CORRELATES OF CORRUPTION
BO ROTHSTEIN
SÖREN HOLMBERG
WORKING PAPER SERIES 2011:12 QOG THE QUALITY OF GOVERNMENT INSTITUTE Department of Political Science University of Gothenburg Box 711, SE 405 30 GÖTEBORG November 2011 ISSN 1653-8919 © 2011 by Bo Rothstein and Sören Holmberg. All rights reserved.
Content Economy GDP / Capita 4
Economic Equality (gini index) 5
Economic Freedom 6
GDP / Capita Growth 7
Population below $2 a Day (%) 8
Foreign Credit Rating 9
Welfare
Human Development Index 10
Government Revenue (% of GDP) 11
Tax Revenue (% of GDP) 12
Social Security Laws 13
Average Schooling Years 14
Health
Life Expectancy 15
Healthy Life Years 16
Infant Mortality Rate 17
Maternal Mortality Rate 18
Government Expenditure on Health (% of total health) 19
Private Expenditure on Health (% of total health) 20
Environment
CO2 Emissions / Capita 21
Access to Improved Drinking Water 22
Access to Adequate Sanitation 23
Gender
Gender Equality 24
Secondary Education Enrollment (female) 25
Crime
Homicide Rate 26
Number of Police Officers 27
Number of Prisoners 28
Trust
Interpersonal Trust 29
Confidence in Parliament (all countries) 30
Confidence in Parliament (democracies only) 31
Confidence in Government (all countries) 32
Confidence in Government (democracies only) 33
Happiness
Feeling of Happiness 34
Life Satisfaction 35
Democracy
Level of Democracy 36
Quality of Government
Government Effectiveness 37
Control of Corruption 2002 and 2009 38
Description of Variables 39
4
Afghanistan
Australia
Barbados
Belgium
Bhutan
Brunei
BulgariaBelarus
Cape Verde
Chad
Chile
Equatorial GuineaEstonia
Finland
Gabon
Germany
Ireland
IsraelItaly
Japan
South Korea
Luxembourg
Mauritania
New Zealand
Niger
NorwayQatar
Russia
Sao Tome
S. Arabia
Singapore
Suriname
Sweden
Trinidad
United Arab Emirates
Turkmenistan Ukraine
USA
Uruguay
025
000
5000
0
GD
P / C
apita
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.71Sources: Gleditsch (2002), World Bank (2002-2008)
GDP / Capitavs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
5
Albania
Angola
AustriaBangladesh
Belgium
Bolivia
Bosnia
Belize
Bulgaria
Chile
Comoros
Costa Rica
Denmark
FinlandFrance
Djibouti
Greece
Haiti
Hungary
IsraelLatvia
Liberia
Maldives
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nigeria
Norway
Panama
Russia
St Lucia
Sao Tome
Singapore
Slovakia
South Africa
ZimbabweSuriname
Sweden
TunisiaTurkmenistan
Uganda
Ukraine
Egypt
USA
Uruguay
3040
5060
7080
Econ
omic
Equ
ality
(Rev
erse
d G
ini-i
ndex
)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.13Sources: World Development Indicators (1995-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Economic Equalityvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
6
Australia
Austria
Bahrain
BelgiumBolivia
BosniaMyanmar
Belarus
Cambodia
Cape Verde
Cuba
CyprusEl Salvador
Estonia
Fiji
Finland
France
Haiti
Ireland
IsraelJamaica Japan
North Korea
Libya
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Nepal
New Zealand
Norway
ParaguayRussia
Singapore
Slovenia
Zimbabwe
Suriname
SwedenTrinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
USA
YemenSerbia
020
4060
80
Econ
omic
Fre
edom
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.56Sources: Heritage Foundation (2002), World Bank (2002-2008)
Economic Freedomvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
7
Afghanistan
Argentina
Australia
Armenia
Barbados
Myanmar China
Dem. Rep. Congo
Dominica
Equatorial Guinea
Estonia
Finland
Georgia
Gambia
Greece
Haiti Iceland
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
IsraelJapan
Lithuania
Madagascar
Malawi
Mauritania
New Zealand
Nigeria
Russia
Sao Tome
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Slovenia
Zimbabwe
Sweden
Turkmenistan
USA
UruguayVenezuela
-20
-10
010
20
GD
P / C
apita
Gro
wth
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.01Sources: World Development Indicators (2002-2005), World Bank (2002-2008)
GDP / Capita Growthvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
