a seriesof complex, low probability events that have not be adequatelyaddressed by prior planning and training. As a result of nothaving sufficient time together as a group, problems withconflict, trust, establishing lines of authority, identifyingresources, and developing a shared mental model of the workoften arise. The initial 72 hours following a major disaster iscritical to re-establishing order and preventing secondarycatastrophic events. Response teams do not have the luxury ofgetting to know one another socially or having repeated work


experiences in which differences in their mental models can beironed out.

Another factor is the ambiguity leadership relationships indisaster response coalitions. These networks are often comprisedof peer-to-peer relationships between officials at fairly equivalentresponsibility levels within their respective agencies. No oneindividual is in a position to establish and exert absoluteauthority over the group's interactions or the actions that aretaken as a result of the group deliberation. This organizationalstructure has drawbacks that must be minimized (chaoticcommunication) and benefits that should be capitalized upon(e.g. emergent leadership and flexibility). Together, the problemsof limited time horizon and lack of formal leadership presenta unique set of constraints that must be addressed and overcomeif future disaster response performance is to improve.

Authority Hand-OffsAuthority Hand-OffsAuthority Hand-OffsAuthority Hand-OffsAuthority Hand-Offs

Because of over-reliance on military models of coalitionmanagement, strict authority relationships in coalition disastermanagement research are over-emphasized. Ad hoc teams arenot governed by a single individual with vested authority fromthe outset. Instead, "emergent" leadership may occur, in whichone or several people in the group begin to take on authorityroles based on past experience, domain knowledge, or personalleadership characteristics.

However, emergent leaders in coalitions still face theproblem of authorizing decisions. Typically, the authority to actis not completely vested in the individuals who have the contentknowledge or the resources to solve a particular problem.Authority may be vested in several members of a coalition, orit may have to be obtained from other sources in their parentorganizations. In these situations, disaster managers oftenattempt to "flatten" the bureaucratic hierarchy both withintheir parent organizations and in the coalition itself by assertingauthority or "taking charge." These renegotiations of lines ofauthority are sometime times accomplished easily, for examplewhere an authority figure agrees that knowledge worker is bestsuited to make a decision and hands-off authority "gracefully";

or the transition of authority may be contested in "ungraceful"shifts of authority. While the co-location of authority, knowledge,and resources is necessary for task execution, there is aninevitable performance trade-off when coalition members takecharge. Transfer of authority leads to unplanned actions andallocation of resources that may occur outside the awarenessof other members in the coalition. While operational efficiencyon single tasks improves, eventually, as increasing numbers ofauthority hand-offs occur, the overall operational picturebecomes blurred. Theoretically, an optimal balance betweenauthority hand-offs and operation awareness should exist.

PROBLEMS IN RAPIDLY FORMED DISASTERPROBLEMS IN RAPIDLY FORMED DISASTERPROBLEMS IN RAPIDLY FORMED DISASTERPROBLEMS IN RAPIDLY FORMED DISASTERPROBLEMS IN RAPIDLY FORMED DISASTERRESPONSE AD HOC COALITIONSRESPONSE AD HOC COALITIONSRESPONSE AD HOC COALITIONSRESPONSE AD HOC COALITIONSRESPONSE AD HOC COALITIONS

A number of problems arise in rapidly formed, flexible adhoc teams that may impede performance. These include socio-emotional factors, interoperability factors, and team authorityfactors.

• Dominance & Passivity. Socio-emotional problems mayarise if team members exhibit high levels of dominanceor passivity. In addition to drowning out importantexpert knowledge, dominance in communication systemsresults in low stakeholder acceptance of the team'sdecisions. In contrast, passivity of team membersgenerally results in wider acceptance of decisions by allstakeholders, but the quality of decisioning is lowerthan in groups with either constructive or aggressivegroup styles (Potter et al., 2000, Kildare, 2004).

• Mistrust. It has been hypothesized that trust betweenteam members is one of the central factors in developingconstructive teams. Trust reduces informationwithholding, increases cohesion between members, andeventually facilitates the development of shared mentalmodels of the task environment. Factors that impedetrust include lack of positive leadership, physicaldistance, unpredictable communication patterns, andlow-quality, low frequency feedback. Individualperceptions of others' integrity appears to be particularly


important in the initial phases of team trust (Powell etal., 2004).

