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DEVELOPINGGROWTHMINDSETTHROUGHREFLECTIVEWRITING
Ryan Korstange
Abstract
CarolDweck’sconceptofgrowthmindsetisa“thresholdconcept”forthinkingaboutstudent
success incollege.Thisarticleargues that reflectivewritingassignments focusedaround
processreflection‐theintentional,structuredorsystematicanalysisofprocessesandtheir
outcomes‐cancontributetogainsinstudentretentionandpersistencebecausetheyhelp
studentsdevelopgrowthmindset.
Keywords: Reflective practice, reflection, process reflection, growth mindset, studentsuccess,FYE
1.Introduction
Overthelastseveraldecadesaccesstohighereducationhasbeenbroadenedinlarge
degrees.According to theU.S.DepartmentofEducation, in1983 therewere10.8million
studentsenrolledincollege(USDepartmentofEducation2016);bythespringof2016there
were 18.3 million students enrolled in Title IV, degree‐granting institutions (National
StudentClearinghouseResearchCenter,2016).Thisisanastronomicalincreaseinstudent
enrollment.Atthesametime,thepercentageofstudentswhoenrollincollegewhograduate
isstillwoefullylow.In2013,thesix‐yeargraduationwas59%(DepartmentofEducation,
2015; Eaker & Sells, 2015). Increased access to education is a significant achievement
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because of the many positive impacts of higher education (Abel & Dietz, 2014). But,
increased access does notmean that students are getting all the benefits that education
providesthem.Educatorsconcernedwithstudentsuccessneedtodoabetterjobofbridging
thegapbetweenaccesstoeducationanddegreecompletion.
CarolDweck'sideaof"GrowthMindset"hasbecomeconsistentfixtureindiscussions
aboutStudentSuccess,particularlysincethepublicationofher2006monographentitled
Mindset:TheNewPsychologyofSuccess.Dweckdifferentiates fixed fromgrowthmindset;
suggesting that students who understand intelligence to be static have a fixedmindset,
whereasstudentswhounderstandintelligencetobedynamicormalleableareunderstood
tohaveagrowthmindset(Dweck,2006).Thedifferenceofmindsetisclearlydemonstrated
whenstudentsfacechallenges;studentswhohavegrowthmindsetaremorelikelytosee
failure and challenge as a momentary setback and an opportunity for personal growth,
rather thanademonstrationof the firm limitof theirknowledgeorabilitywhich ishow
failure is interpreted by thosewith a fixedmindset. Further, studentswho have growth
mindsetaremoreacademicallysuccessfulthanthosewithfixedmindset(AlpayandIreson,
2006;Blackwelletal.,2007;Dweck,2008).
DianeBoydcallsDweck'snotionofGrowthmindset,a“thresholdconcept”forcourse
design, that is “a transformativeand irrevocablewayof thinkingaboutsomething,which
producesaqualitativelydifferentviewoflearning”(Boyd2014:630).Dweck'sconceptof
GrowthMindset certainly has important implications for effective course design, and in
particular, FYE course design. In this article, I will argue that deliberately created and
carefullyassessedreflectivewritingassignmentscanhelpstudentsdevelopgrowthmindset
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withstudents,andconsequentlyincreasetheirretentionandpersistence.
2.ReflectiveThinking
The term "reflection" is used with surprising ubiquity and variety in scholarly
literature (Richardson, 1992; Grimmett & Erickson, 1988; Loughran 2002). Further,
reflectivepracticetakesdifferentformsasitisappliedintomanydifferentfieldsincluding
medicine,nursing,socialwork,law,managementandhumanresources,andeducation(for
anoverviewoftheseapplicationsseeFook,White,&Gardner,2006).Forthisreason,itis
importanttodefinereflectioncarefullyfromtheoutset.
Fromahistoricalperspective,whatwecallreflectivethinkingcanbetracedbackto
Socrates,whoassertsinPlato’sApology38bthat:"theunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving"
(trans.,Fowler1990).Morerecentlyreflectionhasbeenidentifiedasessentialpartofthe
learningprocess.Learninghappenswhenconnectionsaremadebetweenwhattheyalready
know and any new information they are receiving (Vygotsky 1978; Carey 2014; Brown
2014).Bymakingconnections,studentsengageina“processofmakinganeworrevised
interpretationof themeaningof anexperience,whichguides subsequentunderstanding,
appreciation,andaction”(Mezirow,1990:1).
