Critical Thinking Thinking is a purposeful mental activity—you
control it… Thinking is a two-sided activity—first you
produce ideas and then you evaluate them… Producing ideas widens your focus (resist the
temptation to settle for a few familiar ideas). Evaluating narrows your focus. Sort the
ideas, identify the most reasonable ones.
Why critical thinking is important Success in work depends on
thinking skills. It isn’t enough to possess
knowledge but you must be able to apply information to your job.
Critical thinking is a reliable way of searching for the truth.
Facts and Opinions Facts are realities; opinions are
beliefs or judgments. Opinions may fit the facts or be in
error. Even the greatest experts sometimes
hold incorrect opinions. That is why research is so important
in every subject area—it confirms some opinions and disproves others.
Forming Opinions Critical thinkers realize how easy it is to
be mistaken so they form their opinions with care.
They revise their opinions, even cherished ones, whenever they prove to be in error.
There is no shame in being wrong, but problems occur when we stubbornly cling to a mistaken view.
Recognizing facts & opinions Fact: Babe Ruth was a famous
baseball player. Opinion: Smoking should be
banned in all public places. Fact: Camel’s hair brushes are
made of Siberian squirrel fir. Opinion: Eyewitness testimony is
generally unreliable.
Separating facts & opinions1) If you state a fact that is not common
knowledge, or that can’t be easily verified, briefly state where you got your information.
2) If you state an opinion—a view others might disagree with, include answers to questions others might ask.
3) If you are not sure whether a statement is a fact or an opinion, treat it as an opinion.
Opinion versus personal preference… Often confusing to many people. Example: “Comic books are as instructive
about life as novels are.” When asked what evidence exists that
comic books are so instructive, they don’t have an answer…
Preferences don’t need to be defended as long as they are expressed as preferences. (If we express them as opinions, don’t be surprised if others challenge them.
Basic Approach to Critical Thinking
Step One: Decide what you think and why you think it.
Step Two: Seek other views and more evidence.
Step Three: Decide which view is most reasonable.
Step One Begin by deciding what your position is on
the issue in question. (Putting this decision in writing can help. Don’t be discouraged if this takes several attempts.)
Ask yourself what evidence do you have to support your view?
Are there other conclusions possible? Answer these questions as completely as
you can. (You might list them rather than write full sentences.)
Step Two Other viewpoints help you test your
view and discover your biases. You gain additional insights by looking
at new ideas. Gather ideas from multiple sources:
libraries, instructors, or experts in the field.
Look at ideas that both agree and disagree with your viewpoint.
Step Three Measure your view and the views
of others against the evidence. Decide which one is the most
reasonable based on the evidence. Research will often prove your
viewpoint. If it always proves your viewpoint, you may be twisting the evidence to meet your needs…
Critical Reading Strategies
1) Choose your time and place2) Read actively (ask questions/seek
answers)3) Concentrate on the task4) Write a summary (in your own
words; emphasize key points; & write accurately)
5) Reflect on the ideas
Critical Thinking & Writing Critical thinking provides the ideas
for writing, and writing stimulates more ideas.
Allow time for reflection every day. Focus on discovering ideas. Be open to ideas at other times.
Expressing your thoughts for others Complete the thinking process first.
Discovery writing is part of the
thinking process—you produce rather than communicate ideas.
Use your viewpoint as your controlling idea.
Choose a suitable organization.
Expressing your thoughts for others - continued1) Introduction2) Your controlling idea3) Your first argument for this idea and
supporting evidence4) Your second argument and supporting
evidence5) Your third argument (if you have one)
and supporting evidence6) Conclusion
Expressing your thoughts for others - continued Support your view with evidence Be exact, but lively. (Choose word
that convey your idea exactly.) Break your thoughts into paragraphs. Use standard punctuation and
observe conventions of grammar and usage. (The Department of Health Studies uses APA format for most papers.)
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers Know their own minds. Are honest with themselves. Acknowledge all truths—even unpleasant
ones. Accept responsibility and accountability for
their actions. Accept sound arguments—even if that means
rejecting their own. Critical thinkers overcome confusion and ask
questions. They base their judgments on evidence.
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers - continued They base their judgments on
evidence. They resist manipulation. They look for connections between
subjects. They balance their thinking. Critical thinkers are intellectually
independent.
Recognizing and avoiding errors
Three types of broad errors in critical thinking
Errors of Perception Errors of Judgment Errors of Reaction
Perception Errors Faulty ways of seeing reality—
preventing us from being open-minded even before we begin to think.
“Mine is better” thinking Selective Perception—focusing on
different things.
