Gold of the Pharaohs— 6000 Years Of Gold Mining In
Egypt and NubiaDietrich Klemm a, Rosemarie Klemm b, Andreas Murr a
1. Introduction
The natural southern border of Ancient Egypt was the region around Aswan with settlements on the Nile island of Elephan-tine. The desert region east of this locationwas more or less under Pharaonic con-trol, at least during the Old Kingdom (2700–2160 BC) and Middle Kingdom (2119–1794 BC) but also during New King-dom (1550–1070 BC) times, whereas during the different intermediate periods less Egyptian control of the Eastern Desert is documented. Large parts of this Eastern
Desert belong geologically to the Precam-brian basement of the Arabian–Nubian shield and host around 250 gold produc-tion sites, which were mined during dif-ferent periods of ancient Egyptian history. Most of these sites were visited by the authors during four field campaignsbetween 1989 and 1993, and three addi-tional campaigns during 1996–1999 in the Sudanese Nubian Desert (see Figs. 9 and 10, discussed later). In the 1960s and 1970s expert teams of the Egyptian Geological Research Authority (EGSMA), the Geological Research Authority of the Sudan (GRAS) and the Soviet Techno Export group carried out extensive gold prospection programs in Egypt and NE Sudan. At the locations of all economically significant gold anomalies they discovered traces of extant mining such as stone mills, remains
The
Hou
se
That
Hov
a B
uilt
By
Zadi
e Sm
ith
It’s
diffi
cult
to k
now
wha
t to
ask
a ra
pper
. It’s
not
unl
ike
the
diffi
culty
(I im
agin
e) o
f bei
ng a
ra
pper
. Wha
teve
r you
say
mus
t be
con
side
red
from
at l
east
thre
e an
gles
, and
it’s
an
awkw
ard
tria
n-gu
latio
n. In
one
cor
ner y
ou h
ave
your
har
d-co
re h
ip-h
op h
eads
; th
e ty
pe fo
r who
m th
e tr
ue J
ay-Z
w
ill fo
reve
r be
that
gift
ed 2
5-ye
ar
old
with
rapi
d-fir
e flo
w, t
radi
ng
vers
es w
ith th
e vi
sion
ary
teen
-ag
er B
ig L
— “
I’m s
o ah
ead
of
my
time,
my
pare
nts
have
n’t m
et
yet!”
— o
n a
“rar
e” (e
asily
dug
up
on
YouT
ube)
sev
en-m
inut
e fr
eest
yle
from
199
5. M
eanw
hile
, ov
er h
ere
stan
ds th
e po
p-ra
p
fan.
She
love
s th
e Ji
ggam
an
with
his
pas
sion
for t
he E
mpi
re
Stat
e B
uild
ing
and
bold
cla
ims
to
“Run
Thi
s To
wn.
” Fi
nally
, in
the
crow
ded
third
cor
ner,
stan
d th
e m
any
peop
le w
ho fe
el ra
p is
not
m
usic
at a
ll bu
t rat
her a
form
of
soci
al p
robl
em. T
hey
have
onl
y on
e qu
estio
n to
ask
a ra
pper
, and
it
conc
erns
his
cho
ice
of v
ocab
-ul
ary.
(Yea
rs p
ass.
The
que
stio
n ne
ver c
hang
es.)
How
to s
peak
to
thes
e au
dien
ces
sim
ulta
neou
sly?
Cylindrical granitic rotation stone mill (quern) with wellpreserved upper rotation stones for central and peripheral handle sticks, intro-duced by the Romans but predominantly used in Arab times. Gabatilo Arab mining camp, Nubian Desert, NE Sudan.
Cyl
indr
ical
gra
nitic
rota
tion
ston
e m
ill (q
uern
) with
w
ellp
rese
rved
upp
er ro
tatio
n st
ones
for c
entra
l an
d pe
riphe
ral h
andl
e st
icks
, int
rodu
ced
by th
e R
oman
s bu
t pre
dom
inan
tly u
sed
in A
rab
times
. G
abat
ilo A
rab
min
ing
cam
p, N
ubia
n D
eser
t, N
E
Sud
an.
aInstitut fur Allgemeine und Angewandte Geologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universita€at M€unchen, Luisenstrasse 37, D-80333 M€unchen,
Germany b Institut fur Ägyptologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munchen, Meiserstrasse 10, D-80333 Munchen, Germany
Received 18 April 2001; accepted 27 July 2001
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
of settlements and mine-shafts, indicatinga long history of ancient extraction. Unfortunately these expert groups never co-operated with archaeo-logical specialists in order to classify the many remaining ancient mining traces and tools and this interesting aspect of historical prospecting efforts was thus left uninvestigated. It was the goal of the stud-ies described here to fill this gap; thanks to generous funding from the German Volk-swagen Foundation, we were able to visit, in co-operation with EGSMA and GRAS, most of the known gold production sites and even to rediscover quite a number of hitherto unknown ancient mining loca-tions. The most important aim of our expeditions was a systematic survey, en-compassing archaeological inspectionand classification of the remaining, mostly previously undescribed archaeological surface inventory and material, and a pre-liminary investigation of the geologicalsetting of the mining sites. Additionally, information was sought on the pros-pecting, exploitation and ore processing methods of the ancient miners. In modern times mineral explora-tion is assisted by complex computer aided
Cylindrical granitic rotation stone mill (quern) with well-preserved upper rotation stones for central and peripheral handle sticks, introduced by the Romans but predominantly used in Arab times. Gabatilo Arab mining camp, Nubian Desert, NE Sudan.
processing of satellite spectral imagery, highly sophisticated geochemical, petro-graphical and geophysical investigations, together with detailed geological field work. Nothing of that kind was available to the ancient prospectors, who most effectively executed their profession in search of scarce gold finds during thePredynastic to Middle Kingdom times, in the vast regions of the Egyptian and even more difficult Nubian Desert, during the relatively short span of 140 years betweenThutmosis III and Amenophis IV (roughly 1480–1340 BC). During this period almost all important gold mining sites in the Eastern Desert of Egypt and in theNubian Desert were discovered and exploited.
We visited almost 250 gold production sites. At most places only surface invento-ry, the examination of remainingopen cast workings, accessible under-ground diggings and a preliminary map-ping and sampling of the geology could be performed, due to lack of permission and/or time for detailed excavations and geological fieldwork.
2. Geological Setting of the Gold Deposits of the Egyptian and Nubian Deserts
The gold occurrences described in this study are located in the Precambrian base-ment of Egypt and Sudan, also called the Arabian–Nubian shield (ANS), whichextends from the river Nile eastwards towards the Arabian Peninsula. To the south, the continuation of the ANS is the Mozambique Belt (Vail, 1988). It is generally accepted that the ANS formed in the Neoproterozoic (Kroner, 1979) by a complex accretion of € terranes onto a A
nyw
ay: I
’m a
t a li
ttle
tabl
e in
a h
omey
Ita
lian
rest
aura
nt o
n M
ulbe
rry
Stre
et
wai
ting
for M
r. Sh
awn
Car
ter,
who
ha
s pe
rfec
ted
the
art o
f tria
ngul
atio
n.
It’s
whe
re h
e lik
es to
eat
his
chi
cken
pa
rms.
He’
s no
t lat
e. H
e’s
dres
sed
like
a ki
d, in
ca
p an
d je
ans,
if h
e sa
id h
e w
as 3
0 yo
u w
ould
n’t d
oubt
him
. (H
e’s
42.)
He’
s ov
er-
whe
lmin
gly
fam
iliar
, whi
ch is
of c
ours
e a
func
tion
of h
is fa
me
— ra
p su
pers
tar,
husb
and
of B
eyon
cé, m
inor
ity o
wne
r of
the
Net
s, w
hose
new
hom
e, th
e B
arcl
ays
Cen
ter i
n B
rook
lyn,
will
ope
n th
is m
onth
—
but
als
o of
the
fact
he’
s be
en s
peak
-in
g in
to o
ur e
ars
for s
o lo
ng. N
o on
e st
ares
. The
sel
f-pro
clai
med
“gr
eate
st
rapp
er a
live”
is tr
eate
d lik
e a
piec
e of
the
furn
iture
. Ah,
but
ther
e’s
alw
ays
one:
a
prep
py w
hite
guy
dis
cree
tly o
pera
ting
his
iPho
ne’s
reve
rse-
cam
era
func
tion.