Dewey speaks of reflection inmuch the sameway, suggesting thatmaking these
connections happens through what he called "reflection," by which he meant "active,
persistent,andcarefulconsiderationofanybelieforsupposedformofknowledgeinthelight
ofthegroundsthatsupportitandthefurtherconclusionstowhichittends”(1910:6;1933:
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8).
CarolRodgersextrapolatesDewey’sthoughtsonreflectionintofoursteps:
1) Presencetoexperience;
2) Descriptionofexperience;
3) Analysisofexperience;and
4) Intelligentactionand/orexperimentation(Rodgers2002:856).
This methodology highlights the central place that Dewey gave to the active, careful
considerationofanexperience.
Reflectivethinkingisnotallofthesametype.Redmond(2004:9)pointsoutthatmost
reflective theories divide between at least a lower and higher order level of reflection ‐
though these theories do not define lower and higher order reflection in the sameway
(examples of this variety: Bleakley 1999; Ixer 2000; Leung andKember 2003; King and
Kitchener 1994; and Schön 1983, 1987). For our purposes, the four stages of reflective
writingthatHattonandSmith(1995) identifyareparticularlyrelevant,and illustratethe
differencebetweenhigherandlowerorderreflectionthatRedmondpointsout.Hattonand
Smithsaythatreflectivewritingtakes fourstages:First,descriptivewriting,which isnot
reflective at all, but simply describes eventswithout offering any justification or reason.
Second,reflectivedescription,whichprovidesjustificationorreasonsfortheeventsbeing
described,andincludessomereferencetoalternativeexplanations.Third,dialogicreflection
whichismarkedbywhattheycalla“‘steppingback’fromtheeventsoractions”whichleads
toananalyticaland/orintegrativereflection(1996:48).Finally,criticalreflectionwhichis
marked by awareness of multiple perspectives in various historical and socio‐political
contexts. The division between higher and lower order reflection occurs between stages
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three and four ‐with critical reflectionbeing the high order reflection, and shares some
similaritywiththetheoryofsinglevs.doublelooplearningwhichwasidentifiedbyChris
ArgyrisandDonaldSchon(1978).
“Reflection”isalsoappliedinacoupleofdifferentdirections.Forsome,“reflection”
functionsasapartofawidertheoryoflearning(Carey2014;Brown2014;Ambroseet.al,
2010).Inthisusage,studentsareencouragedtorecallinformationorexperiencesthatthey
havehadpreviously,andconnectinformationtheyaretryingtolearntothoseprevious
bitsofinformationandexperiencethroughconsciousreflection.Itshouldbeborneinmind
thatconnectingnewcontenttopreviouslylearnedinformationisnotalwayshelpful
(Ambroseet.al,2010).Ifpriorknowledgeisinactive,insufficient,inappropriate,or
inaccurate,thenitwillbeahindranceforlearning(Ambroseet.al,2010:14‐27).Reflective
thinkingprovidesawaybywhichstudentscanassessthispriorknowledgeandmarshalit
correctlyfortheirlearning.
Second,somethinkersspeakof“criticalreflection,”whichhasbeeneffectively
definedbyStein(2000:1);as“theprocessbywhichadultsidentifytheassumptions
governingtheiractions,locatethehistoricalandculturaloriginsoftheassumptions,
questionthemeaningoftheassumptions,anddevelopalternativewaysofacting.”
Similarly,Fook,White,andGardner(2006)concludetheirextensivereviewofvarious
definitionsofreflectionbyidentifyingfouraspectswhichtheyconsiderconstitutea“full
viewofreflectivepractice.”Intheiropinion,reflectivepracticeinvolves
(i) “aprocess(cognitive,emotional,experiential)ofexaminingassumptions(ofmanydifferenttypesandlevels)embeddedinactionsorexperience;
(ii) a linking of these assumptions with many different origins (personal,
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emotional,social,cultural,historical,political);
(iii) a review and re‐evaluation of these according to relevant (depending oncontext,purpose,etc.)criteria;
(iv) a reworking of concepts and practice based on this re‐evaluation” (Fook,White,&Gardener2006:12).
Criticalreflectionisdistinguishedfromothertypesofreflectionbyitsfocusonconsciously
questioningtheassumptionsthatthethinkermakes.