• Interoperability failure. Problems in technicalinteroperability factors include lack of uniform namingconventions for assets, resources, and procedures thatare central to disaster recovery. Additionally, lack of acommon decisioning framework (non-technicalinteroperability) between coalition members necessarilyimpairs the development of shared mental models thatare seen as central to effective coordination (Powell etal., 2004).

• Ambiguous Authority Relationships. Coordinationdifficulties in coalitions often occur because authorityto act, expert knowledge, and resources are not co-located in one individual or sub-team within a coalition.Further, attempts to remedy coordination problems areoften compounded by the inefficient use of rich mediacommunication systems (e.g. teleconferencing and videoconferencing) that encourage dominance, passivity, andfeed into the feeling of pressure to act, even if theramifications of an action is not considered fully (Carverand Scheier, 1998, Ramesh and Dennis, 2002).

FACTORS FOUND IN HIGH PERFORMANCE AD HOCFACTORS FOUND IN HIGH PERFORMANCE AD HOCFACTORS FOUND IN HIGH PERFORMANCE AD HOCFACTORS FOUND IN HIGH PERFORMANCE AD HOCFACTORS FOUND IN HIGH PERFORMANCE AD HOCTEAMSTEAMSTEAMSTEAMSTEAMS

While much of the literature on disaster managementemphasizes the need for increased communication, more contactbetween disaster managers alone is not enough to ensure optimalperformance. In fact, increasing, unmodulated communicationcan degrade overall coordination efforts. As team size andproblem complexity increase, high performance teams mustdynamically adapt their structure and communication normsto fit the demands of the task environment. These adaptationscan appear to be counterintuitive, but they make sense onceunderstood within the problem framework presented earlier.

• High performance teams engage in efficientcommunication, not more communication. Efficientcommunication involves "object oriented" team

communication that focuses on semantic richness ratherthan media richness. Researchers in object orientedcommunication argue that, "The object-oriented teammodel shuns tight coupling in favor of a set ofindependent objects, which (1) have standardized orwell-defined processes; (2) exchange information (inputsand outputs) with other objects through well-definedsemantically rich interfaces; and (3) produce a decreasedflow of information." (Ramesh and Dennis, 2002).

• While coordinating is important, effective teams alsopartition duties where possible by vesting authority,knowledge, and resources necessary in one individualor small sub-teams (MacMillan et al., 2004, Entin, 2000),thus minimizing communication overhead. Rapidlyestablishing coordination norms is critical to ensuringeffectiveness (Powell et al., 2004).

• High performance teams build trust rapidly. Althoughrich-media or face-to-face communication may beinefficient in many cases, there is convergent evidencesupporting the utility of face-to-face interactions betweenvirtual team members at the inception of the project.Initial face-to-face meetings may support the buildingof trust, conveyance of subtle non-verbal information,and reduction in the perception of physical distance invirtual teams (Powell et al., 2004). Optimally, teamsiterate through phases of rich media supportedcommunication during the beginning phase of the taskand equivocal situations (where meaning making basedon a large number of alternative interpretations isnecessary), and the use of semantically supportedcommunication in uncertain situations (where there isagreement on course of action, but information is lacking)as semantically rich communication also reducesoverhead and relieves cognitive load (Ramesh andDennis, 2002).

• Establishing norms for communication thatsimultaneously improve trust and decisioning accuracymay be facilitated by positive leadership and feedback


(Jarvenpaaa & Leidner, 1999). Team members andleaders should articulate short and long term goalsexplicitly; expend effort in accurately identifying contentknowledge experts within the team; establish and enforcecommunication and decisioning rules; encourageassertive, non-dominant communication from contentknowledge experts; and actively articulate and acceptpolitico-cultural differences among team constituentsat the outset of the task (Ramesh and Dennis, 2002,Powell et al., 2004, Potter et al., 2000, Härtel and Härtel,1997).