(N.B. The data for GDP / Capita growth is for a single year only)
8
Argentina
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Bosnia
Brazil
Sri Lanka
Chile
China
Costa Rica
Djibouti
Haiti
Hungary
India
Iran
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Lesotho
MadagascarMali
Mozambique
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Russia
Sao Tome
Senegal
South Africa
Tunisia
Turkmenistan
050
100
Popu
latio
n B
elow
$2
a D
ay (%
)
-2 -1 0 1 2
Control of Corruption
R²=0.26Sources: World Bank (1995-2008)
Population Below $2 a Dayvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
9
Albania
Angola
Austria
Chile
China Taiwan
Costa Rica
Cyprus
France
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
IcelandIreland
IsraelItaly
Japan
Kazakhstan
Jordan
Lithuania
Malaysia
New ZealandNorway
Papua New Guinea
Peru
Poland
Russia
Saudi Arabia
SwedenSwitzerland
Uganda
Macedonia
Egypt
USA
Uruguay
24
68
10
Fore
ign
Cre
dit R
atin
g
-2 -1 0 1 2
Control of Corruption
R²=0.62Sources: Standard & Poor's (2011), World Bank (2002-2008)
Foreign Credit Ratingvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
10
Angola
Azerbaijan
ArgentinaBahamas
Belgium
BhutanBotswana
Solomon Islands
Myanmar Cambodia
Chile
Dem. Rep. Congo
Benin
Denmark
Eq. Guinea
Eritrea
FinlandFrance
Djibouti
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Haiti
India
Israel
Italy JapanSouth Korea
Lesotho
Latvia
Mali
MexicoOman
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Russia
Sierra Leone
Singapore
South Africa
Sweden
Tajikistan Egypt
USA
Burkina Faso
Venezuela
.2.4
.6.8
1
Hum
an D
evel
opm
ent I
ndex
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.47Sources: UNDP (2002), World Bank (2002-2008)
Human Development Indexvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
11
Afghanistan
Algeria
Austria
BahamasArmenia
Barbados
Belgium
Bosnia
Botswana
Brazil
Belize
Myanmar
Burundi
Belarus
Chile
China
Czech Republic DenmarkEstonia
Finland
Germany
IndiaIndonesia
Israel
Jamaica
Kazakhstan
Lesotho
Madagascar
MalaysiaMauritius
Oman
Norway
Paraguay
Qatar
Russia
Senegal
SerbiaSeychelles
Singapore
SlovakiaSlovenia
ZimbabweSpain
Sudan
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Thailand
United Arab Emirates
Ukraine
Macedonia
USA
010
2030
4050
Gov
ernm
ent R
even
ue(%
of G
DP)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.30Sources: World Development Indicators (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Government Revenuevs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
12
Albania
Algeria
Bahrain
Barbados
Belgium
Botswana
BrazilMyanmar
Cambodia
Canada
Central African Republic
Chile
China
Denmark
Fiji FinlandFrance
Georgia
Iceland
Iran
Ireland
Israel
ItalyJamaica
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Lesotho
Madagascar
Morocco
Oman
NamibiaNorway
Papua New Guinea
Qatar
Russia
Serbia
Seychelles
Singapore
Zimbabwe
Spain
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
United Arab Emirates
Turkey
USABurkina Faso
Zambia
010
2030
40
Tax
Rev
enue
(% o
f GD
P)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.17Sources: World Development Indicators (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Tax Revenuevs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
13
Argentina
Australia
Belgium
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
ColombiaDenmark
Ecuador
Finland
Georgia
India
IsraelItaly
Jamaica
Japan
KazakhstanJordan
Latvia
Lithuania
Malawi
Malaysia
Morocco
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nigeria
Poland
Russia
Senegal
SingaporeVietnam South Africa
Zimbabwe
Spain
SwedenUkraine
Tanzania
USA
Burkina Faso
UruguayVenezuela
0.2
.4.6
.8
Soci
al S
ecur
ity L
aws
Inde
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.27Sources: Botero et al (1997-2002), World Bank (2002-2008)
Social Security Laws Indexvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
14
Afghanistan
Argentina
Australia
Austria
BoliviaBrazil
Cameroon
ChileTaiwan
Costa RicaEcuador
Finland
Ghana