Finally,wecantalkaboutwhatIwouldcallprocessreflection.Thistypeofreflection
isepitomizedinDavidKolb’s(1984)modelofexperientiallearningwhichisbrokenintofour
steps:ConcreteExperience;Reflectiveobservation;Abstractconceptualization;andactive
experimentation.Kolbunderstandsreflectiveobservationasthesearchforthemeaningof
things that happened during the concrete experience that is the basis for the learning
experience. Donald Schön’s distinction between reflection‐in‐action, and reflection‐on‐
actionalsofitshere.AccordingtoSchön,"reflection‐on‐action"isthesystematicreviewof
theprocess andoutcomesof a situation,whereas "reflection‐in‐action" is the abilityof a
professional to notice what is happening and modify their actions instantaneously,
essentiallythinkingonone’sfeet(Schön1983,1987;Hatton&Smith,1995).
Thisbriefsurveyoftheliteratureshowswhyreflectionisusedwithsuchvariety‐it
has application inmany arenasof thought. As it relates to the developmentof reflective
thinkingamongststudents‐thepointtobemadeisthatinalloftheseapplications,thesame
basicmethod of reflection holds, the difference is in the direction towhich reflection is
extended. There can be no question that college students benefit from learning to think
reflectivelyineachoftheseways.Yet, inthisarticle,Iarguethatintentionallydeveloping
studentabilitiesinprocessreflectioncanhelpthemdevelopgrowthmindset.
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ReflectiveWriting
Duetothefactthatreflectivethinkingisavariedmetacognitiveprocess,itisdifficult
toassignandmeasureintheclassroom.Therefore,reflectivewritingassignmentsmustbe
constructed carefully so as to both promote good, high order reflection, but also to
accommodatefairandethicalassessment.Reflectivewritingassignmentscanbecreatedand
tailoredforanyofthepreviouslymentionedlevelsofreflection.
Severalmethodologiesexistwhichaimtobothstreamlinetheprocessofreflective
thinking for student acquisition of the concept, and to transfer reflective thinking into
assignments that can be used in class. Graham Gibbs (1988) expands on the reflective
observationelementofDavidKolb's(1984)experientiallearningmodel,depictingreflective
writingasacyclemadeupofthefollowingelements:
• Description‐whathappened?• Feelings‐Whatwereyouthinkingandfeeling?• Evaluation‐Whatwasgoodandbadabouttheexperience?• Analysis‐Whatsensecanyoumakeofthesituation?• Conclusion‐Whatelsecouldyouhavedone?• ActionPlan‐Ifitaroseagain,whatwouldyoudo?
Bulman and Shultz (2013) have adaptedGibb'smodel into nursing education. For them,
reflectivewritingtakesthefollowingsteps:
• Whathappened?• Whatwereyouthinkingandfeelingsandhowdidyouact?• InitialEvaluationoftheexperience:Whatwasgoodandbadaboutit?• CriticalAnalysis:Whatsensedidyoumakeoftheexperience?• Conclusion:Whathaveyoulearntfromreflectingonthisexperience?• FinalEvaluationandActionPlan:Whatwouldyoudodifferently?
Peters,(1991)suggestsamodelbasedontheacronymDATA:Reflectivewritingoughtto
firstDescribea learningexperience, thenAnalyze that experience, then connect relevant
Theorytothatexperience,andfinallyreflectivewritingmustidentifythewaythatAction
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willchange.
Similarly,Rolfe,etal.(2001)suggestthefollowingmethod:
•What?(descriptionofthesituation)•SoWhat?(Theoryandknowledgebuilding)•NowWhat?(Howtoimprovethesituation).
AshandClayton(2009)identifyaprocessofreflectivewritingsummarizedbytheacronym
“DEAL,”whichincludesthefollowingsteps;
•Describealearningexperience,•Examinehowthisexperiencecohereswiththeirlearninggoals,•ArticulateLearningincludingboththecapturingoflearningthathasbeendoneanddrawingoutimplicationsofthatlearningfortheirfuturebenefit
Three components reappear ineachof theaforementionedprocessesof reflective
writing.First,thereflectivelearningendeavorbeginswiththedescriptionofaspecificevent
‐ be it a lecture, the content in a textbook chapter, active learning experience, or non‐
academicexperience.Second,connectionsaremadetoandfromthisconcreteexperience.
Theseconnectionscanbetopreviouspersonalexperience,followingMeizrow’sobservation
that:
Much of what we learn involves making new interpretations that enable us toelaborate, further differentiate, and reinforce our long‐established frames ofreferenceortocreatenewmeaningschemes(Meizrow,1990:5).
Connections can also be made between theories being learned as a part of classroom
instructionorpersonal/professionaldevelopment‐thisprocessistypicallyreferredtoas
integrativethinking(Kallio,2011).Finally,allthesereflectivemodelsconcludewithsome
type of application,where the thinker determineswhat should change as a result of the
reflection.
So,thebestreflectivewritingassignmentsencouragestudentstothinkreflectively.