SEMANTICALLY RICH, COGNITIVELY ERGONOMICSEMANTICALLY RICH, COGNITIVELY ERGONOMICSEMANTICALLY RICH, COGNITIVELY ERGONOMICSEMANTICALLY RICH, COGNITIVELY ERGONOMICSEMANTICALLY RICH, COGNITIVELY ERGONOMICDECISION COMMUNICATIONDECISION COMMUNICATIONDECISION COMMUNICATIONDECISION COMMUNICATIONDECISION COMMUNICATION

Decisioning problems that occur in coalition disastermanagement include impaired ability to discriminate betweenimportant and unimportant situational cues, pressure to makedecisions results in reflexive rather than adaptive responses,and increased likelihood of making risky decisions because ofperceived pressure to act. However, even when explicitly taught,experts may not incorporate improved decisioning strategiesinto practice. It has been suggested this lack of adherence tonew decisioning approaches occurs because innovative strategiesdo no take into consideration the information processing stylesof the individual experts and the context in which actualdecisions are made (Härtel and Härtel, 1997). Recent effortsto improve decisioning performance focus on improving thecognitive ergonomics of supported decision making. Oneapproach, the SHAPE decisioning model, encourages situationalevaluation using simple rules empirically demonstrated to bereadily accepted by decision makers and to improve decisioningability in complex, high consequence tasks. SHAPE stands for,"scrutinize symptoms, hypothesize solutions, performmodifications and corrections, and evaluate results" (Härteland Härtel, 1997). We suggest that some of the fundamentaltechniques of the SHAPE model embody the characteristics ofsemantically rich communication and that it is sufficientlyergonomic for rapidly formed ad hoc teams to adopt "on-the-fly" without prior training.

The SHAPE approach offers experts an iterative decisioningprocess that views the rejection of a decision and reexaminationof the problem as forward movement toward a goal, where thisprocess is generally viewed as time consuming and "movingbackwards." Examined from a feedback control perspective,decision makers not only want to reduce the discrepancy betweenthe current situation and the desired outcome (disasterrecovery), but they also monitor progress toward this outcomeover time. Processes that are perceived as blocking progress(e.g. reviewing problem symptoms and re-decisioning) lead toa desire to remove the block and reliance on reflexive responsesunless the block is reframed and viewed as an important sub-goal associated with progress toward the valued outcome (Carverand Scheier, 1998).

SHAPE offers two techniques that may be used by decisionmakers across a variety of situations, but that can also betailored to specific decisioning environments. The indicationrule calls for team members to test the proposed decision to seethat it meets all of the needs identified in the situation. Thecontraindication rule evaluates the decision for possibleundesirable consequences. If both rules are adequately met,the decision is upheld as sound. If not, further reflection on theproblem and possible alternative decisions are needed (Härteland Härtel, 1997). These rules also serve as a basis for "objectoriented" communication that standardizes communicativeinputs and outputs to reduce overall cognitive load on teammembers.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY APPROACHSOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY APPROACHSOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY APPROACHSOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY APPROACHSOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY APPROACH

We argue that modeling effective coalition communicationand coordination techniques during a major disaster event mayprovide a powerful way of changing the behavior of disastermanagers over the course of the event.

The modeling approach overcomes problems associated withdiscrepancies in prior training, mental models, andorganizational biases. By embedding a human model thatbehaves and encourages others to behave using a core set ofcommunication techniques that improve performance, social


modeling may be able to bring order to coordination activities"on-the-fly"-in effect harmonizing the activities of all agentsinvolved even though there is no official leader and the grouphas never trained together before.

Software based moderators for leaderless, ad-hoc onlineteams have been suggested (Kildare, 2004), however, someof the power that a human moderator possesses comes fromhis or her ability to model, provide corrective feedbackacross a wide range of situations, and persuade others abouttheir ability to perform in extreme conditions (Wood andBandura, 1989).

For example, such an agent might encourage the group todiscuss individual expertise, lines of authority, and availableresources without actually assuming authority over the group.In situations in which the agent and other coalition membershad to develop an action plan, the agent might press foralternative view points, simultaneously discouraging dominantand passive social patterns.

Finally, the agent would clearly articulate cognitivelyergonomic, semantically rich decisioning rules and processesthat are easily grasped by others (e.g. indication and contra-indication rules in SHAPE, viewing the analysis of disconfirminginformation as forward rather than backward steps).

The goal of introducing a meta-communication agent tosupport coalition disaster response capitalizes on the emergentleadership paradigm found in ad hoc teams, but seeks to trainemerging leaders with skills that specifically address the socio-emotional, interoperability, and authority ambiguity problemsthat often cripple response (Wood and Bandura, 1989).