Greece
Haiti
Iceland
Iraq
IsraelJapan
Jordan
Kenya
South Korea
Mali
MauritiusMexico
Mozambique
Nepal
Niger
Norway
Panama
ParaguayPortugal
Senegal
Singapore
SwedenSwitzerland
Tunisia
USA
05
1015
Aver
age
Scho
olin
g Ye
ars
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.65Sources: Barro & Lee (2000), World Bank (2002-2008)
Average Schooling Yearsvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
15
Afghanistan
Albania
Angola
Argentina
Australia
Bahamas
Bangladesh
Barbados
Bhutan
Botswana
Solomon Islands
Brunei
Cape Verde
China
Cuba
Benin
Denmark
Equatorial GuineaEthiopia
Eritrea
Estonia
Finland
Ghana
Greece
HaitiIndia
Iraq
Italy
Cote d'Ivoire
Japan
Liberia
Liechtenstein
Malawi
MongoliaRussia
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Slovakia
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Swaziland
Sweden
Syria
Togo
Ukraine
USA
Burkina Faso
Venezuela
Zambia
4050
6070
80
Life
Exp
ecta
ncy
at B
irth
(Yea
rs)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.41Source: World Bank (2000-2008)
Life Expectancy at Birthvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
16
Myanmar
Syria
Guatemala
Ecuador
SwitzerlandBelgiumSlovenia DenmarkArgentina
Japan
Finland
SwedenItalyGreece
AustraliaSpain
Zimbabwe
SlovakiaPanama Chile
Swaziland
Mongolia
South Africa
USA
Russia
Nigeria
Bahamas
EthiopiaDjibouti
Afghanistan
LesothoMozambique Botswana
Iraq
Grenada
Angola
Antigua and BarbudaParaguay
YemenTuvalu
Sierra Leone
Kiribati
Mali
Ghana
Cuba
Haiti
BhutanSolomon Islands
3040
5060
7080
Hea
lthy
Life
Yea
rs
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.44Sources: WHO (-), World Bank (2002-2008)
Healthy Life Yearsvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
17
Afghanistan
Argentina AustraliaBahamas
Belgium
Bhutan
Cameroon
Cape VerdeChina
Dem. Rep. Congo
Cuba
Eritrea
Finland
Gambia
India
Iraq
S. Korea
Kyrgyzstan
LiberiaMali
Mauritania
Mozambique
Nigeria
Paraguay
Rwanda
Sao Tome
Sierra Leone
Slovenia
South Africa
Sweden
Tunisia
Turkmenistan
Uganda
USA
Burkina Faso
Uzbekistan
Venezuela050
100
150
200
Infa
nt M
orta
lity
(per
100
0 liv
e bi
rths)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.40Source: World Bank (2000-2008)
Infant Mortalityvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
High
Low
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
18
Afghanistan
Angola
Australia
Barbados
Bhutan
Botswana
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
China
ComorosEq. Guinea
Eritrea
Finland
Gambia
Haiti
IndiaIndonesia
Iran
Iraq
South Korea
Lesotho
Madagascar
Malawi
Mauritania
Mongolia
NamibiaNigeria
Paraguay
Rwanda
Sao Tome
Sierra Leone
SwedenTunisia
USA050
010
0015
0020
00
Mat
erna
l Mor
talit
y R
atio
(per
100
,000
live
birt
hs)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.22Sources: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation - University of Washington (2002),World Bank (2002-2008)
Maternal Mortality Ratiovs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
High
Low
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
19
Afghanistan
Andorra
Angola
Azerbaijan
Australia
Solomon Islands
Brunei
Canada
Chile
China
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Benin
Dominica
Eq. Guinea
Eritrea
FinlandFranceGermany
Kiribati
Grenada
Guinea
Haiti
IndiaIraq
Japan
North Korea
Kyrgyzstan
Luxembourg
MalawiMaldives
Morocco
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
Nigeria
Marshall Islands
PeruRussia
St Lucia
SingaporeVietnam
South AfricaZimbabwe
Sweden
SwitzerlandThailand
Tonga
Turkmenistan
USA
Uruguay
Zambia
020
4060
8010
0
Gov
ernm
ent E
xpen
ditu
re o
n H
ealth
(% o
f tot
al h
ealth
)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.20Sources: WHO (2001-2002), World Bank (2002-2008)
Government Expenditure on Healthvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
20
Afghanistan
Angola
Australia
Bahamas
BahrainBolivia
Solomon Islands
Brunei
Bulgaria
Canada
Chile
China
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Benin