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Thisrequiresthattheythinkaboutaspecificlearningexperience,makeconnectionstoand
fromthatexperience,andstrategizeastohowtheirthinkingoractionwillchangeasaresult
ofthereflectiveprocess.
3.ReflectionintheFirst‐YearClassroom
Havingnowdescribedwhatismeantbyreflection,andthebestpracticesinreflective
writing, we can pass on to a description of why reflection matters in a FYE classroom.
Certainlyalllevelsofreflectivethinkingbenefitfirst‐yearstudents,butinthissection,Iwant
tofocusonwhatIhavecalledprocessreflection‐theintentional,structuredorsystematic
analysisofprocessesandtheiroutcomes.Helpingstudentstoevaluatetheirprocesseshas
numerousbenefits,whichwillbecomeclearbelow.
Thebenefitofprocessreflectionforstudentsiswellknown.JoeCuseoandcolleagues
(2007)arguethatself‐reflectionisoneofthefourkeythingsstudentsneedtolearnintheir
firstyearofcollege.ThereflectionthatCuseoet.aladvocateisfurthersegmentedintofour
areas:a)Self‐Assessment‐ the intentionalevaluationofone’spersonalcharacteristics,b)
self‐monitoring‐ analysis of the effectiveness of their learning, and the synchronous
adjustment of learning strategies to make sure to meet the standards set for them, c)
reflectiononfeedbackwhereinstudentsdeterminehowtousefeedbacktoimprovetheir
performanceonacademictasks,andfinallyd)reflectingonthefuture,duringwhich look
aheadtowhattheyhopetodointhefuture.InmuchthesamewayKenBain(2012)suggests
thatthemostsuccessfulstudentslearnfromtheirfailuresandtheirsuccesses.Also,twoof
theelevenhabitsofsuccessfulcollegestudentsthatJohnBader(2011)articulatesrelateto
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learningfromfailure.
Why the focus on learning from failure? In part, because college graduation rates
typicallyhoveraround50%(Eaker&Sells2015:9).Insomeways,thislowgraduationrate
implies that nearly half of the studentswho attend college are unable to copewith the
challengethatcollegeprovidestothem‐insomewaystheyfail(ortheuniversitysystem
failsthemdependingonone’sperspective).Studiesofstudentretentiondemonstratethat
studentsleaveschoolforavarietyofreasons,andthatthemajority(75‐80%)areingood
academicstandingwhentheychoosetoleavetheinstitution(Noel,1985;Tinto,1993).The
emphasisonpersonal,process,reflection,andtheadvocationoflearningfromfailureisa
responsetothe lowgraduationrate.Thetheorygoesthat ifstudentswerebetterable to
handlechallenges,andtolearnfromtheirfailures,theywouldbemoresuccessfulinsideand
outsideoftheclassroom.Afterall,concentratingonacademicsalonehasalreadybeenshown
tohaveaninsignificantimpactonstudentretention(Lotkowski2004).
ThisiswhereDweck’sideaofgrowthmindsetisparticularlyrelevant.Inmanyways
the differences Dweck identifies between fixed and growth mindset are most apparent
during times of transition and challenge. In speaking about the transition of a group of
studentsfromelementaryschooltohighschool,Dweckpointsoutthat,whilestudentswith
a fixedmindsetunderstoodthedifficult transitiontobeathreat,andanindicationofthe
limit of their intelligence,whereas “with the threat of failure looming, studentswith the
growthmindsetinsteadmobilizedtheirresourcesforlearning”(Dweck2006:58).Dweckis
alsoclearthatmindsetcanbechanged.Therefore,intheFYEclassroom,oneofthecentral
obligationsistohelpstudentsunderstandthatchallengeisjustchallenge‐notthemarkof
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inability.
Dweck’sideaofgrowthvs.fixedmindsetstemsfromherpreviouswork,inparticular,
her work with Carol Deiner regarding learned helplessness. Deiner and Dweck (1980)
explain that learnedhelplessness is “when individualsview theiractionsas irrelevant to
subsequent outcomes” (Deiner & Dweck, 1980: 940). Further, viewing failure as
insurmountablehas“debilitatingeffectsonperformance”whereas“perceivingthatoneis
abletoavoidorescapefromfailurecanhavefacilitatingeffects.”Theseresponsesarenot
connectedtotraditionalmeasuresofability‐IQ,readingcomprehension(Deiner&Dweck,
1980). Student effort is incredibly relevant to their performance in class and to their
fulfillmentoftheirnon‐academicresponsibilities.