It’
s an
old
hus
tle; i
t mak
es J
ay c
huck
le:
“The
y th
ink
they
’re th
e fir
st o
ne w
ho’s
ev
er c
ome
up w
ith th
at c
once
pt.”
He
likes
to o
rder
for p
eopl
e. A
ppar
ently
I l
ook
like
the
fish-
sand
wic
h ty
pe. A
sked
if he
thin
ks th
is is
a g
ood
time
for h
ip-
hop,
he
enth
uses
abo
ut h
ow in
clus
ive
hip-
hop
is: “
It pr
ovid
ed a
gat
eway
to
conv
ersa
tions
that
nor
mal
ly w
ould
not
be
had
.” A
nd n
ow th
at ra
p’s
reac
hed
this
unp
rece
dent
ed le
vel o
f cul
tura
l ac
cept
ance
, may
be w
e’re
fina
lly fr
ee
to c
eleb
rate
the
form
with
out n
eedi
ng
to c
ontin
ually
def
end
it. S
ay th
at I’
m
fool
ish
I onl
y ta
lk a
bout
jew
els/
Do
you
fool
s lis
ten
to m
usic
or d
o yo
u ju
st
skim
thro
ugh
it? H
e’s
not s
o su
re: “
It’s
funn
y ho
w y
ou c
an s
ay th
ings
like
that
in
pla
in E
nglis
h an
d th
en p
eopl
e st
ill
do it
.” H
e is
mild
ly d
isap
poin
ted
that
afte
r pub
lishi
ng “
Dec
oded
,” h
is 2
010
mem
oir,
peop
le s
till a
sk th
e sa
me
old
ques
tions
. The
flip
panc
y an
noys
him
, th
e ea
se w
ith w
hich
som
e st
ill d
ism
iss
rap
as “
som
ethi
ng th
at’s
just
this
bad
la
ngua
ge, o
r guy
s w
ho d
egra
de w
omen
, an
d th
ey d
on’t
real
ize
the
poet
ry a
nd
the
art.”
Thi
s is
per
haps
one
dow
nsid
e to
hav
ing
the
“flow
of t
he c
entu
ry.”
With
Tup
ac, y
ou c
an h
ear t
he e
ffort
, the
ar
tistr
y. A
nd B
iggi
e’s
wor
ds fi
rst h
ad
to s
trug
gle
free
of t
he s
heer
bul
k of
the
Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm, and Andreas Murr
Cylindrical granitic rotation stone mill (quern) with wellpreserved upper rotation stones for central and peripheral handle sticks, intro-duced by the Romans but predominantly used in Arab times. Gabatilo Arab mining camp, Nubian Desert, NE Sudan.
man
him
self.
Whe
n Ja
y ra
ps, i
t pou
rs
right
into
you
r ear
like
wat
er fr
om a
tap.
The
fish
sand
wic
h ar
rives
. Con
vers
a-tio
n tu
rns
to th
e sc
hool
boy
who
was
sh
ot to
dea
th, T
rayv
on M
artin
— “
It’s
real
ly h
eart
brea
king
, tha
t tha
t stil
l can
ha
ppen
in th
is d
ay a
nd a
ge”
— a
nd,
soon
afte
r, to
Oba
ma:
“I’v
e sa
id th
e el
ectio
n of
Oba
ma
has
mad
e th
e hu
stle
r le
ss re
leva
nt.”
Whe
n he
firs
t mad
e th
is
poin
t, “P
eopl
e to
ok it
in a
way
that
I w
as
alm
ost d
ism
issi
ng w
hat I
am
. And
I w
as
like:
no,
it’s
a g
ood
thin
g!”
He
didn
’t ha
ve O
bam
a gr
owin
g up
, onl
y th
e lo
cal
hust
ler.
“No
one
cam
e to
our
nei
ghbo
r-ho
ods,
with
sta
nd-u
p jo
bs, a
nd s
how
ed
us th
ere’
s a
diffe
rent
way
. May
be h
ad I
seen
diff
eren
t rol
e m
odel
s, m
aybe
I’d’
ve
turn
ed o
n to
that
.” D
ifficu
lt to
kee
p th
ese
two
Am
eric
as in
you
r min
d. Im
agin
e liv
ing
it —
with
in o
ne li
fetim
e!
In “
Dec
oded
,” J
ay-Z
writ
es th
at “
rap
is b
uilt
to h
andl
e co
ntra
dict
ions
,” a
nd
Hov
a, a
s he
is n
ickn
amed
, is
as c
ontr
a-di
ctor
y as
they
com
e. P
artly
bec
ause
he
’s a
gen
eral
ist.
Big
gie
had
bette
r bo
asts
, Tup
ac d
ropp
ed m
ore
know
ledg
e,
Emin
em is
— a
s “R
eneg
ade”
dem
on-
stra
ted
— m
ore
form
ally
dex
tero
us.
But
Hov
a’s
the
all-r
ound
er. H
is a
lbum
s ar
e sh
owro
oms
of h
ip-h
op, d
ispl
ayin
g th
e va
rious
pos
sibi
litie
s of
the
form
. Th
e pe
rson
a is
coo
l, ca
lm, a
lmos
t fr
ustr
atin
gly
self-
cont
rolle
d: “
Yeah
, 50
Cen
t tol
d m
e th
at o
ne ti
me.
He
said
: ‘Yo
u go
t me
look
ing
like
Bar
ksda
le’ ”
— th
e ho
t-blo
oded
dru
g ki
ngpi
n fr
om H
BO
’s
“The
Wire
” —
“an
d yo
u ge
t to
be S
trin
g-er
Bel
l!” —
Bar
ksda
le’s
leve
lhea
ded
part
-ne
r. Th
e ra
pper
Mem
phis
Ble
ek, w
ho h
as
know
n Ja
y-Z
sinc
e B
leek
him
self
was
14
, con
firm
s th
is im
pres
sion
: “H
e ha
d
pre-existing pre-Panafrican Basementcalled the Nile craton or East Sahara craton (Bertrand and Caby, 1978; Stern, 1994). Contacts between that craton and the Panafrican belt are exposed in north-ern Sudan (e.g. Stern et al., 1988), whereas the existence of pre-Panafrican basement in the Eastern Desert of Egypt is doubtful (Kroner et al., 1994). The first stage in the evolution of the ANS was the accretion of several terranes or volcanic arcs (Kroner € et al., 1992), consisting mainly of complex intercalations of mafic (basaltic–andesitic) to acid (rhyolitic–dacitic) volcanics, such
as ignimbrites and tuffs as well as sedimen-tary rocks, such as greywackes, siltstones, conglomerates and marbles. Between these different terranes, ophiolitic sequences (partly composed of mafic to ultramafic units, and including serpentinitic xeno-liths from the upper mantle) occur as prominent suture zones. An example of a complete ophiolitic sequence can be observed in the region of Bir Umm el–Fawakhir (El Gaby et al., 1988; Langwieder, 1994), in the Eastern Desert. At least five terranes or microplates, sepa-rated by suture zones have been identified (Stoeser and Stacey, 1988) within the ANS (Fig. 1). Age determinations (Jackson and Ramsay, 1980; Stern, 1994) indicate thatcollision and terrane assembly began earlier in the Arabian shield than in the
Nubian shield. Island arc volcanic rocks and ophiolitic sequences formed between 700 and 800 Ma (Stern and Hedge, 1985). These rocks are overlain by calc-alka-line volcanic rocks (Dokhan Volcanic Suite) and clastic sedimentary rocks (Hammamat Group; conglomerates, greywackes, siltstones). The Hammamat Group is interpreted as molasse-type sedi-ments, indicating an extensional stagewith the formation of intra-arc graben basins. The volcanic rocks of the Dokhan Group, which extruded approximately synchronously with deposition of themolasse sediments, are regarded as repre-senting further volcanic arc magmatism. Fold structures in the Hammamatand Dokhan Groups indicate a late compressional phase, which might be the result of a collision the accreted terranes with the East-Sahara craton (Abdel-salam, 1993; Abdelsalam and Stern, 1996). During that late stage of the evolution of the ANS, post-orogenic granites, dated between 620 and 570 Ma (Hassanand Hashad, 1990) intruded. However, shear zones and fold-structures within the post-orogenic intrusive rockssupport further tectonic activity. Promi-
Cyl
indr
ical
gra
nitic
rota
tion
ston
e m
ill (q
uern
) with
wel
l-pr
eser
ved
uppe
r rot
atio
n st
ones
for c
entra
l and
per
iphe
ral
hand
le s
ticks
, int
rodu
ced
by th
e R
oman
s bu
t pre
dom
inan
t-ly
use
d in
Ara
b tim
es. G
abat
ilo A
rab
min
ing
cam
p, N
ubia
n D
eser
t, N
E S
udan
.