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
FinlandFrance
Germany
Grenada
Haiti
IndiaIraq
Ireland
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
North Korea Luxembourg
Madagascar
MaldivesOman
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
Nigeria
Marshall Islands
Panama
PeruRussia
SingaporeVietnam
Slovenia
South AfricaZimbabwe
Sweden
Switzerland
Tajikistan
Thailand
Togo
Tonga
Turkmenistan
USA
Uruguay
020
4060
8010
0
Priv
ate
Expe
nditu
re o
n H
ealth
(% o
f tot
al h
ealth
)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.20Sources: WHO (2001-2002), World Bank (2002-2008)
Private Expenditure on Healthvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
21
Afghanistan
Angola
Australia
Austria
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Belgium
Bhutan
Bolivia
Belize
BulgariaMyanmar Chile
ComorosEquatorial Guinea
Finland
Djibouti
Gabon
Gambia
Haiti
HungaryIndonesia IsraelJapan
KazakhstanLuxembourg
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mongolia Netherlands
New Zealand
Qatar
RussiaSpain
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Trinidad and Tobago
United Arab Emirates
Tunisia
USA
Yemen020
4060
Car
bon
Dio
xide
Em
issi
ons
(tons
per
cap
ita)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.02Sources: Environmental Performance Index (2000-2005), World Bank (2002-2008)
Carbon Dioxide Emissionsvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
22
Afghanistan
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Belgium
Bhutan
Brazil
Solomon Islands
BulgariaBelarus
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Chile
China
Ecuador
Ethiopia
Fiji
Finland
Kiribati
Haiti
Iran
Iraq
IsraelItalyJordanN. Korea
Laos
Liberia
Libya
Mozambique
Oman
Vanuatu
Nigeria
PakistanParaguay
Romania
Sao Tome
Somalia
Sweden
TongaUSA
2040
6080
100
120
Acce
ss to
Impr
oved
Drin
king
Wat
er (%
)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.34Sources: Esty et al / WHO (2004), World Bank (2002-2008)
Access to Improved Drinking Water (%)vs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
23
Bangladesh
Belgium
Bhutan
Bosnia
Botswana
Brazil
Belize
Cambodia
CameroonCape Verde
Sri Lanka
Chad
Chile
El SalvadorEquatorial Guinea
EthiopiaEritrea
FinlandGeorgia
Kiribati
Haiti India
IranIraq
IsraelItaly Japan
Kazakhstan
Mauritania
Oman
Namibia
Nigeria
Marshall Islands
Peru
Russia
Somalia
South Africa
SwedenThailandTrinidad/Tobago
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Ukraine
Egypt
USA
Venezuela
Yemen
050
100
Acce
ss to
Ade
quat
e S
anita
tion
(%)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.38Sources: Environmental Performance Index (2004-), World Bank (2002-2008)
Access to Adequate Sanitationvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
24
Belgium
Cameroon
Sri Lanka
Chad
Chile
Colombia
Ethiopia
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Guatemala
IcelandIreland
Israel
Japan
Jordan
LatviaLithuania
Malaysia
Mauritania
Moldova
Oman
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
Nigeria
Norway
Pakistan
Philippines
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria United Arab Emirates
Turkey
USA
Burkina Faso
Venezuela
Yemen
.4.5
.6.7
.8
Gen
der E
qual
ity
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.20Sources: World Economic Forum (2005), World Bank (2002-2008)
Gender Equalityvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
25
AfghanistanAngola
Australia
Bangladesh
Belgium
Bhutan
BrazilBulgaria
ChinaCosta Rica
Denmark
Eritrea
Finland
France
Georgia
Gambia
Grenada
HungaryIceland
Iraq
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Libya
Malaysia
Mali
Morocco
Mozambique
VanuatuNigeria
Norway
Palau
Russia
Seychelles
Vietnam
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Tonga
United Arab EmiratesTunisiaTuvalu
USA
Burkina Faso050
100
150
200
Seco
ndar
y Ed
ucat
ion
Enro
llmen
t (Fe
mal
e)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.45Sources: UNESCO (1999-2009), World Bank (2002-2008)
