8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
1/105
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of Study
Since 1960 when Nigeria gained independence from Britain, she has
been an active member of the Commonwealth and has hosted two
Commonwealth Heads of State General Meetings (CHOGM).
Nigerias commitment and activeness in the Commonwealth bore fruit
with the appointment of Chief Emeka Anyaokwu, as the Secretary-
General of the Commonwealth for two consecutive terms of 5 years
(1990-2000) during the Kuala Lumpur CHOGM in Malaysia in 1990.
The Commonwealth has also cooperated with Nigeria in diverse
projects and activities such as sports, education, exchange
programmes, capacity building, political activities such as elections
monitoring, as well as other areas of common interest. It is therefore
on this note that a research on the Commonwealth-Nigeria relations is
necessitated.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
2/105
1.2 Statement of Problem
Nigeria had been very active in the Commonwealth until her
suspension in November 1995, for gross and flagrant abuse of human
rights by the General Sani Abacha-led military junta. However, there
is still a dearth of knowledge on the activities of the Commonwealth
in Nigeria, despite the numerous programmes being undertaken or
funded by the Commonwealth. This study therefore aims to make a
conscious attempt at knowing whether Nigerias membership of the
British Commonwealth has had any direct or indirect impact upon her
current level of development or not. As such, a ten-year period from
1999-2009, which incidentally marks ten successive years of
uninterrupted democratic governance, shall be studied.
1.3 Research Questions
The following shall serve as the research questions
a) How has the Commonwealth been able to impact upon sustainable
development in her relationship with Nigeria?
b) Which specific sectors of the Nigerian economy has the
Commonwealth impacted sustainable development?
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
3/105
c) What role does Nigerias relationship with the Commonwealth play
in her foreign policy?
1.4 Objectives of Study
The major purpose of the study is to examine the benefits, if any, that
Nigeria enjoyed or is enjoying, by virtue of her membership of the
British Commonwealth. The study equally seeks to achieve the
following:
To examine how the Commonwealth has aided sustainable
development in Nigeria or not.
To find out whether Nigeria is able to play a role in the
Commonwealth committee of nations.
To examine the role of the Commonwealth among her member
nations.
1.5 Research Hypotheses
The following shall serve as the hypothesis for the conduct of this
research:
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
4/105
a) That the Commonwealth has impacted upon sustainable
development in Nigeria
b) That Commonwealth relations with Nigeria has impacted on
specific sectors in the economy
c) That Nigerias relations with the Commonwealth plays an
important role in her foreign policy.
1.6 Significance of the Study
In this study, attempts would be made to examine the Commonwealth
and sustainable development in Nigeria. This study is significant in
that its findings would enable Nigerian policymakers, as well as the
general public, know how the Commonwealth, under the leadership of
Britain has been able to impact Nigerias development over the years,
from one phase to another.
1.7 The Scope/Limitations of the Study
This study will focus on the Commonwealth and its impact on
sustainable development in Nigeria. Sectoral study would focus on the
academia, social services, and manpower development. The period
under consideration would be 1999-2009. The main limitation of this
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
5/105
study is the inadequacy of core and relevant literature on the case-
study
1.8 Research Methodology
This study would employ a descriptive analysis method. It entails a
logical analysis of relevant literature using descriptive means. This
method was chosen due to the fact that the data collection method will
be mainly via secondary sources. The secondary method involves data
collection from newspapers, magazines, journals, textbooks, and also
the internet. It is pertinent to note that the Commonwealth
headquarters is at Malborough House, the United Kingdom, and for
logistical purposes, a visit would not be feasible. Sources for research
materials would include recent newspapers, magazines, journals,
textbooks, and also the internet.
1.9 Literature Review
Akinrinade (1993) traced the origins of the Commonwealth to the
desire of the then British Empire to maintain cordial diplomatic
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
6/105
relations with her ex-colonies, which were swiftly gaining political
independence. He further argued that the Commonwealth was never
created in the traditional manner, by which statesmen would gather to
found an international organization, as was the case with the United
Nations, the organization of African Unity, etc. The Commonwealth
merely evolved from Britains historical ties with her former colonies.
He further shed light on the organizational framework of the
Commonwealth as he noted that the Commonwealth does not have a
charter like most international organizations do. Instead, members
subscribe to a series of principles, declarations and statements which
include; the Declaration of the Commonwealth Principles (Singapore,
1971), the Gleneagles Agreement (the Commonwealth declaration on
Apartheid in Sports, 1977), the Lusaka Declaration on Racism and
Racial Prejudice (1979), the Goa Declaration on International Security
(1983), the Vancouver Declaration on World Trade (1987), amongst
others. These helped define the Commonwealth as a loose association
of states sharing similar values, and united by the pursuit of common
goals. Before 1965, there was no formal Commonwealth system in
place, and the British government, through the Commonwealth
Relations Office (CRO), a department of State of the British
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
7/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
8/105
the dominions- Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and
Newfoundland. The first of these meetings (also known as colonial
conferences) was held in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victorias
Golden Jubilee. The next meeting was hosted by the Canadian
government, thereby setting the tone for the rotational principle in the
hosting of the Commonwealth Head of Government Meetings. The
1926 meeting was highly significant for the evolution and future
direction of the Commonwealth as it witnessed the demand for
independence by South Africa, led by her newly elected Prime
Minister, J.B.M Hertzog. Former British Prime Minister Lord Arthur
Balfour finally came up with a definition of the relationship between
the Britain and her colonies when he described the dominions as
autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status,
and in no way subordinate to one another, freely associating as
members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. This
revolutionary definition resulted in greater consensus building and
unity amongst the Commonwealth states, thereby furthering peace and
cooperation.