“I’m
so
ahea
d of
m
y tim
e, m
y pa
rent
s ha
ven’
t met
yet
!”
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
a se
nse
of c
alm
way
bef
ore
mus
ic. T
his
was
Jay
’s p
lan
from
day
one
: to
take
ov
er. I
gue
ss th
at’s
why
he
smile
s an
d is
so c
alm
, ’ca
use
he d
id e
xact
ly w
hat h
e pl
anne
d in
the
’90s
.” A
nd n
ow, b
y vi
rtue
of
bei
ng 4
2 an
d no
t dea
d, h
e ca
n cl
aim
hi
s ow
n un
ique
sel
ling
prop
ositi
on: h
e’s
an a
rtis
t as
old
as h
is a
rt fo
rm. T
he tw
o ha
ve g
row
n up
toge
ther
.Ja
y-Z,
like
rap
itsel
f, st
arte
d ou
t py-
rote
chni
cal.
Extr
emel
y fa
st, s
tack
ed,
dens
e. B
ut ti
me
pass
ed a
nd h
is fl
ow g
ot
slow
er, o
pene
d up
. Why
? “I
did
n’t h
ave
enou
gh li
fe e
xper
ienc
e, s
o w
hat I
was
do
ing
was
mor
e te
chni
cal.
I was
tryi
ng
to im
pres
s te
chni
cally
. To
do th
ings
th
at o
ther
peo
ple
cann
ot d
o. L
ike,
you
ca
n’t d
o th
is”
— in
sert
bea
t-box
and
si
mul
tane
ous
free
styl
e he
re —
“yo
u ju
st
can’
t do
that
.” N
ope.
Can
’t ev
en th
ink
of
a no
tatio
n to
dem
onst
rate
wha
t he
just
di
d. J
ay-Z
in te
chni
cian
mod
e is
hum
an
voic
e as
pur
e sy
ncop
atio
n. O
n a
trac
k lik
e “I
Can
’t G
et W
ith T
hat,”
from
199
4,
the
man
ifest
con
tent
of t
he m
usic
is n
ev-
er re
ally
the
wor
ds th
emse
lves
; it’s
the
rhyt
hm th
ey c
reat
e. A
nd if
you
don
’t ca
re
abou
t bea
ts, h
e sa
ys, “
You’
ve m
isse
d th
e w
hole
poi
nt.”
Plen
ty d
id, h
earin
g on
ly a
you
ng b
lack
m
an, b
oast
ing.
I go
t wat
ches
I ai
n’t s
een
in m
onth
s/A
part
men
t at t
he T
rum
p I o
nly
slep
t in
once
.
But
ask
ing
why
rapp
ers
alw
ays
talk
ab
out t
heir
stuf
f is
like
aski
ng w
hy
Milt
on is
fore
ver l
istin
g th
e at
trib
utes
of
heav
enly
arm
ies.
Bec
ause
boa
stin
g is
a
form
al c
ondi
tion
of th
e ep
ic fo
rm. A
nd
thos
e ta
ught
that
they
des
erve
not
hing
rig
htly
enj
oy it
whe
n th
ey s
ucce
ed in
te
rms
the
cultu
re u
nder
stan
ds. T
hen
som
ethi
ng c
hang
ed: “
As
I sta
rted
ge
tting
life
exp
erie
nces
, I re
aliz
ed m
y po
wer
was
in c
onve
ying
em
otio
ns th
at
peop
le fe
lt.”
He
com
pare
d hi
mse
lf to
a
com
edia
n w
hose
joke
s tr
igge
r thi
s re
actio
n: “
Yo, t
hat’s
so
true
.” H
e st
arte
d st
oryt
ellin
g —
peo
ple
wer
e m
esm
eriz
ed.
“Frie
nd o
r Foe
” (1
996)
, whi
ch c
once
rns
a co
nfro
ntat
ion
betw
een
two
hust
lers
, is
rap
in it
s m
aste
rful
, ful
l-blo
wn,
nar
rativ
e fo
rm. N
ot ju
st a
mon
olog
ue, b
ut a
sto
ry,
com
plet
e w
ith d
ialo
gue,
sce
ne s
ettin
g,
char
acte
rizat
ion.
With
in it
s co
mic
flow
an
d lig
ht to
uch
— fr
ee fr
om th
e re
lent
-le
ss s
ince
rity
of T
upac
— y
ou c
an h
ear
the
seed
s of
50,
Lil
Way
ne, E
min
em, s
o m
any
othe
rs. “
That
was
the
first
one
w
here
it w
as s
o ob
viou
s,”
Jay
note
d. H
e sa
id th
e so
ng re
pres
ente
d an
impo
rtan
t tu
rnin
g po
int,
the
mom
ent w
hen
he
“rea
lized
I w
as d
oing
it.”
At t
imes
he
rest
ricts
him
self
form
ally
, lik
e th
e O
ulip
o, th
at e
xper
imen
tal F
renc
h lit
erar
y gr
oup
of th
e 19
60s.
In th
e
nent shear zones became active, like the Najd fault system (Fleck et al., 1980; Fritz et al., 1996) or the Oko-shear zone in the Sudan (Abdelsalam, 1993, 1994) (Fig. 2). In the final stage of the orogenic evolution of the ANS, crustal extensioncan be assumed due to the occurrence of mafic and A-type felsic dike swarms (Stern et al., 1988). After a prolonged period of erosion these basement sequences were largely covered by sand during theCretaceous period (at about 90 Ma), form-ing the Nubian Sandstone. This sandstone was eroded during the relatively young continental uplift of the flanks of the Red Sea rift system. During this denudational period, the Precambrian basement with its gold-bearing quartzveins and quartz-filled shear zones became exposed at the surface and was thus open to exploitation.2.1. New Investigations on Gold Mineralization Gold occurrences in the ANS are mainly confined to quartz-mineralized shear zones, which occur in the ophiolitic sequences, the island arc assemblages, theHammamat and Dokhan Groups and in the post-orogenic granitoids. The latter seem to have had an important influence on gold mineralization, as productiveshear zones and quartz veins often occur in the granitoids themselves or in their direct vicinity. Analytical investigationsof different rocks in the ANS (e.g. ser-pentinites, basalts, clastic sedimentary rocks) indicate exposed gold concentra-tions of 20–50 ppb in mafic rocks and clas-tic sediments, and concentrations close to 200 ppb in the serpentinites (Langwieder, 1994). However, unaltered granitic rocks did not show positive gold anomalies(Murr, 1999). Structural investigations of the shear zones showed that they were formed during the previously mentioned
compressional or transpressional late stageevents of the orogeny. Post-orogenic intru-sions, predating the quartz veins or shear zones, provided heat sources. The latter resulted in the formation of hydrothermal
convection cells, and interstitial waters dissolved availablemineral species; where such cells were present, low concentrations of gold were derived from the strained rocks, due to elevated temperature and pressure. Where the aquifers provided open spaces, such as in the shear zones,
the hydrothermal fluids precipitated their dissolved mineral content. The main constituent of such fluids was silica, and consequently quartz is by far the domi-nant mineral in the shear zones or veins. Other minerals like calcite, barite and chlorite are only presentin small amounts (less than 5 vol%). Microscopic ore analysis of quartz veins and host rocks of the import-ant gold occurrences at Hangaliya (west of Mersa Alam; Fig. 9), Fatira, Gidami and Atalla (all in the area west of Safaga and Qusir; Fig. 9), in the Eastern Desert of Egypt (Murr, 1999), yielded three different stages of mineralization. During the first stage the main ore minerals were pyrite or arsenopyrite, minor pyrrhotite and chalco-pyrite. This stage is preserved bothin the rims of the quartz vein itself and in the host rock. Asignificant alteration can be observed in the host rock: primary min-erals are completely transformed into a sericite–quartz–pyrite assemblage. Achem-ical comparison between unaltered host rocks (e.g. granites) and their alteration products shows no significant change in the composition for major elements. In particular, the Fe-content remains the same although the pyrite/arsenopyrite
He
does
n’t b
elie
ve
in re
lyin
g so
lely
on
one’
s na
tura
l gift
s.
Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm, and Andreas Murr
Concave shaped Ptolemaic gold mill with a two handled mill stone, with a two handled grind-ing stone, together producing aswinging milling technique and thereby increasing the fineness of thequartz ore powder fraction. Gidami gold mining site, Eastern Desert,Egypt.
Concave shaped Ptolemaic gold mill with a two handled mill stone, with a two handled grind-ing stone, together producing aswinging milling technique and thereby increasing the fineness of thequartz ore powder fraction. Gidami gold mining site, Eastern Desert,Egypt.
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
song
“22
Tw
o’s,
” fr
om 1
996,
we
get 2
2 de
licio
us p
lays
on
the
wor
ds “
too”
and
“t
wo.
”
Ten
year
s la
ter,
the
sequ
el, “
44 F
ours
,”
has
the
sam
e co
ncei
t, st
eppe
d up
a g
ear.
“Lik
e, y
ou k
now
, clo
se th
e w
alls
in a
bit
smal
ler.”
Can
he
expl
ain
why
? “I
thin
k th
e re
ason
I st
ill m
ake
mus
ic is
bec
ause
of
the
chal
leng
e.”
He
does
n’t b
elie
ve in
re
lyin
g so
lely
on
one’
s na
tura
l gift
s. A
nd
whe
n it
com
es to
tale
nt, “
You
just
nev
er
know
— th
ere
is n
o ga
uge.
You
don
’t se
e w
hen
it’s
empt
y.”
In th
e ye
ars
sinc
e hi
s m
aste
rpie
ce “
Rea
-so
nabl
e D
oubt
,” th
e ra
pper
has
ofte
n be
en a
ccus
ed o
f run
ning
on
empt
y, to
o di
stan
t now
from
wha
t onc
e m
ade
him
re
al. I
n “D
ecod
ed,”
he
answ
ers
exis
ten-
tially
: “H
ow d
ista
nt is
the
stor
y of
you
r ow
n lif
e ev
er g
oing
to b
e?”
In th
e ly
rics,
pr
actic
ally
:
mineralization is evident. Achemical reac-tion of a fluid (pH between 3.5 and 5) with the host rock can be assumed, resulting in the formation of sericite and quartz. If gold was transported as a sulphide complex in the reactive fluid, primary iron from the host rock and sulphide from the fluid could have formed pyrite while the gold was being precipitated. Gold was confined within this first stage of mineral-ization mainly to pyrite or arsenopyrite. The second stage of mineraliza-tion can be observed within the quartz veins. The main minerals are pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite, with minor amounts of digenite, hessite, cala-verite, scheelite, hematite and tetraedrite. Gold occurs within quartz, sphalerite, galena, pyrite and chalcopyrite. The third stage of mineralization comprises mainly quartz; pyrite was rare and gold was not found. Therefore this generation can beregarded as barren. Supergene alteration of the pri-mary paragenesis resulted in the forma-tion of lepidocrocite, jarosite, argentite,stromeyerite, anglesite, cerrusite, smith-sonite, mimetesite and rare tellurates and arsenates. Gold was locally remobilised, re-precipitated and concentrated. Temperature estimations of the ore-forma-
tion can be done by arsenopyrite ther-mometry. In the first mineralizationstage, temperatures of 300 C (at Han-galiya) and about 400 C (at Atalla) can be estimated (Fig. 3). The occurrence of calaverite and hessite in the quartzvein at Gidami (second mineralization stage) gives a maximum temperature of about 250 C (Fig. 4). Two main fluid phases were observed in primary fluid inclusions. In the first mineralization stage the fluids contain CO2 and H2O in different ratios. Estimated CO2-contents are between 25 and 95 vol%. The salinity is low (maxi-mum of 6 wt%). From isochores (Fig. 5) a
Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm, and Andreas Murr
Life
sto
ries
told
thro
ugh
rap/
Nig
gas
actin
’ lik
e I s
old
you
crac
k/Li
ke I
told
yo
u se
ll dr
ugs,
no,
Hov
’ did
that
/So
hope
fully
you
won
’t ha
ve to
go
thro
ugh
that
. But
can
’t a
rapp
er in
sist
, lik
e ot
her
artis
ts, o
n a
fictio
nal r
ealit
y, in
whi
ch h
e is
som
ehow
stil
l on
the
corn
er, d
espi
te
occu
pyin
g th
e pe
ntho
use
suite
? O
ut
hust
lin’,
sam
e cl
othe
s fo
r day
s/I’l
l nev
er
chan
ge, I
’m to
o st
uck
in m
y w
ays.
Can
’t he
stil
l rep
his
blo
ck?
For J
ay-Z
, prid
e in
the
bloc
k ha
s be
en e
ssen
tial a
nd h
e re
cogn
ized
rap’
s ro
le in
taki
ng “
that
em
barr
assm
ent o
ff of
you
. The
firs
t tim
e pe
ople
wer
e sa
ying
: I c
ome
from
her
e —
and
it’s
O.K
.” H
e qu
otes
Mob
b D
eep:
“No
mat
ter h
ow m
uch
mon
ey I
get,
I’m
stay
ing
in th
e pr
ojec
ts!”
But
her
e, to
o,
he s
ees
chan
ge: “
Bef
ore,
if y
ou d
idn’
t ha
ve th
at a
uthe
ntic
ity, y
our c
aree
r cou
ld
be o
ver.
Vani
lla Ic
e sa
id h
e go
t sta
bbed
or
som
ethi
ng, t
hey
foun
d ou
t he
was
ly
ing,
he
was
fini
shed
.” I
sugg
este
d to
hi
m th
at m
any
read
ers
of th
is n
ewsp
aper
w
ould
find
it b
izar
re th
at th
e re
puta
tion
of th
e ra
pper
Ric
k R
oss
was
dam
aged
w
hen
it w
as re
veal
ed a
few
yea
rs a
go
that
he
was
, at o
ne ti
me,
a p
rison
gua
rd.
“But
aga
in,”
Jay
say
s. Su
re a
re. O
dd F
utur
e. W
aka
Floc
ka
Flam
e. C
hief
Kee
f. R
etur
ning
to w
hat
appe
ar to
be
the
basi
c bu
ildin
g bl
ocks
of
rap:
sho
ck ta
ctic
s, o
bsce
nity
, per
vers
ely
sim
plis
tic la
ngua
ge. A
fter t
he s
ophi
stic
a-tio
n of
Rak
im, Q
-Tip
, Nas
, Lup
e Fi
asco
, K
anye
Wes
t and
Jay
him
self,
are
we
back
on
the
corn
er a
gain
? “Y
eah,
but
Tu
pac
was
an
ange
l com
pare
d to
thes
e ar
tists
!” H
e sh
akes
his
hea
d, a
ppar
-en
tly a
mus
ed a
t him
self.
And
it’s
true
: lis
teni
ng to
a T
upac
reco
rd th
ese
days
fe
els
like
liste
ning
to a
ple
asan
t slic
e of
Si
natr
a. B
ut J
ay-Z
doe
s no
t suf
fer f
rom
no
stal
gia.