IntheFYEclassroomthen,studentsneedtobeencouragedtoreflectonkeyaspects
of their academic and non‐academic lives. This can be accomplished by applying the
methodology of reflective thinking to student learning experiences through carefully
constructed reflective writing assignments. Training students to think reflectively helps
themtolearnmoreefficientlyandeffectively,andhelpsthemtodevelopgrowthmindset.I
wanttobeclear,Iamadvocatingadifferentwayofassigningandassessinglearning,andnot
the loweringofstandardsforstudenteducation. Inmanyways,I thinkthatthereflective
workIamproposinghere,whendonecorrectly,requiressubstantialwork(Dweckisalso
clearthatloweringstandardscannotbethesolution,shesuggests“loweringstandardsjust
leadstopoorlyeducatedstudentswhofeelentitledtoeasyworkandlavishpraise”(2006:
193).
One examplewill suffice to illustrate the concept. Considerwhathappenswhena
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student has a test. The first step in the reflective writing process is to describe what
happened.Certainlythereistheobviousexperienceoftakingthetest.But,theactoftaking
thetestistheculminationofalearningprocessthatstartedmuchearlierinthesemester‐
allofwhichneeds tobedescribed.Thisprocess includesattendanceandparticipation in
class,thestyleofnotesthestudenttakes,andtheattentions/hegivestothem,thefrequency
withwhichthestudentreviewedtheinformation,themethodsofstudyingthatthestudent
used during these review periods, the extent to which the student read the reading
assignments,andthemethods/heusedtorecordthatinformation,theirabilitytoidentify
whichcontentwillbecoveredonthetest,themethodstheyusetoprepareforthetest,the
attentiontheywereabletogivetothetestwhiletakingit.Thelistcouldgoon.Tothispoint
wehaveonlyconsideredacademictasks,butalargevarietyofnon‐academictasksalsoaffect
studentperformanceonexams;forexample,howmanyhourstheyworked,howmanyhours
theyspentwithfriends,thepresenceofconflictintheirfriendgrouporfamily,thestudents
emotionalstate,andmanyothers.Now,afterastudenthasdoneallofthis‐theytakethe
test, and it is graded. They now have a definitive point from which to reflect on their
performance.Gradingisameasure,imperfectthoughitis,ofthestudents’learning.
Thesecondpartofthereflectivethinkingprocessasksstudentstomakeconnections
toandfromtheirexperience.IntheFYEclassroom,theseconnectionsneedtogoacoupleof
directions. First, students can make connections to the theories about student success,
learning, and studying that are being taught in the class. Second, students can make
connectionsbetweenaspectsoftheirpreparationandtheirperformanceonthetest.Finally,
they can make connections between their effort, their result, and their long‐term goals
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(educationalandotherwise).
Eachoftheselevelsofconnectionisimportant.Whenstudentsmakeconnectionsto
student success theory, or memory research they are specifically reflecting on various
componentsoftheirprocess.Studentscanaskgeneralorevaluativequestionslike:“Didthe
way I take notes help or hurt me as I prepared for the exam?Were the specific study
strategiesIusedinpreparingforthistesthelpfulorharmful?”But,deeperquestionsthat
specifically connect to theoretical content are also appropriate ‐ clearly these questions
dependonwhattheorythestudentsknowalready‐butinanFYEclass,thesetheoriesform
thebulkofthecontentinthecourse.So,studentscouldask,“HowthechoicesImadeinthe
weekleadinguptothisexamreflecttheEisenhowerdecisionmatrix?Or,howcouldIhave
incorporatedinterleavingintomystudystrategy?”
Beyond the theoretical connections, studentsmustalsomakeconnections to their
longertermgoals.SomestudentswhomakeaC+onaBiologyMidtermareperfectlyhappy
‐becausethatisapassinggradeintheirprogram.Butifthestudentintendedtobecomea
doctor,thegradewouldberatheralarming,andwouldindicatethatdramaticchangestothe
studentsapproachtotheclasswouldbe inorder.Theskillofprocessreflectionbecomes
evenmoresignificantwhenwerecognizethattheworkisdifferentinmanyclasses,andthat
differentprofessorshavevastlydifferentexpectations.
Finally, reflectivewritingandthinkingconcludeswithadescriptionof thespecific
changes the student needs to make to develop their processes going forward. Simply,
studentsneedtoask,“whatshouldIdoagain,andwhatshouldIchangeforthenexttest?”
Leavingthereflectiveprocesswithoutthisessentialstepstripsitofitsbenefit.