DESIGN & PROCEDURESDESIGN & PROCEDURESDESIGN & PROCEDURESDESIGN & PROCEDURESDESIGN & PROCEDURES

ParticipantsParticipantsParticipantsParticipantsParticipants

Students in a Homeland Security masters degree programat the US Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) will participate inthe simulation as part of a Capstone Exercise requirement. Theparticipants are mid-career homeland security professionals in

homeland defense related positions throughout federal andstate governments. The senior author in this proposal (LEB)is an instructor in the masters program and is funded throughNPS to improve the training system.

Current Capstone ExerciseCurrent Capstone ExerciseCurrent Capstone ExerciseCurrent Capstone ExerciseCurrent Capstone Exercise

At present, participants are required to develop a disasterresponse plan for the city of San Luis del Rey, a fictional cityin California. Several hazard scenarios are available, andstudents' disaster plans are evaluated against these scenarios.However, a number of drawbacks have been identified with thecurrent Capstone exercise. These include linear, pre-scriptedscenarios that do not flexibly respond to students' input;undefined decision points; lack of ability to simulate coalitioncommunication and performance; no automated, passive datacollection for later assessment and after-action review; andcomparatively low fidelity to actual coalition disastermanagement performance situations.

Coalition-Level Simulated Work EnvironmentCoalition-Level Simulated Work EnvironmentCoalition-Level Simulated Work EnvironmentCoalition-Level Simulated Work EnvironmentCoalition-Level Simulated Work Environment

The next logical step in improving the Capstone Exerciseis to develop a Simulated Work Environment (SWE) thataddresses the concerns that have been identified with the currenttable-top model. SWEs have been demonstrated to improvefidelity without the expense and overhead associated with high-fidelity simulators. A research simulation system, theDistributed Dynamic Decision-making simulator (DDD) acommercially available tool set that is used extensively in theUS military for A2C2 (Adaptive Architectures for Commandand Control) research will be modified for use in a coalitiondisaster management setting.

The simulator parameters will be changed so that the taskenvironment presents a major disaster facing the city of SanLuis del Rey rather than a military exercise. The linux-basedsimulator has been used in a range of military, commercial, andmedical studies involving team performance on complex tasksand has been made available to us through Aptima's DDDWebgroup with support from the US Navy (Weil et al., 2005,Kleinman and Serfaty, 1989).


Experiment 1Experiment 1Experiment 1Experiment 1Experiment 1

A task environment in which team members must dealwith primary tasks as well as a set of study specific meta-taskswill be presented to teams of 9 participants per trial. Participantswill be instructed that they represent a large response agencyand are responsible for coordinating the agency's efforts withother coalition members. Participants will be told about thepolitical goals of their respective parent organizations andencouraged to both meet the internal goals of the organizationand assist with the overall disaster response effort. Each trialwill last 90 minutes.

Resources, knowledge, and authority will be vested indifferent team members for several important meta-tasks,requiring team members to discuss lines of authority, identifythe best expert in the team, and gather information aboutavailable resources. Successful completion of meta-tasks willinvolve "graceful" transfer of authority, resources, and expertknowledge to individuals or subgroups within the team.Authority assertions may take place, however if they are notexplicitly recognized by the team member originally vestedwith authority, the hand-off is considered to be "ungraceful"and results in team performance costs. In order to approximatethe institutional politico-cultural pressures faced by disastermanagers, individual performance scores which are sensitiveto release of authority will be provided to participants duringthe simulation.

This approach recalls the cooperation vs. defection problemencountered in the prisoner's dilemma, but incorporates thisdesign into a complex system with superordinate goals, allowingfor the impact three important disaster management factors tobe systematically varied in an ecologically valid context. Thesefactors include the presence of a social model who acts as amoderator, the presence or absence of intra-organizationalpolitical costs for coalition members (i.e. political needs of theirparent organization), and effects of face-to-face meetings at theinception of the task.