He
love
s O
dd F
utur
e an
d th
eir
punk
rock
vib
e. H
e se
es th
eir a
nger
as
a
pressure of 1–2 kb can be estimated, assum-ing a temperature of 300–400 C from the arsenopyrite thermometry. In the second mineralization stage the ratio of CO2 and H2O changes. Pure CO2-inclusions can beobserved, indicating an unmixing of a primary mixed CO2–H2O-fluid due to the pressure release. The absence of water-rich fluids can be explained by a selectivetrapping of CO2, whereas water is trans-ported to higher levels within the hydro-thermal system. Indeed, primaryinclusions in identical quartz veins become more and more H2O-rich, with increasing topographic levels, whereas the total density of the fluid decreases dramat-ically (Fig. 5). The above mentioned third stage of mineralization probably formed from this low-density H2O-rich fluid phase. Awell-constrained model for the gold mineralization can be presented. Post-orogenic granitoid intrusionsproduced heat anomalies, leading to hydrothermal convection cells. Intersti-tial water was able to dissolve gold from slightly enriched rocks (e.g. serpentinites, ophiolites etc.). Joints and shear zones served as channels for the circulating hydrothermal cells. Chemical reactions of the sulphide-enriched fluids with the hostrocks resulted in host rock alteration, with liberation of iron and the formation of pyrite and/or arsenopyrite and, due to the breakdown of the gold-sulphur complexes,in the precipitation of gold. Estimated pressure and temperature ranges are 300–400 C and 1–2 kb. If a rapid opening of the shear zone occurred, pressure releasecaused unmixing of the fluid. Also, chang-es in pressure, temperature, pH-value and degassing of volatiles induced precipita-tion of gold and sulphides from the fluids. CO2 was trapped preferentially due to thehigher wetting angle under these circum-stances, whereas water was transported to higher levels where a further quartz min-eralization occurred. As gold was precipi-tated at the lower levels, these upper parts normally are barren. Supergene alteration caused locally visible concentrationsof gold, when, due to oxidation of pyriteand/or arsenopyrite, submicroscopic gold inclusions within them became liberated. We are able to define three general geological environments of gold mineralization, exploited by the ancientminers:
(1) Gold mineralization associated with mafic to ultramafic units of ophi-
olitic affinity, such as basaltsandesites (amphibolites) and serpentinites with remains of pyroxenites and/or with their clastic erosion products such as greywackes and conglomerates. If these sequences were intruded by late Proterozoic granitoids, quartz vein mineralization with locally developed low gold contents could form within the whole rock unit but preferably
along the granitoid assimilation rims, related to dilated shear zones or joint systems.
(2) Towards the southern part of the Egyptian Eastern Desert, but located mainly in NE Sudan, the gold en-vironment changes to more rhyo-litic–andesitic volcanic rocks with less common intercalations of clastic
“I th
ink
hip-
hop
has
mov
ed a
way
fr
om th
at p
lace
of
eve
ryth
ing
has
to b
e au
then
tic.
Kid
s ar
e gr
owin
g up
ver
y di
ffere
ntly
no
w.”
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm, and Andreas Murr
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
Simplified structural map of the Arabian–Nubian shield of southern Egypt and NE Sudan (modified after Kroner et al., 1992).
gene
ral “
aver
sion
to c
orpo
rate
Am
eric
a,”
part
icul
arly
as
far a
s it
has
desp
oile
d th
e pl
anet
. “Pe
ople
hav
e a
real
ave
rsio
n to
w
hat p
eopl
e in
pow
er d
id to
the
coun
try.
So
they
’re ju
st la
shin
g ou
t, lik
e: ‘T
his
is
the
son
that
you
mad
e. L
ook
at y
our s
on.
Look
at w
hat y
ou’v
e do
ne.’
“
But
sur
ely
anot
her t
hing
they
’re re
actin
g ag
ains
t, in
the
Har
old
Blo
om “
anxi
ety
of
influ
ence
” se
nse,
is th
e gl
eam
ing
$460
m
illio
n m
onum
ent o
f Hov
a hi
mse
lf.
Year
s ag
o, M
artin
Am
is w
rote
a fu
nny
stor
y, “
Car
eer M
ove,
” in
whi
ch th
e sc
reen
writ
ers
live
like
poet
s, s
tarv
ing
in
sedimentary rocks and marbles. This environment was penetrated by late granitoids producing the perfect tec-tonic setting to allow for gold-quartz vein-mineralization.The only present-day gold producer in NE Sudan is the Sudanese-French
(GRAS–BRGM) joint venture operation of Ariab (Bakhiet and Matheis, 1993; Wipfler et al., 1999). At this locality high quality gold ore is mined in an extreme intensively leached SEDEXdeposit, occurring in a sequence of highly folded acidvolcanics of mainly rhyolitic charac-ter. Due to superficial leaching, only a sponge type whitish silica residueremains from the former SEDEX-de-posit, enriched up to 50 ppm in Au. According to drill core results, thisleached zone changes gradually into a pyrite dominated massive sulphide ore body, which is stratabound andfolded, with only an average of 0.5 ppm Au. It appears quite likely that sulphidic SEDEX occurrences or their oxidized remains might have been the primary gold source of this second type, hydrothermally leached and redeposited, forming the gold-bearing quartz mineralization investigated during our studies.
(3) In the western part of NE Sudan close to the Nile, a number of ancient mined gold-quartz mineralizations
occur within the older gneissic pre-Panafrican basement.Some of these sites are remarkably rich with an averageof one ounce (about 30 g/mt) Au per metric ton, such asSarras, Duweishat and Abu Sari (Fig. 10). All along the eastern bank of the Nile between Ager and Ginnis, theextended hilly plain is covered by heaped remains of ancient alluvial workings of generally scattered quartz vein detritus. The remains of these operations indicate an intensive gold production. The concentration of New Kingdom (NK) temples, built during the reigns ofAmenhotep III and IV (about 1380–1340 BC) opposite the eastern bank of the Nile might not be an accident and supports the importance of this region to the Egyptian NK occupants in Nubia. Due to the mentioned lack of detailed geological knowledge on this region, a convincing source for the rich gold mineralization in Nubian basement rocks unfortunately cannot be offered.
garr
ets,
whi
le th
e po
ets
chill
ax p
ools
ide,
fa
x th
eir v
erse
s to
age
nts
in L
os A
ngel
es
and
earn
mill
ions
off
a so
nnet
. Las
t yea
r’s
“Wat
ch th
e Th
rone
,” a
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith
Kan
ye, c
once
rns
the
com
ing
to p
ass
of
that
alte
rnat
ive
real
ity. H
undr
ed s
tack
/How
yo
u ge
t it?
Jay
-Z a
sks
Kan
ye o
n “G
otta
H
ave
It.”
The
answ
er s
eem
s to
tally
im-
prob
able
, and
yet
it’s
the
trut
h: L
ayin
’ rap
s on
trac
ks! F
ortu
nes
mad
e fr
om rh
ymin
g ve
rse.
Whi
ch is
wha
t mak
es “
Wat
ch th
e Th
rone
” in
tere
stin
g: it
fully
exp
ress
es
blac
k A
mer
ica’
s pr
esen
t con
trad
ictio
ns.
It’s
a ce
lebr
atio
n of
bla
ck e
xcel
lenc
e/B
lack
tie
, bla
ck M
ayba
chs/
Bla
ck e
xcel
lenc
e,
opul
ence
, dec
aden
ce. B
ut it
’s a
lso
a
Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm, and Andreas Murr
3. Gold Production Periods in Egypt and Nubia
In the Eastern Desert of Egypt, remains of gold production sites were dated to the time of ‘‘Earliest Hunters’’ of Winkler
(1938), who classified this nomadicpopulation as part of the Amratiens, in the middle of the fourth millennium BC. During this time, obviously only small nuggets were picked from the wadi grounds. Yet, as accumulation of gold nug-gets in the recent wadis free of continually flowing river systems is not pertinent, theoccurrence of visible nuggets must have been restricted to the few remaining wadi grounds from Pleistocene times. Such a system is preserved in the area aroundUmm Eleiga (Klemm, 1995) in the south-ern part of the central Eastern Desert of Egypt, where stone fields bearing decora-tions of the ‘‘Earliest Hunters’’ could be detected.