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Dweckoutlinesseveralmethodsbywhichstudentscandevelopgrowthmindset.The
mostimportantstrategyshesuggestsisteachingstudentsdirectlyaboutneuralplasticity,or
thefactthatthemindchangesandgrows.Herargumentisthatstudenthaveahardtime
understandingthatintelligenceisfixedandinborniftheyunderstandthatthebrainchanges
asaresultofexperiences.Inaddition,Dwecksuggeststhatgrowthmindsetcanbegainedby
havingauthorityfigurespraisetheprocessstudentsengageinwhilelearningratherthanthe
resultoflearning.Shesays:“Myresearchhasshownthatpraisingstudentsfortheprocess
theyhaveengaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies theyused, the choices they
made,thepersistencetheydisplayed,andsoon—yieldsmorelong‐termbenefitsthantelling
themtheyare"smart"whentheysucceed”(Dweck,2010:18).
Recently,Dweckhasclarifiedthatsheisconcernedthathertheoryofgrowthmindset
hasbeenmisunderstoodandmisapplied.Shecautionsthateffort isnottheonlypartofa
growthmindset,butthatwhile“effortiskeyforstudents’achievement,butit’snottheonly
thing.Studentsneedtotrynewstrategiesandseekinputfromotherswhenthey’restuck.
They need this repertoire of approaches—not just sheer effort—to learn and improve”
(Dweck2015).This is a verypertinentobservation, andoneworthbearing inmind. For
reflectivewritingtohelpstudentsacquiregrowthmindset, itmustnot justpushthemto
effort, itmustcausethemtoexaminetheireffort,andto figureouthowto improvetheir
process.
InDweck’ssystemtheseprocessevaluationshappenwhenparentsorteachershelp
studentsthinkthroughtheireffort,andbyselectivelypraisingthethingsworthrepeating,
studentsareencouragedtorepeatusefulskills,anddiscontinuethelesseffectiveorefficient
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practices.However,bytrainingstudentstoreflectontheirownpracticeinadeliberateway,
they develop the skills to identify the weaknesses of their process, and correct those
weaknesses on their own. This is an essential skill for success generally, and for college
successinparticular.Studentsdonotalwayshaveteacherswhocaretohelpthemfigureout
differentways of studying, or taking notes ‐ and so the studentmust become their own
advocate. Learning to think reflectively about their academic processes enables them to
make strides towards growth mindset, and towards academic success, without the
assistanceofothers,andsoitisanincrediblyimportantskill.
AssessmentofReflectiveWriting:
If designing reflective writing assignments that promote reflective thinking is
challenging,assessingthemisevenmoredifficult.Assessmentofstudentwritingisalways
tricky,butgradingreflectivewritingassignmentspresentsanadditionalchallengebecause
it is imperative that theassessmentnot cutoffor stop theprocessof reflective thinking.
CharonandHermann(2012)havepointedoutthattransposingreflectionfromalearning
model toanassessmentstrategyfundamentallychangesthetypeofreflectivethinking in
whichlearnersengage.Thechallengeofprovidingfeedbackonthesereflectiveassignments
istoencouragetheprocessofreflectivethinking,andtonotreducetheseassignmentstoa
productstudentsfeeltheymustproduce.
The first step towards assessing reflectivewritingwell is clearly describingwhat
studentsareexpectedtoaccomplish.Therelationshipofreflectivewritingassignmentsto
reflective thinkingcanbeconceived in twoways,aseitherallowingstudentsachance to
representtheirreflectivethinking,ortoguidestudentstowardsmorethoroughreflective
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thinking.Roth(1989),inspeakingabouttrainingproductiveteachers,observes24practices
ofwhathetermsthe“reflectivepractitioner,”theyare:
1) Questionwhat,why,andhowonedoesthings;askwhat,why,andhowothersdothings.
2) Emphasizeinquiryasatooloflearning.3) Suspendjudgment,waitforsufficientdate,orself‐validate.4) Seekalternatives.5) Keepanopenmind.6) Compareandcontrast.7) Seek the framework, theoretical basis, underlying rationale (of behaviors,
methods,techniques,programs)8) Viewfromvariousperspectives.9) Identifyandtestassumptions.10)Putintodifferent/variedcontexts.11)Ask“whatif...?”12)Asforothersideasandviewpoints.13)Adaptandadjusttoinstabilityandchange.14)Functionwithinuncertainty,complexity,andvariety.15)Hypothesize.16)Considerconsequences.17)Validatewhatisgivenorbelieved.18)Synthesizeandtest.19)Seek,identify,andresolveproblems(“problemsetting,”“problemsolving”).20)Initiate after thinking through (alternatives, consequences) or putting into
context.21)Analyze–whatmakesitwork;inwhatcontextwoulditnot?22)Evaluate–whatworked,whatdidn’t,andwhy?23)Useprescriptivemodels(behavioralmodels,protocols)onlywhenadaptedtothe
situation.24)Makedecisionsinpracticeoftheprofession(knowledgecreatedinuse)(pg.32).