In the "peer" moderated condition a confederate trained inthe concepts of emergent leadership, coalition communication

strategies, decision support, and authority transfer models thesebehaviors while working as a coalition team member. Theinteractions of the moderator will change over the course of theexperiment and are categorized into three communicationmodeling phases that take place over successive 30 minutesegments while the simulation is running, embodying the sociallearning techniques suggested by Wood & Bandura. Finally,the third factor, involving a face-to-face team building exercisewill be used to evaluate the relative merits of developing initial"swift trust" versus embedded "on-the-fly" communicationmodeling.

Experiment 2Experiment 2Experiment 2Experiment 2Experiment 2

The second experiment follows the same basic format asthe first, but instead of a confederate, the design usesparticipants "infected" by the social model in prior trials withteams composed of new participants. Adoption and usage ofmodeled coordination skills will be evaluated by semanticanalysis of communications coming from the "infected" agent.

Phased Modeling InterventionPhased Modeling InterventionPhased Modeling InterventionPhased Modeling InterventionPhased Modeling Intervention

A phased modeling intervention will be used in which aconfederate moderator first displays and then begins to enforcecommunication, decisioning, and authority rules that arehypothesized to improve coalition performance.

• Phase 1 (0-30 minutes). Moderator displays appropriatecommunication strategies (subtly discourages dominanceand passivity, attempts to resolve conflict, suggestsreductions in information broadcasting in favor of"selective push"), displays indication andcontraindication rule strategies in communications withothers, and graceful authority hand-offs.

• Phase 2 (31-60 minutes). Moderator enforces appropriatecommunication strategies through correction of peer-to-peer communications directed toward the moderator ifthey are dominant or passive, enforces SHAPEdecisioning rules when the moderator is impacted bythe decision, and punishes when peers fail to gracefully


vest authority in the moderator when needed (i.e. teammember delays, does not recognize, or fails to confirmauthority assertion).

• Phase 3 (61-90 minutes). Moderator monitors groupcommunications and points out relationship betweeneffective communication and improved teamperformance, using motivational techniques.

Coalition Performance Dependent VariablesCoalition Performance Dependent VariablesCoalition Performance Dependent VariablesCoalition Performance Dependent VariablesCoalition Performance Dependent Variables

Dependent variables include individual performance scores(i.e. initial good standing with home organization minus costsassociated with vesting authority in other team members), andoverall team performance scores, based on three key coalitionperformance metrics: Assessment accuracy (time required toaccurately identify locations of authority, content expertise,and necessary resources); Adaptability (time required to vestauthority, resources, and knowledge in one person or sub-team); and Anticipation (anticipation ratio, implicit anticipation).

Psychological Performance PredictorsPsychological Performance PredictorsPsychological Performance PredictorsPsychological Performance PredictorsPsychological Performance Predictors

While much of the emphasis in optimal disaster responsehas been placed on creating increased technical interoperability,improving equipment available to first responders, andformalizing procedures, it is clear that these are necessary butnot sufficient efforts to improve performance. Effectivemanagement of large-scale, high-consequence events is alsocontrolled by complex psychological, social, and politicalphenomena. To date, individual psychosocial behavior factorsin organizational performance have focused largely on cognitiveand emotion factors (Jones, 2005). We suggest that personalityand integrative complexity factors may also play a significantrole in optimal disaster management. Further, thesecharacteristics may play a role in individual coalition members'willingness to adopt modeled coordination styles and predictthe use of these styles in future un-moderated disastermanagement situations. Participants will complete the NEO-PI-R personality questionnaire and an integrative complexitytask (PCT, Suedfeld et al., 1992). These measures will be usedon an exploratory basis to identify personality characteristics

that are predictive of emergent leadership qualities andinclination toward accepting and integrating modeledcommunication strategies.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

Joint civilian-military disaster management coalitionsoperate differently than large military-only coalitions on whichmost A2C2 research has been based. Civilian-military coalitionssuffer from poor performance in part because the agents involvedin the coalition can not be expected to have trained togetherprior to the event. Because of the unpredictable nature ofdisasters it is unrealistic to assume that all parties will beadequately trained in Incident Command System/UnifiedCommand. Further, many of the assumptions of ICS/UC arebroken in high-level joint coalitions because of divergent politico-cultural interests of the supporting agencies. A deeperunderstanding of the role that time limitations, ambiguousleadership roles, authority hand-offs, and emergent leadershipplay in these coalitions is needed in order to provide effectiveinterventions that will improve overall disaster response.