Perception Errors - continued Pretending to know Resistance to change Either/or thinking (Example
Evolution versus Creation Theories)
Judgment Errors Over generalizing or stereotyping Hasty conclusion Unwarranted assumption
(assumptions: ideas that are taken for granted) Example: if something appears in print, it must be true.
Failure to make a distinction
Judgment Errors - continued Distinctions are subtle differences among
things. Distinguish between the person and the
idea. Example: Critical thinkers judge an idea on its own merits—not on the celebrity status or expertise of the person expressing it
Distinguish between familiarity and validity. It’s easy to believe that reasoning is valid because we’ve heard it many times.
Judgment Errors – continued
Distinguish between “often” and “always,” “seldom” and “never.”
Oversimplification differs from simplification. It omits essential information or ignores complexity. It distorts reality and confuses discussion.
Errors of Reaction Explaining Away (Example: Marijuana
Use—users feel the studies are wrong because they have smoked for years and it’s had no effect on them…”
Shifting the burden of proof. When you make an assertion, you might have to defend it. If you find you can’t, avoid shifting the burden of proof to others but instead withdraw the assertion.
Reaction Errors - continued Attacking the person. “You have
no business lecturing me about…” Instead focus on the idea than the
person. Be flexible and be willing to admit
a mistake.
Argument Solving Steps Find the Controlling Idea—the idea
that is the most reasonable. Usually stated right after the introduction.
Read the Article (while keeping the controlling idea in mind.)
Identify Relationships (more info next slide)
Write a Summary
Identify Relationships And relationships signal that what
follows adds to what preceded. (Words like also, first, in addition, next, further, and, moreover, finally, lastly, besides and another.)
But relationships signal what follows contrasts with what preceded. (Words like however, nevertheless, yet, or, but, on the other hand, and in contrast.
Identify Relationships - continued
Therefore relationships signal that a conclusion is being made about the preceding evidence. (Words like so, consequently, accordingly, thus, therefore, and it follows that.)
Coping with Complexity Overcome confusion by dealing
with one sub-issue at a time. Begin by making a spreadsheet.
Put the names of the authorities across the top of the page and the sub-issues down the left-side. Then indicate each authority’s view on each sub-issue
Medical Doctor
Health Teacher
Dietician
Dieter
Is the Adkins Diet safe?
No No No Yes
Is it costly?
Yes ???? Yes No
Does it work?
No Yes ???? Yes
Complexity - continued Chart the sub-issues Look for the disagreements Look at the evidence for those sub-issues
—then decide who makes the best persuasive case for that issue (don’t assume that any authority is right on every issue!)
Use your decisions on the sub-issues to determine your overall view of the issue.
Evaluating Your Own Views Step 1: Decide what you think and
why you think it. Step 2: Seek other views and more
evidence. Step 3: Evaluate the various views. Step 4: Construct the most
reasonable view
Process Original View Significant ideas discovered in the
investigation/research process Revised View
Evaluating Others’ Views Step 1: Understand the other person’s
view. (Withholding all judgment) Step 2: Seek other views and more
evidence. Step 3: Evaluate the various views.
(Pros & Cons—may want to chart) Step 4: Construct the most reasonable
view. (If no one view proves to be fully reasonable, then construct a view by combining parts of the views.)
Propaganda Techniques Bandwagon-creates the impression
that everyone is doing something or buying something. It appeals to the urge to conform.
Glittering Generality – Using words or phrases to imply excellence or uniqueness. “Amazing new discovery”
Techniques - continued Empty Comparison – Uses words
like “bigger,” “better,” or “more.” Used to make statements that seem to make a serious claim—yet you can’t hold the advertiser responsible because you can’t tell exactly what is being claimed. Bigger or better than what?
Techniques - continued Meaningless Slogan – designed to create
a positive impression. “Fly the friendly skies” is designed to associate United Airlines with friendliness. Aimed at associating a business with a particular idea or concept.
Testimonial – an endorsement for a product or service lending their credibility and celebrity status to products.
Techniques - continued Transfer Voice-over – even if the viewer
cannot name the speaker, the voice may be familiar and make the message more appealing.
Objects – Statue of Liberty or American Flag—showing the symbols arouses strong positive feelings in many people.
Techniques - continued Party Scene – where we see people
enjoying themselves. The product may be shown as creating a good time. The product may just be included in the scene but still leaves an impression…
Use critical thinking skills to identify propaganda not only in media but also in writing styles.
Credits All the information for this
PowerPoint came from the book Critical Thinking by Vincent Ryan Ruggiero. The book was designed as a supplement to the “Becoming A Master Student” Program.
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