Secondary Education Enrollment (Female)vs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
High
Low
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
26
Afghanistan
Angola
Australia
BahamasBarbados
Botswana
Brazil
Belize
Brunei
Myanmar
Burundi
Central African Republic
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Cuba
El Salvador
Eritrea
Estonia
Guatemala
Haiti
Indonesia
Iraq
Cote d'Ivoire
Jamaica
Liechtenstein
Mali
Malta
MauritiusNigeria
Russia
Rwanda
Singapore
South Africa
Sudan
SwedenTonga
Egypt
USA
Venezuela
Zambia
020
4060
Hom
icid
e ra
te(p
er 1
00,0
00 p
opul
atio
n)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.13Sources: UN Data (2010), World Bank (2002-2008)
Homicide ratevs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
27
MyanmarSyriaVenezuela
Belgium
Japan
Cyprus
Finland
Sweden
Italy
Bahrain
Canada
Austria
MacedoniaMexico
Zimbabwe
SlovakiaUruguay
Mauritius
Chile
Latvia
IsraelKyrgyzstan
Estonia
Singapore
South Africa
KazakhstanUSA
Kuwait
Morocco
Barbados
Jordan
Paraguay
India
Brunei
Lebanon
050
010
0015
0020
00
Num
ber o
f Pol
ice
Offi
cers
(per
100
,000
pop
ulat
ion)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.01Sources: UN Data (2010), World Bank (2002-2008)
Number of Police Officersvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
28
Myanmar NepalBolivia IcelandVenezuela BelgiumSaudi Arabia QatarSwedenItaly
Egypt BahrainZambiaMacedonia AustraliaMexico
New ZealandRomania ChileUnited Arab EmiratesMalaysiaAzerbaijan
Turkmenistan PolandMoldovaLatvia IsraelGeorgia Kyrgyzstan Estonia SingaporeSouth AfricaKazakhstan Ukraine
Belarus
USA
Russia0
200
400
600
Num
ber o
f Pris
oner
s(p
er 1
00,0
00 p
opul
atio
n)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.02Sources: UNODC (2000-2006), World Bank (2002-2008)
Number of Prisonersvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
29
Australia
BangladeshBelgium
Brazil
Belarus
Chile
China
Cyprus
Finland
Hungary
IcelandIndia
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
JordanLuxembourg
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Pakistan
Portugal
Romania
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Vietnam
SloveniaSouth Africa
Zimbabwe
Spain
Sweden
Trinidad and TobagoUganda
Ukraine
Egypt
United Kingdom
USA
Venezuela
Serbia
020
4060
80
Mos
t Peo
ple
Can
Be
Trus
ted
(%)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.20Sources: World Values Survey (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Interpersonal Trustvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
High
Low
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
30
Albania
Azerbaijan
Argentina
Bangladesh
Bosnia Chile
China
Taiwan
CyprusFinland
Georgia Greece
Iceland
India
Iran
Japan
Jordan
South Korea
Latvia
Luxembourg
Morocco
New Zealand
Nigeria
NorwayPhilippines
Russia
Rwanda
Slovakia
Vietnam
South AfricaZimbabwe Spain SwedenThailand
Turkey
Uganda
Macedonia
USAUruguay
Serbia
.51
1.5
22.
53
Con
fiden
ce in
Par
liam
ent
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.00Sources: World Values Survey (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Confidence in Parliamentvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
31
Albania
Argentina
Austria
Brazil
Chile
Taiwan
Colombia
Cyprus
Czech RepublicDominican Republic
Finland
France
Georgia
Ghana
Greece
Guatemala
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Italy
Japan
South Korea
Latvia
LuxembourgMali
Malta
Mexico
Moldova
Netherlands
New Zealand
NorwayPhilippines
Poland
Slovakia
Slovenia
South AfricaSpain
Sweden
ThailandTurkey
Ukraine
Macedonia
United KingdomUSA
Uruguay
VenezuelaSerbia
Zambia
.51
1.5
2
Con
fiden
ce in
Par
liam
ent
-1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.00Sources: World Values Survey (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Confidence in Parliamentvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
N.B. Only democracies (countries with a FreedomHouse/Polity rating above 6) are included. Bangladesh is also excluded.