3.1. Gold Production in Pre and Early Dynastic Times
Discoveries of gold artefacts, dating back as far as the Predynastic time (about 3500 BC) demonstrate that gold production must have taken place in Ancient Egypt (Kroeper and Wildung, 1994) as well. Statistical analysis of the geological envi-ronments around Pre- and Early dynastic mining sites indicate unambiguously that the mined for copper, as recently shown by Castel and Mathieu (1992). earliest prospectors concentrated their mining activities on well-selected geological tar-gets of gold enriched quartz veins, mainly in granodioritic rims of Neoproterozoic granitic intrusions, belonging to the so called older and younger granites of the Eastern Desert. Furthermore, discoveries of
the oldest mining tools are connected to mining sites associated with superficially altered quartz vein systems, which origi-nally contained a variable copper-sulphide mineralization, that is almost completely leached out and which has been re-depos-ited as typical green malachite (and someother green secondary copper miner-als) within the host rock’s joint system. Obviously this green staining guided early prospectors to the auriferous quartz veins. Apart from gold, those malachite enriched sites also were mined for copper, as recent-ly shown by Castel and Mathieu (1992). Gold mining sensu strictu in Ancient Egypt started in Predynastic time with open pits and moderate undergroundactivities (Fig. 6). During this early pe-riod, the gold-bearing quartz veins were crushed in situ to a fine powder fraction by huge calabash-shaped stone hammers of 6–10 kg weight, which must have been held with both hands (Fig. 7). In this way the gold slivers within the quartz were liberated for later processing. This miningmethod formed conspicuous smooth surfaces, both at the walls and the stopes of the underground operations. However, until now no convincing field evidence
bitte
r acc
ount
ing
of th
e lo
sses
in a
long
an
d un
finis
hed
war
. Kan
ye ra
ps: I
feel
th
e pa
in in
my
city
whe
reve
r I g
o/31
4 so
ldie
rs d
ied
in Ir
aq/5
09 d
ied
in C
hica
-go
. Writ
ten
by a
cou
ple
of m
illio
naire
bu
sine
ssm
en o
n th
e fly
(“Li
ke ‘N
ew D
ay,’
Kan
ye to
ld m
e th
at —
the
actu
al ra
p —
la
st y
ear a
t the
Met
Bal
l, in
my
ear a
t di
nner
”), i
t rea
lly s
houl
dn’t
be a
s go
od
as it
is. B
ut s
omeh
ow th
eir b
roth
erly
riv
alry
cre
ates
real
ene
rgy
desp
ite th
e m
amm
oth
prod
uctio
n. A
nd in
one
vita
l w
ay th
e pr
oces
s of
mak
ing
it w
as u
nusu
-al
ly in
timat
e: “
Mos
t peo
ple
now
aday
s
— b
ecau
se o
f tec
hnol
ogy
— s
end
mus
ic
back
and
fort
h.”
But
this
was
just
two
men
“si
tting
in a
room
, and
real
ly ta
lkin
g ab
out t
his.
” A
t its
mos
t sub
lime
— th
e rid
icul
ousl
y en
joya
ble
“Nig
gas
in P
aris
” —
you
feel
a s
tron
g pu
ll in
bot
h m
en
tow
ard
shee
r aba
ndon
, pur
e ce
lebr
atio
n.
Did
n’t w
e ea
rn th
is?
Can
’t w
e si
t bac
k an
d en
joy
it? It
’s a
son
g th
at d
oesn
’t w
ant t
o be
resp
onsi
ble,
or t
o be
ask
ed
the
old,
pai
nful
que
stio
ns. W
ho c
ares
if
they
’re k
eepi
ng it
real
? O
r eve
n m
akin
g se
nse?
Che
ck th
at b
eat!
Then
ther
e’s
that
wor
d. “
It’s
a lo
t of p
ain
and
a lo
t of
hurt
and
a lo
t of t
hing
s go
ing
on b
eyon
d,
bene
ath
that
.” H
e of
fers
an
anal
ogy:
“If
your
kid
was
act
ing
up, y
ou’d
be
like,
‘W
hat i
s w
rong
with
you
?’ If
they
hav
e a
belly
ache
— ‘O
h, y
ou a
te a
ll th
e co
tton
cand
y.’ Y
ou’d
mak
e th
ese
com
paris
ons,
yo
u’d
see
a lin
k. Y
ou’d
psy
choa
naly
ze
the
situ
atio
n.”
Rap
pers
use
lang
uage
as
a fo
rm o
f as
ymm
etric
al w
arfa
re. H
ow e
lse
to
expl
ain
Geo
rge
W. B
ush’
s ex
trao
rdin
ary
cont
entio
n th
at a
line
spo
ken
by a
rapp
er —
“G
eorg
e B
ush
does
n’t c
are
abou
t bla
ck p
eopl
e” —
was
“on
e of
the
mos
t dis
gust
ing
mom
ents
in m
y pr
es-
iden
cy”?
But
ther
e ha
ve a
lway
s be
en
thes
e pe
ople
for w
hom
rap
lang
uage
is
mor
e sc
anda
lous
than
the
urba
n de
priv
atio
n ra
p de
scrib
es. O
n “W
ho G
on
Stop
Me,
” Ja
y-Z
asks
that
we
“ple
ase
pard
on a
ll th
e cu
rses
” be
caus
e “w
hen
you’
re g
row
ing
up w
orth
less
,” w
ell,
thin
gs c
ome
out t
hat w
ay. B
lack
hur
t, bl
ack
self-
este
em. I
t’s th
e co
ntra
dict
ory
pull
of th
e “c
iphe
r,” ra
p te
rmin
olog
y fo
r
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
for a gold concentration procedure could be discovered. Taking into account the hydro-metallurgical concentrationprocesses applied during later periods of gold production, comparable methods can possibly be assumed for this epoch as well. Apart from the large twohanded stone hammers, different types of discus-shapedhammers have also been found within Pre-dynastic sites. This hammer type obvious-ly was used only to gain lumpy quartz ore from the brittle vein systems, whichwas powdered later by the large hammers. 3.2. Gold Production in old and Middle Kingdom Times
During the Old (2700–2160 BC) and Middle Kingdom (2119–1794 BC) the previously described prospecting method of searching for malachite staining in the host rocks continued in general, but in ad-dition hematite enriched quartz veins (in places with barite) became important for exploration and, in case of gold discovery, for subsequent mining targets. Old King-dom gold mining techniques continued with in situ crushing of the gold-bearing quartz vein systems, but two new basic types of stone hammer were developed:
an oval stone axe of 2–5 kg weight with a chiseled notch for a forked wooden stick (‘‘Rillenschl€agel’’) and a more or less cylindrical one-handed stone hammerwith a chiseled, ergonomically formed handle (Fig. 8). With the advantage of these new mining implements a more effective exploitation of the auriferous quartz veins could be established. During the Middle Kingdom this tool inventory in general continued, but additional stone mortars were introduced, allowing for the lumpy quartz ore to becrushed first to about pea-sized grains and then for grinding it to a powder fraction. Again, no archaeological evidence for fur-ther gold recovery treatments during this period could be discovered, but the remarkof the nomarch (provincial ruler) Ameni,
who is quoted in his Beni Hassan tomb as having said ‘‘I forced their (Nubian) chiefs to wash the gold’’ (Newberry, 1893) gives a clear hint that hydro-metallurgical con-centration processes were well established during these periods. The majority of miners in these times were most probably members of desert tribes and not Egyp-tians of the Nile valley. This is suggested by the ergonomically formed handle of the one-hand stone hammers, fitting best in a hand of 18–20 cm in size, rather than one of 11–13 cm, which was the average for the Nile valley populationat that time. Furthermore, this could be verified by sporadic finds of typical Nu-bian pottery. On the other hand, it has to be emphasized that typical Egyptianpottery of that time, such as red polished
the
circ
le th
at fo
rms
arou
nd th
e ki
nd o
f fr
eest
ylin
g ki
d Ja
y-Z
once
was
. Wha
t a
wor
d! C
iphe
r (no
un):
1. A
sec
ret o
r dis
-gu
ised
way
of w
ritin
g; a
cod
e. 2
. A k
ey
to s
uch
a co
de. 3
. A p
erso
n or
thin
g of
no
impo
rtan
ce. “
Wat
ch th
e Th
rone
” ce
le-
brat
es tw
o m
en’s
esc
ape
from
that
circ
le
of n
egat
ion.