We argue that efficient, object oriented communication;cognitively ergonomic decisioning rules; and trust enhancingstrategies may be socially modeled "on the fly," thus overcomingsome of the problems with poor performance in rapidly formedad hoc coalitions. Further, personality factors may predisposesome individuals to be better at modeling these behaviors andserving as emergent communication moderators in unfoldingdisasters. Training such individuals in these strategies, inaddition to their primary disaster management tasks, mayprovide one avenue to performance optimization.

The results of the present study will be incorporated intothe training model for the Masters program in HomelandSecurity at the US Naval Postgraduate School. Future researchand development efforts will involve replicating the DDD-basedsimulation used here in a simplified Advanced Distance Learningbased simulation that can be widely used with disaster responseprofessionals.

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IIIIINDEXNDEXNDEXNDEXNDEX

AAAAAAccountability, 44, 275.Arrangements, 20, 33, 34, 63,

82, 94, 142, 144, 146,178, 214, 219, 238, 286,287.

Association, 62, 82, 181.

BBBBBBudget, 45, 120, 121, 259.Building Disaster Risk

Reduction, 75.

CCCCCCoalition Disaster, 306, 308,

310, 314, 316, 317.Commission, 6, 11, 15, 82,

212.Communication, 1, 2, 3, 4, 23,

26, 42, 55, 70, 88, 89,93, 99, 101, 103, 106,127, 128, 139, 149, 179,225, 226, 229, 244, 250,255, 258, 259, 266, 269,270, 271, 272, 273, 274,275, 276, 277, 279, 286,287, 288, 290, 291, 292,293, 295, 296, 297, 302,303, 306, 307, 308, 309,310, 311, 312, 313, 314,315, 316, 317, 318, 319,320, 321.

Conflict, 95, 222, 316, 319,321.

Consumer, 269.Contributions, 80, 105, 295.Crisis, 28, 31, 54, 65, 71, 94,

225, 269, 270, 271, 272,273, 274, 277, 287.

Crop, 7, 10, 15, 141, 149,156, 203, 206.

Culture, 61, 77, 84, 97, 107,113, 246.

Cyclone, 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10,16, 19, 22, 97, 115,116, 123, 125, 128, 138,139, 141, 142, 146, 147,148, 149, 161, 163, 164,182, 183, 184, 185, 187,188, 194, 197, 198, 201,225, 226, 243, 249, 294,298.

DDDDDDisaster Risk Communication,

88, 89, 93.Disaster Risk Reduction, 25, 36,

54, 75, 82, 84, 89, 105,110, 219.

Diseases, 15, 96, 156.Doctrine, 55.Drought, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 16,

115, 125, 130, 137, 139,141, 148, 149, 151, 152,157, 173, 174, 177, 180,181, 184, 186, 202, 203,204, 211, 221, 225, 226,298, 299.

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects IndexIndexIndexIndexIndex326326326326326 327327327327327

EEEEEEarthquake, 2, 11, 12, 13, 16,

19, 22, 23, 55, 57, 69,72, 75, 88, 92, 93, 97,101, 114, 115, 116, 120,123, 198, 199, 241, 243,259, 287, 293, 294, 298.

Emergency Management, 53,54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63,64, 65, 66, 82, 94, 95,96, 101, 125.

Emergency Managers, 55, 59,62.

Eruption, 1, 13, 14, 16, 227,287.

Evaluation, 82, 93, 94, 113,119, 120, 128, 129, 130,131, 145, 150, 303, 314.

FFFFFFlood Management, 82, 137,

164.Forest Fire, 1, 2, 15.Framework, 1, 18, 19, 23, 30,

31, 33, 34, 63, 91, 92,93, 97, 114, 116, 117,118, 138, 143, 144, 208,212, 214, 215, 232, 239,242, 243, 245, 247, 248,249, 254, 306, 312.

HHHHHHazards, 2, 14, 19, 21, 31,

32, 37, 38, 53, 54, 55,57, 67, 77, 79, 97, 100,101, 102, 118, 122, 124,125, 126, 127, 128, 129,132, 133, 134, 136, 137,139, 140, 142, 146, 151,181, 207, 209, 214, 215,216, 218, 219, 222, 223,227, 228, 243, 247, 250,251, 281.