32
Albania
Andorra
Argentina
Bangladesh
Bosnia
Chile
China
Dominican Republic
Finland
France Germany
Iraq Italy Japan
Jordan
Lithuania
MalaysiaMali
Netherlands
NigeriaNorway
PeruPoland
Russia
Vietnam
South AfricaSpain Sweden
Switzerland
Thailand
Uganda
Ukraine
Macedonia
Egypt
Tanzania
USABurkina Faso
UruguayVenezuela
Serbia
Zambia
.51
1.5
22.
53
Con
fiden
ce in
Gov
ernm
ent
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.02Sources: World Values Survey (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Confidence in Governmentvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
33
Albania
Andorra
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Taiwan
Colombia Croatia
Czech Republic
Dominican Republic
Estonia
Finland
France Germany
Ghana
Guatemala
IndiaIndonesia
Italy JapanLatvia
Lithuania
Mali
MexicoMoldovaNetherlands
Norway
Peru
Philippines
PolandRomania Slovenia
South Africa
Spain Sweden
Switzerland
Thailand
Ukraine
Macedonia
United Kingdom
USA
UruguayVenezuela
Serbia
Zambia
.51
1.5
2
Con
fiden
ce in
Gov
ernm
ent
-1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.02Sources: World Values Survey (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Confidence in Governmentvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
N.B. Only democracies (countries with a FreedomHouse/Polity rating above 6) are included. Bangladesh is also excluded.
34
Azerbaijan
Austria
Bangladesh
Armenia
Brazil
Bulgaria
Belarus
Chile
China
Colombia
Cyprus
El Salvador
Estonia
Finland
France
GermanyGreece
Guatemala
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Italy
Jordan
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Lithuania
Mali
Mexico
Morocco
New Zealand
Nigeria
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Slovakia
Vietnam
Slovenia
Zimbabwe
SwedenThailand
Uganda
Ukraine
Egypt
United KingdomTanzania
USA
Burkina Faso
Venezuela
SerbiaZambia
2.5
33.
5
Feel
ing
of H
appi
ness
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.21Sources: World Values Survey (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Feeling of Happinessvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
High
Low
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
35
AlbaniaAzerbaijan
ArgentinaAustralia
Austria
Bangladesh
Armenia
Brazil
Chile
China
Colombia
Croatia
Denmark
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Ethiopia
Estonia
Finland
Georgia
Greece
Guatemala Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
IsraelJapan
South KoreaKyrgyzstan
LatviaLithuania
MaltaMexico
Nigeria
Romania
Russia
Saudi ArabiaSingapore
Slovakia
Zimbabwe
Spain
Sweden
Turkey
Ukraine
Egypt
United Kingdom
Tanzania
USAUruguayVenezuela
Zambia
45
67
8
Life
Sat
isfa
ctio
n
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.46Sources: World Values Survey (1996-2008), World Bank (2002-2008)
Life Satisfactionvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
High
Low
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
36
Antigua and Barbuda
AzerbaijanBahrain
Armenia
Belgium
Bhutan
Bolivia
Solomon Islands
Brunei
Myanmar China
Colombia
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Ecuador
Ethiopia
Eritrea
Estonia
Fiji
FinlandFrance
Djibouti
Ghana
Kiribati
Haiti
Iran
Iraq
IsraelJapan
Jordan
North Korea
South Korea
Kuwait
Libya
Malaysia
Morocco
Namibia
Vanuatu
Nigeria
Marshall Islands
Pakistan
Paraguay
Qatar
Russia
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia
Seychelles
Singapore
Somalia
Sweden
Tajikistan
Turkey
Tuvalu USA
Burkina Faso
02
46
810
Leve
l of D
emoc
racy
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.27Sources: Freedom House/Polity (2002-2006), World Bank (2002-2008)
Level of Democracyvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
37
Afghanistan
Australia
Canada
Chile
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Dominica
Eritrea
Finland
France
Haiti
Hungary
Indonesia
Iraq
Israel
North Korea
Kuwait
MaldivesMexico Oman
New Zealand
Nigeria
RussiaSaudi ArabiaSeychelles
Sierra Leone
Spain SwedenSwitzerland
Syria
Togo
United Arab Emirates
Turkey
USA
-2-1
01
2
Gov
ernm
ent E
ffect
iven
ess
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption
R²=0.88Sources: Freedom House/Polity (2002-2006), World Bank (2002-2008)
Government Effectivenessvs. Control of Corruption
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
Low
High
38
Afghanistan
Antigua and Barbuda
Australia
Bahrain
Belgium
Solomon Islands
Brunei
Myanmar
Cape Verde TaiwanCuba
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia
Haiti
Indonesia
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Kuwait
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