Thesearetheabilitiesthatgoodreflectivethinkershavelearnedandcandemonstrate,and
sotheyarealsotheabilitiesthatmustbemeasuredintheassessmentofreflectivewriting.
AssessmentofthesemeasurescanbeaidedbytheuseofcarefullydesignedRubrics.
Rubricsarehelpfulinthattheyclarifyexpectationsandidentifyforstudentswhatshouldbe
emphasized.(Milleretal.,2012).However,theusefulnessofrubricsasagradingtoolisnot
uniformlyagreedupon(Wilson2006).Asitrelatestoreflectivewritingspecifically,aswe
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haveseen,Reflectivethinkingandreflectivewritingarenotnecessarilythesameprocess.
Rubrics, while clarifying expectations, also limit student work in some ways, and could
contributetotheseparationofreflectivethinkingfromreflectivewritingthatCharonand
Hermann(2012)haveidentified.
Nevertheless,acoupleofgeneralrubrics forassessmentof reflectivewritinghave
beenpopularized.TheREFLECTrubric,madeforuseinMedicalEducation,butwithsome
transferabilityintootherreflectivewritingassignments(Waldet.al.2012)assesseswriting
in six areas:Writing spectrum,presence, descriptionof conflict ordisorientingdilemma,
attendingtoemotions,analysisandmeaningmaking,andtheoptionalcriteria,attendance
to the assignment, and categorizes the student work as either Habitual action (non‐
reflective),thoughtfulactionorintrospection,reflection,orcriticalreflection.TheREFLECT
assessment has been evaluated byMoniz and her colleagues (2015), who conclude that
individualuseoftherubricvarieswidely,andthattheassessmenttooldoesnotprovidethe
standardizationitpromises.ThoughitisthecasethatMonitzandhercolleaguesusedthe
REFLECTrubricforsummativeassessment,whenitwasdesignedforformativeassessment,
andthisundoubtedlyhassomebearingontheirresults.
Amore extensive rubric has been createdBarbara Larrivee (2008) for use in the
evaluation of teachers as reflective practitioners. Larrivee identifies sixty‐three elements
thatreflectiveteachersaccomplishwhicharebrokenupintofouroverarchingcategories:
pre‐reflection,surfacereflection,pedagogicalreflection,andcriticalreflection.Therubric
attemptstomeasurethefrequencybywhicheachteacherbeingevaluateduseseachofthe
sixty‐threeelements,andtheyareratedonasimplescale:always,frequently,infrequently.
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Importantly,Larriveealsoadvocates that therubricbegivento theevaluator,andto the
personbeingevaluatedandadministeredasaself‐evaluation.
At this point, it is helpful to return to Dweck’s idea of growth mindset, and in
particularherthoughtsabouthowgrowthmindsetcanbeencouragedbyteachers.Inher
view,feedbackthatpromotesgrowthmindsetcannotprimarilyaddressthecorrectnessor
incorrectnessoftheresultsofthethinking.Rather,itmustpraisethosethingsstudentsare
doingwell,andencouragestudentstothinkdifferentlyaboutthoseskillsandabilitiesthey
haveyettoacquire(Dweck,2006).Ofcourse,effortandprocessaredifficulttoassesswhen
what you have to measure is whatever the student managed to write and submit. The
realities of grading require that objective, often judgmental statements be imposed onto
studentwork.
One further complication is the reality that each student interprets instructor
comments differently. Devers (2015: 3) observes “studentswith a fixedmindset usually
either ignore criticism or take it as an insult to their intelligence. Because they believe
intelligencecannotbechanged,thecriticismofintelligenceisperceivedasacriticismofthe
student.” Ironically perhaps, this interpretation has both a detrimental effect on the
acquisitionofgrowthmindset,andprofoundimpactsonthestudent’sabilitytomakegains
intheirunderstandingofthetopicathand.Thisdiscontinuity ismorepronouncedinthe
assessmentofreflectivewritingbecauseassoonasastudentfeelstheirintelligencehasbeen
insulted,theircapacitytothinkreflectivelyisdramaticallydiminished.