IIIIIIdentity, 97.Insurance, 54, 57, 110, 143,

149, 160, 224, 246, 253,302.

Integration, 22, 32, 53, 67,86, 97, 131, 136, 179,219, 223, 232, 235, 307.

Investment, 33, 78, 83, 84,89, 90, 93, 100, 101,107, 110, 122, 143, 217,219.

LLLLLLandslides, 2, 14, 57, 80, 105,

108, 109, 126, 151, 153,155, 181, 182, 183, 184,185, 186, 189, 199, 201,211, 220, 221, 225, 226,299.

Leadership, 89, 292, 301, 309,310, 311, 313, 316, 318,321.

MMMMMManagers, 55, 59, 62, 79, 80,

94, 134, 226, 307, 308,309, 310, 312, 315, 318.

Media, 59, 62, 65, 67, 69, 70,71, 74, 89, 99, 101,105, 107, 223, 259, 266,277, 278, 287, 291, 297,312, 313.

Mission, 7, 8, 15, 63, 111,236, 304.

Monitoring, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10,12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 34,73, 74, 93, 94, 106,113, 119, 120, 130, 131,136, 149, 219, 226, 228,232, 235, 241, 264, 265,268, 288, 289.

NNNNNNational Systems, 223.Natural Disaster, 2, 5, 20, 24,

25, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35,36, 39, 45, 77, 80, 114,115, 122, 123, 125, 130,136, 138, 142, 143, 144,146, 148, 150, 151, 158,181, 182, 183, 184, 185,186, 189, 202, 205, 214,217, 222, 224, 275, 278.

Natural Disasters, 1, 2, 3, 5,16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 32,41, 75, 95, 117, 118,122, 123, 124, 126, 133,139, 141, 150, 151, 176,177, 181, 185, 186, 204,205, 211, 212, 213, 214,216, 217, 220, 221, 222,225, 226, 228, 271, 276,294, 297.

OOOOOOptions, 19, 103, 104, 135,

158, 161, 228, 233, 283.Organisations, 58, 62, 65, 112,

113, 116, 118, 119, 243,295, 297, 298.

PPPPPPartnerships, 18, 19, 20, 23,

33, 43, 76, 81, 82, 86,92, 100, 103, 110, 112,116, 214, 221.

Peasants, 125.Planning, 3, 14, 19, 20, 21,

34, 35, 43, 53, 54, 58,59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 73,79, 80, 84, 86, 87, 91,92, 93, 98, 99, 101,103, 104, 107, 112, 132,135, 136, 140, 141, 143,146, 149, 151, 161, 162,

170, 172, 176, 179, 180,197, 198, 202, 204, 215,217, 219, 221, 223, 224,228, 240, 243, 249, 254,256, 264, 270, 272, 277,294, 309.

Platforms, 85, 106, 227, 293.Policy, 26, 30, 78, 79, 80, 84,

86, 92, 100, 101, 104,106, 111, 112, 179, 180,181, 212, 215, 221, 222,237, 239, 240, 241, 242,243, 244, 245, 247, 248,253, 254, 257, 261, 263,291, 302.

Prediction, 3, 5, 6, 9, 12, 16,104, 109, 137, 138, 139,227, 228, 234, 235.

Preparedness, 1, 3, 5, 15, 16,17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24,25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 33,35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,41, 42, 43, 54, 55, 56,57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64,66, 67, 68, 74, 76, 77,78, 79, 80, 91, 92, 93,96, 99, 105, 109, 111,116, 117, 118, 119, 125,133, 134, 135, 137, 138,139, 141, 143, 144, 145,147, 148, 151, 158, 159,160, 161, 178, 204, 205,207, 208, 210, 211, 212,213, 214, 215, 217, 219,220, 221, 222, 223, 224,226, 229, 238, 239, 243,248, 249, 253, 254, 255,288, 289, 291, 292, 293,297, 298, 299.