MauritaniaMongolia
Vanuatu
New Zealand
Nigeria
Norway
Papua New Guinea
Qatar
St Lucia
Senegal
Slovakia
Somalia
Spain
SyriaTogo
TuvaluMacedonia
United Kingdom
USAUruguay
-2-1
01
2
Con
trol o
f Cor
rupt
ion
2009
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Control of Corruption 2002
R²=0.88Sources: World Bank (2009), World Bank (2002)
Control of Corruption 2009vs. Control of Corruption 2002
High Corruption Low Corruption
Data runs by: Richard Svensson
High Corruption
Low Corruption
39
Correlates of Corruption Description of Variables1
Control of Corruption World Bank Governance Indicators
public power for private gain. The particular aspect of corruption measured by the various sources differs
ical arena or in the
GDP / Capita Gleditsch Trade and GDP Data
Aten), Gleditsch has imputed missing data by using an alternative source of data (the CIA World Fact Book), and through extrapolation beyond available time-series. This is his estimate of GDP per Capita in US dollars at current year international prices. Economic Equality (Gini index) World Development Indicators Gini measure of economic inequality, where greater values represent greater inequality. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are from the Luxembourg Income Study database. Economic Freedom Heritage Foundation The Economic Freedom index uses 10 specific freedoms, some as composites of even further detailed and quantifiable components:
Business freedom (hf_business) Trade freedom (hf_trade) Fiscal freedom (hf_fiscal) Freedom from government (hf_govt) Monetary freedom (hf_monetary) Investment freedom (hf_invest) Financial freedom (hf_financ) Property rights (hf_prights) Freedom from corruption (hf_corrupt) Labor freedom (hf_labor)
Each of these freedoms is weighted equally and turned into an index ranging from 0 to 100, where 100 represents the maximum economic freedom. Although changes in methodology have been undertaken throughout the measurement period, continuous backtracking has been used to maximize comparability over time. GDP / Capita growth World Development Indicators Annual percentage growth rate of GDP per capita based on constant local currency. Sources: World Bank and OECD. 1 Some of the variables have been reversed in the scatterplots in order to make the interpretation more intuitive
40
Population below $2 a Day (%) World Development Indicators Percentage of the population living on less than $2.00 a day at 2005 international prices. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are from the Luxembourg Income Study database. Foreign Credit Rating Credit ratings are forward- express the
government, to meet its financial obligations in full and on time. Credit ratings can also speak to the credit quality of an individual debt issue, such as a corporate note, a municipal bond or a mortgage-backed security, and the relative likelihood that the issue may default. agencies, which specialize in evaluating credit risk. Each agency applies its own methodology in measuring creditworthiness and uses a specific rating scale to publish its ratings opinions. Typically, ratings are expressed as letter grades that range, for example,
Human Development Index UNDP Human Development Report The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index that measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth;; knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate and the combined gross enrolment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools;; and a decent standard of living, as measured by GDP per capita in purchasing power parity (PPP) US dollars. Government Revenue (% of GDP) World Development Indicators Revenue is cash receipts from taxes, social contributions and other revenues. Grants are excluded here. Measured as a percentage of GDP. Source: International Monetary Fund. (World Bank and OECD for GDP estimates.) Tax Revenue (% of GDP) World Development Indicators Tax revenue refers to compulsory transfers to the central government for public purposes. Certain compulsory transfers such as fines, penalties, and most social security contributions are excluded. Measured as a percentage of GDP. Source: International Monetary Fund. (World Bank and OECD for GDP estimates.) Social Security Laws Botero, Djankov, La Porta, López-de-Silanes & Shleifer Regulation of Labor Measures social security benefits as the average of the three variables:
Old Age, Disability and Death Benefit Index Sickness and Health Benefits Index Unemployment Benefits Index
Average Schooling Years Barro & Lee Average schooling years in the total population aged 25 and over.