It p
aint
s th
e w
orld
bla
ck:
blac
k ba
r mitz
vahs
, bla
ck c
ars,
pai
ntin
gs
of b
lack
girl
s in
the
MoM
A, a
ll bl
ack
ever
ythi
ng, a
s if
it m
ight
be
poss
ible
in a
si
ngle
alb
um to
pee
l bac
k th
ousa
nds
of
year
s of
neg
ativ
e co
nnot
atio
n. B
lack
no
long
er th
e sh
adow
or t
he re
vers
e or
the
oppo
site
of s
omet
hing
but
now
the
thin
g its
elf.
But
livi
ng th
is fa
ntas
y pr
oves
prob
lem
atic
: Onl
y sp
ot a
few
bla
cks
the
high
er I
go/W
hat’s
up
to W
ill?
Shou
t-out
to
O/T
hat a
in’t
enou
gh, w
e go
n’ n
eed
a m
illio
n m
ore/
Kic
k in
the
door
, Big
gie
flow
/I’m
all
dres
sed
up w
ith n
owhe
re to
go
. You
’re 1
per
cent
of t
he 1
per
cent
. So
wha
t now
? Po
wer
to th
e pe
ople
, whe
n yo
u se
e m
e, s
ee y
ou! B
ut th
at ju
st w
on’t
do. I
t’s J
ay-Z
who
’s in
Par
is, a
fter a
ll,
not t
he k
ids
in th
e M
arcy
Hou
ses,
the
hous
ing
proj
ect i
n B
rook
lyn
whe
re h
e
grew
up.
Jay
-Z k
now
s th
is. H
e ge
ts a
lit-
tle a
gita
ted
whe
n th
e su
bjec
t of Z
ucco
tti
Park
com
es u
p: “
Wha
t’s th
e th
ing
on th
e w
all,
wha
t are
you
figh
ting
for?
” H
e sa
ys
he to
ld R
usse
ll Si
mm
ons,
the
rap
mog
ul,
the
sam
e: “
I’m n
ot g
oing
to a
par
k an
d pi
cnic
, I h
ave
no id
ea w
hat t
o do
, I d
on’t
know
wha
t the
figh
t is
abou
t. W
hat d
o w
e w
ant,
do y
ou k
now
?”
Jay-
Z lik
es c
larit
y: “
I thi
nk a
ll th
ose
thin
gs n
eed
to re
ally
dec
lare
them
selv
es
a bi
t mor
e cl
early
. Bec
ause
whe
n yo
u ju
st s
ay th
at ‘t
he 1
per
cent
is th
at,’
that
’s
not t
rue.
Yea
h, th
e 1
perc
ent t
hat’s
rob-
Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm, and Andreas Murr
Meidum bowls (Ballet, 1987) were also fre-quently discovered in the surveyed surface remains, which can be seen as a hint for stronger Egyptian control of the mining operations, in contrast to the previous Egyptian restriction on gold trading. In Fig. 9, only a few gold mining sites for both Pre- and Early dynastic times and Old and Middle Kingdom periods are shown. This corresponds with the low
number of known gold artefacts from those early periods, compared to the later periods. However, quite a few of the early mining sites might have been so intesively overprinted by later operations that today no older surface remains are still visible. Systematic archaeological excavations certainly will modify the number of known sites shown in Fig. 9. The first military cam-paign in the 18th year of SesostrisI (1956–1911 BC), at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, was most probably organised to gain access to the Nubian gold. It is recorded by the Sestoris I nomarchAmeni, in his tomb at Beni Hassan, that he undertook expeditions to Nubia from where he returned with gold and gold ore for his king (Newberry, 1893). However, almost all ancient gold mines of these earlytimes are more or less collapsed, and any estimation of the maximum depth without archaeological excavations is debatable; nevertheless, depths in open trenches of up to about 25 m seem realistic.
3.3. Gold Production in New Kingdom Times
From the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) period onwards, gold mining operations concentrated more in the central Eastern Desert, predominantly south of theQena-Safaga road, and were also spread over the eastern portion of the Red Sea hills. Due to the conquest of Nubia,
exploitation of the Wadi Allaqi area and deep into the NE Sudan (Figs. 9 and 10) also became possible. Moreover, the gold prospecting targets were significantlyenlarged: in the vicinity of the older mining sites quartz vein systems free of hematite and green copper aureoles were also successfully prospected. More detailed studies of the quartz vein systems exploited during New
bing
peo
ple,
and
dec
eivi
ng p
eopl
e, th
ese
fixed
mor
tgag
es a
nd a
ll th
ese
thin
gs,
and
then
taki
ng th
eir h
ome
away
from
th
em, t
hat’s
crim
inal
, tha
t’s b
ad. N
ot
bein
g an
ent
repr
eneu
r. Th
is is
free
ent
er-
pris
e. T
his
is w
hat A
mer
ica
is b
uilt
on.”
It’s
so w
eird
wat
chin
g ra
pper
s be
com
ing
elde
r sta
tesm
en. I
’m o
ut fo
r pre
side
nts
to
repr
esen
t me.
Wel
l, no
w th
ey d
o —
and
no
t onl
y on
dol
lar b
ills.
Hea
vy re
spon
-si
bilit
y la
nds
on th
e sh
ould
ers
of th
ese
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
Kingdom periods indicate the profound knowledge of the ancient prospectors. They obviously were aware of the general structural control of gold-bearing veins, which despite showing differentstrike-patterns in different parts of the Eastern Desert, have a general tendency of north–south or east–west strike direc-tions. The prospectors followed only veins of these known productive orientations
and ignored the many others running divergently within the same prospectingarea. Whether this knowledge was based on systematic geological investigations or on trial-and-error based experience is not known. However, it is striking, that in regions where the normal N–S direction of the gold productive veins has locally changed, the ancient miners unerringly prospected the new productive veinstrike directions, which might be regarded as a hint for a basic geological-structural knowledge. In addition, unexplored new ar-eas with an enlarged geological framework were prospected during New Kingdom times. Particular emphasis was placed ongeological environments characterized by basaltic–(amphibolitic) and serpentinitic lithologies with or without black shales, in the vicinity of granitoid batholiths. Fur-thermore, due to the systematic explora-tion of remote desert regions during New Kingdom times, granitic–granodioritic areas in the southern and eastern parts of the Eastern Desert became new and importantprospecting and mining targets.
These were extended to the Wadi Allaqi and even to the North-Eastern Sudan. As an important innovation, intensive gold prospecting and processing were extended to include wadi-working operations, where gold-bearing quartzsamples were systematically picked from the coarsegrained fractions of the wadi sediments. At these sites, the simultaneous employment of hundreds of workers was
possible, in contrast to the severely limited numberof miners in underground workings. Archaeologically these wadi works are preserved in extended settlements along the exploited wadis (Klemm and Klemm, 1994). Normally house ruins remain only at the wadi boundaries, parallel to the hill-sides as the remainder of the settlements was mostly washed away by sporadic floods, but in a few cases ruins still cover entire wadi sites. Consequently these sites led to an enormous increase in gold
Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm, and Andreas Murr
Fig. 10. Distribution of the New Kingdom and Early Arab gold production sites in NE Sudan. Note the concentration of the sites along the river Nile, but also the widely scattered localities all over the vast distances of the Nubian Desert. Note further that the Arab gold production sites never passed westwards the line situated at approximately Wadi Halfa – Abu Hamed.
production, documented by an increase of known gold artefacts from those times.In addition to the greatly expanded mining activities, a radically new milling technique had a strong impact on gold production at the onset of the New King-dom: mill stones up to 80 cm long and 30–50 cm wide, with a flat and oval-shaped grinding plane, and differently sizedsets of mill stones used with one or both hands (Fig. 11) were introduced. These stone mills are similar to the flour mills commonly used in the Nile valley since very early times (Roubet, 1989). The intro-duction of these flour milling techniques into the gold ore processing industry can
be regarded as an indication that only from New Kingdom times onwards were the majority of miners Egyptians from the Nile valley. This assumption is also confirmed by the predominant occur-rence oftypical New Kingdom pottery remains within mining sites in the Egyptian East-ern Desert, but partly also in Nubia. Before milling, the initial lumpy ore was crushed down to about bean-sized particles with a double-sided stone anvil of about 30 30 cm and a rounded stonepestle of 0.5–2 kg weight. Demonstrably, the separation of barren and gold-bearing
quartz fragments exclusively by eye was perfected by the workers, as small anduncommon remaining mine dump heaps in the wadi grounds today contain only milky white and translucent barren quartz gravels (Fig. 12). Separation of gold from the fine-milled quartz powder fraction was managed by washing as attested by preserved tailing dumps. At first view these tailings appear as mostly pink to reddish heaps of quartz sand, analogous
unac
know
ledg
ed le
gisl
ator
s w
hose
poe
t-ry
is o
nly,
afte
r all,
four
dec
ades
you
ng.