Prevention, 2, 5, 16, 19, 22,23, 36, 61, 89, 91, 95,96, 111, 122, 124, 133,134, 135, 136, 138, 140,

Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects328328328328328 Disaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and EffectsDisaster Management : Causes and Effects 329329329329329

CCCCCONTENTSONTENTSONTENTSONTENTSONTENTS

Preface

1. Introduction 1

2. Disaster Risk Management Programme 17

3. Emergency Management 53

4. Building Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia:A Way Forward 75

5. Strategic Framework for Disaster RiskManagement after the Gujarat Earthquake 114

6. Water Hazards, Resources and Management forDisaster Prevention 122

7. Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Optionsfor the ESCAP Region 158

8. Regional Cooperation on Disaster Managementand Preparedness 211

9. Satellite Technology for Disaster Management 225

10. Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy 237

11. Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences 269

12. Disaster Response 275

13. Coping with Disasters through EffectiveInter-organizational Networks 285

14. Improving Military-Civilian CoalitionDisaster Management Performance 306

Bibliography 322

Index 325

141, 143, 144, 145, 148,158, 159, 160, 190, 202,205, 207, 208, 216, 217,223, 224, 225, 238, 243,248, 253, 254, 255, 256,270.

Priority, 78, 84, 85, 88, 89,99, 100, 139, 141, 149,210, 220, 233, 257, 258,286, 289, 292.

Professions, 3, 60.Project, 6, 7, 8, 11, 15, 20,

21, 23, 29, 31, 34, 35,41, 44, 77, 80, 84, 85,86, 89, 92, 93, 104,108, 115, 116, 117, 119,120, 130, 147, 215, 221,222, 231, 264, 265, 267,301, 302, 313.

RRRRRRecovery, 7, 17, 19, 20, 22,

23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,29, 31, 36, 37, 38, 40,54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,61, 62, 63, 68, 70, 71,73, 74, 85, 116, 128,133, 215, 216, 217, 221,229, 238, 246, 266, 271,280, 283, 299, 300, 301,302, 304, 305, 309, 312,315.

Red Cross, 56, 63.Research, 12, 30, 31, 35, 37,

38, 40, 43, 103, 105,118, 141, 151, 156, 177,193, 249, 253, 265, 270,277, 283, 284, 285, 287,315, 317, 321.

Risk Communication, 88, 89,93, 99, 101, 103.

Risk Evaluation, 129.Risk Reduction, 24, 25, 32, 36,

43, 54, 75, 79, 82, 84,89, 93, 98, 99, 101,105, 110, 119, 214, 215,217, 219, 238, 241, 254.

SSSSSSatellite, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11,

12, 13, 14, 15, 70, 73,131, 149, 178, 225, 226,231, 232, 233, 234, 235,276, 279, 292.

Society, 3, 18, 20, 23, 24, 28,31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39,53, 65, 72, 100, 132,135, 241, 249, 253, 272,311, 312, 313, 315, 316,318, 319, 321.

Space Technology, 1, 3, 5, 15,16.

Strategy, 1, 21, 25, 26, 31,36, 37, 43, 80, 116,197, 204, 214, 215, 219,227, 237, 242, 243, 247,248, 255, 291, 296, 297.

Sustainability, 20, 31, 34, 35,42, 86, 193, 238, 246.

TTTTTTransparency, 44, 100.

UUUUUUrban Disaster Risk Manage-

ment, 76, 77, 79, 86, 97.Urban Risk, 99, 108, 109.

VVVVVViolence, 96, 108, 271.Volcanic Eruption, 1, 13, 16,

227.

PREFACEPREFACEPREFACEPREFACEPREFACE

Natural disasters cause major and widespread loss of lifeand property damage from time to time. Losses caused bynatural disaster events are particularly damaging, deprivingcountries of resources which could otherwise be used foreconomic and social development. The toll from such disastersis most severe and tragic in the developing countries of theregion, which have sometimes had their development goals setback years and even decades as a consequence of major disasterimpacts.

The primary objective of the Decade is to reduce, throughconcerted international action, and especially in developingcountries, the loss of life, property damage and social andeconomic disruption caused by natural disasters, such asearthquakes, windstorms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcaniceruptions, drought and other calamities of natural origin.

This book is concerned with all types of natural disasters.A companion paper is being prepared on the topic of geology-related disasters.

— Author

DDDDDISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTERISASTER M M M M MANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENTANAGEMENT : : : : :CCCCCAUSESAUSESAUSESAUSESAUSES ANDANDANDANDAND E E E E EFFECTSFFECTSFFECTSFFECTSFFECTS