41
Life Expectancy World Development Indicators Life expectancy at birth indicates the number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same throughout its life. Sources: United Nations Population Division, national statistical offices, Eurostat, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, and U.S. Census Bureau. Healthy Life Years WHO Statistical Information System Average number of years that a person can expect to live in "full health" by taking into account years lived in less than full health due to disease and/or injury. Infant Mortality Rate World Development Indicators Infant mortality rate is the number of infants dying before reaching one year of age, per 1,000 live births in a given year. Source: Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UNPD, universities and research institutions). Maternal Mortality Rate Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation University of Washington Number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live Births. Government Expenditure on Health (% of total health) WHO Statistical Information System Government expenditure on health care services and goods as a percentage of total expenditure on health. Expenditures on health include final consumption, subsidies to producers, and transfers to households (chiefly reimbursements for medical and pharmaceutical bills). Besides domestic funds it also includes external resources (mainly as grants passing through the government or loans channeled through the national budget). Private Expenditure on Health (% of total health) WHO Statistical Information System Private expenditure on health-care services and goods as a percentage of total expenditure on health. CO2 Emissions / Capita Environmental Performance Index Emissions of greenhouse gases per capita, measured in tons of carbon dioxide equivalents. Access to Improved Drinking Water Environmental Performance Index The percentage of population with an access to an improved water source. Original source is WHO. Access to Adequate Sanitation Environmental Performance Index The percentage of population with an access to an improved source of sanitation. Original source is WHO. Gender Equality World Economic Forum All scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1, with 1 representing maximum gender equality. The study measures the extent to which women have achieved full equality with men in five critical areas: - Economic participation - Economic opportunity - Political empowerment - Educational Attainment - Health and well-being Secondary Education Enrollment (female) UNESCO Institute for Statistics All values given are gross enrollment rate (GER). GER is defined as the number of pupils enrolled at a given level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the theoretical age
42
group for the same level of education. Gross enrollment rate can be over 100% due to the inclusion of over-aged and under-aged pupils/students because of early or late entrants, and grade repetition. In this case, a rigorous interpretation of GER needs additional information to assess the extent of repetition, late entrants, etc. Homicide Rate UNODC Intentional homicide, rate per 100,000 population. Intentional homicide is defined as unlawful death purposefully inflicted on a person by another person. Number of Police Officers UNODC Police officers per 100,000 population. Number of Prisoners UNODC Sentenced incarcerated persons per 100,000 population Interpersonal Trust World Values Survey
very careful in dealing with people? (1) Most people can be trusted (2) Confidence in Parliament World Values Survey
have in them: is it a great deal of confidence, quite a lot of confidence, not very much confidence or none at all? (1) A great deal (2) Quite a lot (3) Not very much (4) Confidence in Government World Values Survey
organizations. For each one, could you tell me how much confidence you have in them: is it a great deal of confidence, quite a lot of confidence, not very much confidence or none at all? (1) A great deal (2) Quite a lot (3) Not very much (4) Feeling of Happiness World Values Survey
(1) Very happy (2) Quite happy (3) Not very happy (4) Life Satisfaction World Values Survey
are you with your life as a whole these days? (1) Dissatisfied (2)
43
(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Level of Democracy Freedom House / Polity Scale ranges from 0-10 where 0 is least democratic and 10 most democratic. Average of Freedom House (fh_pr and fh_cl) is transformed to a scale 0-10 and Polity (p_polity2) is transformed to a scale 0-10. These variables are averaged into fh_polity2. The imputed version has imputed values for countries where data on Polity is missing by regressing Polity on the average Freedom House measure. Hadenius & Teorell (2005) show that this average index performs better both in terms of validity and reliability than its constituent parts. Government Effectiveness World Bank Governance Indicators
provision, the quality of the bureaucracy, the competence of civil servants, the independence of the civil service from political pressures, and the credibility of th
policies and deliver public goods.
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