Jay-
Z’s
read
y fo
r it.
He
has
his
adm
irabl
e Sh
awn
Car
ter S
chol
arsh
ip F
ound
atio
n,
putti
ng d
isad
vant
aged
kid
s th
roug
h co
llege
. He’
s sp
oken
in s
uppo
rt o
f gay
rig
hts.
He’
s cu
ratin
g m
usic
fest
ival
s an
d in
vest
ing
in e
nviro
nmen
tal t
echn
olog
ies.
Th
is O
ctob
er, h
is b
elov
ed N
ets
take
up
resi
denc
e in
thei
r new
hom
e —
the
Bar
clay
s C
ente
r in
Bro
okly
n. A
nd h
e ha
s so
me
cann
y, fo
rwar
d-lo
okin
g po
litic
al
inst
inct
s: “
I was
spe
akin
g to
my
frie
nd
Jam
es, w
ho’s
from
Lon
don,
we
wer
e ta
lkin
g ab
out s
omet
hing
els
e, I
just
st
oppe
d an
d I w
as li
ke, ‘
Wha
t’s g
oing
to
hap
pen
in L
ondo
n?’ T
his
was
may
be
a m
onth
bef
ore
the
riots
. He
was
like
, ‘W
hat?
’ I s
aid:
‘The
cul
ture
of b
lack
pe
ople
ther
e, th
ey’re
not
par
ticip
atin
g in
cha
ngin
g th
e di
rect
ion
of th
e co
untr
y.
Wha
t’s g
onna
hap
pen
ther
e?’ H
e ac
tual
ly
calle
d m
e w
hen
it bl
ew u
p, h
e w
as li
ke,
‘You
kno
w, I
did
n’t r
eally
und
erst
and
your
que
stio
n, o
r the
tim
ing
of it
, unt
il no
w.’
“
But
stil
l I th
ink
“con
scio
us”
rap
fans
ho
pe fo
r som
ethi
ng m
ore
from
him
; to
see,
per
haps
, a fi
nal s
ever
ing
of th
is li
nk,
in h
ip-h
op, b
etw
een
mat
eria
l ric
hes
and
true
free
dom
. (Th
ough
why
we
shou
ld
expe
ct ra
pper
s to
do
this
ahe
ad o
f the
re
st o
f Am
eric
a is
n’t c
lear
.) It
wou
ld ta
ke
real
forw
ard
thin
king
. Of h
is o
wn
am-
bitio
ns fo
r the
futu
re, h
e sa
ys: “
I don
’t w
ant t
o do
any
thin
g th
at is
n’t t
rue.
” M
ay-
be th
e ne
xt h
oriz
on w
ill s
tret
ch b
eyon
d ph
ilant
hrop
y an
d M
ayba
ch c
olle
ctio
ns.
Mea
nwhi
le, b
ack
in th
e ra
nk a
nd fi
le,
you
still
hea
r the
old
cry
go
up: H
ip-h
op
is d
ead!
Whi
ch re
ally
mea
ns th
at o
ur
vers
ion
of it
(the
one
we
knew
in o
ur
yout
h) h
as p
asse
d. B
ut n
othi
ng c
ould
be
dul
ler t
han
a ’9
0s h
ip-h
op b
ore.
Lil
Way
ne?
Giv
e m
e O
l’ D
irty
Bas
tard
. Nic
ki
Min
aj?
Plea
se. F
oxy
Bro
wn.
Odd
Fut
ure?
W
U T
AN
G C
LAN
4EV
AH
. Lis
teni
ng to
Ja
y-Z
— s
till s
o fle
xibl
e an
d en
thus
iast
ic,
ears
wid
e op
en —
you
real
ize
you’
re li
ke
one
of th
ese
peop
le w
ho b
elie
ves
jazz
African Earth Sciences 33 (2001) 643–659
Fig. 11. New Kingdom oval shaped andesitic stone mill with a selection of grind-ing stones from Hairiri gold mining site, Wadi Allaqi, southern Eastern Desert, Egypt (scale is 10 cm).
Fig. 12. Remaining New Kingdom waste dam heaps from wadi workings at Umm Garaiyat, Wadi Allaqi, south-ern Eastern Desert, Egypt. Note that parts of the wadi ground became flooded later, destroying most of the ancient situation.
to normal desert sand. Investigation with a simple hand lens, however, reveals both sharp edged quartz grains which are arti-ficial products as well as remaining gold concentrations of about 3–5 g/t. This rath-er high residual gold content unfortunate-ly caused the destruction of many ancient gold production sites at the beginning of the 20th century, when modern gold production started with cyanide leaching of the old tailings, thus destroying most of the preserved and untouched original archaeological sites (Schweinfurth, 1904). At quite a few of the New King-dom gold production sites, inclined gold washing tables constructed of stonefragments, consolidated by primitive clay/sand mortar and with a surface covered by a layer of the same material, can be observed. The lengths of these washing
tables varies between 2.2 and 4 m, and they are 40–60 cm wide and 80–100 cm high, corresponding with an inclination angle of 15–20 (Fig. 13). At the end of this slope the washing water was recovered in a box about 60 cm deep and wide, walled by stone slabs and sealedagain with the described mortar. Here also the detritus of the quartz tailings was de-posited, from were it was dumped close by, at the tailing heaps, still partly preservedin many cases today. Amortar-sealed andstone slab protected gutter conducted the water back to a large, 80 60 cm basin, from where the water was recycled for further gold washing processes, most prob-ably with primitive shadoufs (a scooping bucket conveyor, still in use in Egypt and Nubia today). di
ed w
ith D
izzy
. The
che
ck c
omes
. Yo
u w
ill b
e un
surp
rised
to h
ear t
he
Jigg
aman
pai
d. A
t the
last
min
ute,
I re
mem
bere
d to
ask
afte
r his
fam
ily,
“Oh,
my
fam
ily’s
am
azin
g.”
And
the
baby
? “S
he’s
four
mon
ths.
” M
arcy
ra
ised
me,
and
whe
ther
righ
t or
wro
ng/S
tree
ts g
ave
me
all I
writ
e in
th
e so
ng. B
ut w
hat w
ill T
riBeC
a gi
ve
Blu
e? “
I act
ually
thou
ght a
bout
that
m
ore
befo
re s
he w
as b
orn.
Onc
e sh
e go
t her
e I’v
e be
en in
sho
ck u
ntil
may
be la
st w
eek?
” H
er c
hild
hood
won
’t be
like
his
, and
this
fact
he
take
s in
his
st
ride.
“W
e w
ould
figh
t eac
h ot
her.
My
brot
her w
ould
bea
t me
up,”
he
says
, but
it
was
all
in p
repa
ratio
n fo
r the
out
side
. “I
was
goi
ng to
hav
e to
figh
t, I w
as g
oing
to
hav
e to
go
thro
ugh
som
e th
ings
, and
th
ey w
ere
prep
arin
g m
e.”
He
smile
s:
“She
doe
sn’t
have
to b
e to
ugh.
She
has
to
love
her
self,
she
has
to k
now
who
she
is
, she
has
to b
e re
spec
tful,
and
be a
m
oral
per
son.
” It’
s a
new
day
.
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