Dweck addresses both student interpretation of instructor comments, and the
necessitiesofgradingwhatisonthepagebywhatshetermsthe“powerofyet”(2010:29).
Journal of Student Success and Retention Vol. 3, No. 1, October 2016
19
Herargumentisthatbyspeakingtostudentsintermsofskillstheyhavedevelopedalready
andskillstheyhaveyettodevelop,wedonotaccidentallystiflegrowthmindsetaswegrade.
In a later piece, Dweck (2015) contrasts feedback that encourages growthmindsetwith
feedbackthatencouragesafixedmindsetinthefollowingtable:
Thedifferencesbetweenthesefeedbackexamplesshowclearlythetypeofencouragement
Journal of Student Success and Retention Vol. 3, No. 1, October 2016
20
required to develop growthmindset: Effort is in focus, but it is effort directed towards
learning. Continuously learning is the goal. To encourage growth mindset, instructor
feedbackmustencouragestudents toset theireffort,progress,andchallengeswithinthe
contextoflifelonglearning‐notjustpassingaclass,notjustgraduatingfromcollege.The
most effective comments push the students to think deeper about the issues they are
discussingandtoseelearningasaprocess.Inthisway,theregularfeedbackisessentialin
forcingthestudentstobecomebetterreflectiveandintegrativethinkers.
Practically,forreflectivewritingassignmentstoremainhelpfulforlearningIbelieve
thatthetypeofcommentsanddirectionsmadebytheinstructorneedtoberatherdifferent
fromotherformsofwriting.First,Ithinkthatthegoaloftheinteractionoughttobetoask
questionsmorethantogiveanswers.Wesawabovethe24skillsofthereflectivepractitioner
thatRoth(1989),identified.Iftheseskillsarethegoal‐andIsuggestthattheyare‐thenmy
commentsonstudentwritingneedtoforcethemtomorewholeheartedlyandthoroughly
demonstratethesereflectivepractices.
I suggest a two‐stage assessment process. Stage one, after the work has been
submitted,gothroughitquickly,andaskquestions.That’sit‐justquestions.Atthispoint
thegoal is todemonstrateto thestudentareaswheretheycould,andshouldthinkmore
deeply,ormorereflectively.Roth’slistof24practicesofreflectivepractitionerscanformthe
conceptualbackdropforthetypeofquestionsthatcanbeasked.Alsointhefirststageofthe
assessmentprocessbelongsfeedbackonthemechanicsofwriting‐sentencestructure,word
choice, grammar, punctuation, etc, and organization. Again, I think that couching these
commentsintermsofquestionsisappropriate.WhatIwanttodoistohelpstudentsfigure
Journal of Student Success and Retention Vol. 3, No. 1, October 2016
21
outwaysofexpressingthemselvesmoreclearly,nottosimplyedittheirtextforthem.After
thefirststageofassessment,thestudentsaregivenanopportunitytoreviseandresubmit
theirwork.
Then,thesecondstagehastoallowthestudenttoamendandaltertheirassignment.
Essentiallytoanswerthequestionsaninstructoraskedthem,andfixthemistakestheymade
inwriting.Thisisnodoubtcumbersome,andrequiresacertainamountofextraworkonthe
partofthestudentandtheinstructor.However,alotcanbegained.1)Weforcestudentsto
reflectmoredeeply,tocorrecttheirmistakesandinsodoing,subtlypromotethebenefitof
athoroughgoingrevisionprocess.2)Weallowstudentstoproactivelyaddress individual
pointsatwhichtheyfailed(beitgrammatical,orconceptual)andinsodoing,allowthemto
engageintheprocessnaturaltoindividualspossessingDweck’sgrowthmindset.
4.Conclusion
TherearesubstantialadvantagesinhelpingstudentsdevelopwhatCarolDweckcalls
growthmindset. In this article, I have argued that students candevelop growthmindset
when they are required to think and write reflectively about their academic and non‐
academicprocesses.Constructingreflectivewritingassignmentsinsuchawayastoallow
studentstostartbydescribing“theefforttheyapplied,thestrategiestheyused,thechoices
thattheymade,andthepersistencetheydisplayed”(Dweck2010:18)‐theverycategories
thatDwecksuggestsweuseinourassessmentofstudentlearning‐willallowstudentsto
Journal of Student Success and Retention Vol. 3, No. 1, October 2016
22
makegainstowardsthedevelopmentoftheirowngrowthmindset,andthuswillenabletheir
continuedsuccessbothincollege,andbeyond.
Journal of Student Success and Retention Vol. 3, No. 1, October 2016
23
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