Oshuntokun (2004) traced the origins of the Commonwealth to 1867,
when Canada attained a dominion status. The Statute of Westminster
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
9/105
was passed in 1931, and between then and 1946, the loose union of
Britain and her colonies (dominions) was known as the British
Commonwealth of Nations. The British adjective was removed in
1946 and the association became known officially as the
Commonwealth of Nations. It was known as a free association of
sovereign ex-colonies comprising Great Britain and some of her
dependencies, who had chosen to maintain ties of friendship and
cooperation and also recognized the British monarch as their symbolic
head.
The bonds of friendship within the Commonwealth are very diverse.
Whilst some states feel bound by common judicial and educational
systems, for others, it is the use of English language as official means
of communication. Ties in the commonwealth are further strengthened
by trade and investment, sports, currency systems, migration, political
association, etc. These links and relations were then further
consolidated by the creation of the Commonwealth Secretariat in 1965
in London. Therefore, relations that were initiated between Britain
and her white dominions swiftly metamorphosed into a multiracial
organization of fifty-four nations and territories, breaking barriers of
race, culture, religion, ideology, beliefs, and language. It should also
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
10/105
be noted that the recent addition of Cameroun and Mozambique to the
Commonwealth fold has broadened membership beyond historical
and imperial links with Great Britain.
Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth after gaining
independence in 1960 was political/diplomatic and also economically
motivated. As at 1959, diverse political leaders such as Chief Obafemi
Awolowo, Alhaji Tafawa Balewa had consistently made calls for, and
argued for Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth. It was
believed that this would help give Nigeria a voice in global politics, as
well as enable the usage of the Commonwealth as a platform for the
advancement and achievement of Nigerias foreign policy objectives,
which were broadly targeted at the total liberation of Africa from the
clutches of colonialism and apartheid. This work exhaustively
discussed Nigerias relations with the Commonwealth, discussing its
origins, as well as foreign policy-related benefits derived due to
Nigerias membership.
Adeleke (2004) attempted and attributed it to national interest,
economic motives - trade and financial flow patterns, historic
tradition, and elite acculturation and orientation. The Balewa
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
11/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
12/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
13/105
with greater political and socio-economic benefits accruable to
Nigeria on the long run.
Asobie (1993) believed that Nigeria enjoys an overwhelming
advantage by virtue of her membership of the Commonwealth. This,
he claims, is due to the fact that the Commonwealth recognizes the
economic needs and objectives of developing countries and does its
best to support them. He further argued that Nigeria should make
more attempts at exploiting the vast opportunities (political, economic
and otherwise) the Commonwealth presents, and asserts that Nigeria
has benefitted a great deal from the Commonwealth, using it to pursue
and attain foreign policy objectives such as the dismantling of the
abusive apartheid regime in South Africa, the expulsion of
colonialism from Southern Africa, as well as other benefits such as
obtaining scholarship for Nigerian citizens, diplomatic support on
international issues, fellowships and technical assistance from other
Commonwealth member countries, access to assistance for
development and rehabilitation of Nigerian industries, access to
financial assistance, etc.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
14/105
Oshuntokun (2004) commended the profitability of Nigerias
membership of the Commonwealth, arguing in the process that
Nigeria has received as much as she has given in her relations with the
organization. He further contended that the importance of the
Commonwealth to Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. The
Commonwealth is made up by almost two billion people, that is, one
in every three people in the world today is a citizen of the
Commonwealth. The Commonwealth also has a global reach as it has
member states in every continent of the world. Its importance lies in
its informality. This is a body united by a common language, common
legal and political system, and a common educational system.
The main focus of the modern day Commonwealth is the
advancement of democracy, human rights, and the promotion of
sustainable economic growth and social development. In terms of
global reach, the Commonwealth is rivaled only by the United
Nations. It also serves as a building block in the global search for
peace in the world. Nigerias domestic interest is also not to be
ignored as there are presently over one million Nigerians in England,
and many more spread among the other Commonwealth countries.
Nigeria is the second biggest market for British goods in Africa and
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
15/105
Britain is the largest foreign investor in Nigeria. Nigerias relations
with the Commonwealth has been tried and tested, with various
challenges being routinely conquered over the years. However, the
benefits of being in the Commonwealth with its attendant strategic,
economic and political interests far outweighs the disadvantage of
breaking this highly mutually beneficial union.
Akinyemi (1983), in a speech argued for Nigerias withdrawal from
the Commonwealth. He contended the wrongness of Nigerias
continued membership of the Commonwealth as it was contradictory
for Nigeria to encourage Francophone African states to sever ties with
their colonial masters whilst refusing to do same. He further
contended that continued relations with the Commonwealth was only
overly damaging to the desired objective of breaking all imperial links
across the continent. Despite the successes and benefits accrued as a
result of Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth, there are still
some pessimists who argue that there is nothing special about the
Commonwealth and there is nothing the Commonwealth is providing
that Nigeria cannot otherwise do without.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
16/105
In line with the focus of this work on the Commonwealth and its
impact on sustainable development in Nigeria, Anyaokwu (2000)
identified and emphasized the link between democracy and
development. He believes that democracy and development go hand-
in-hand, as it is only when there is a fair system of governance, where
people can freely express themselves, that development can truly take
place. Since May 1999, when Nigeria began a fresh democratic
transition, various efforts have been made towards achieving her
sustained growth and development, in order for the citizens to begin to
enjoy the dividends of democracy as promised at the dawn of a new
democratic era, tagged the fourth (4th) republic. The newly elected
government of President Obasanjo had stressed its determination to
create the right political and macroeconomic environment for
sustainable economic growth and development and within that
framework, economic reform has begun and specific measures in a
number of areas have been announced. This work helped outline the
importance of democracy in the pursuit of development in any
society. It also goes further to emphasize the vitality of the core
principles of democracy, especially freedom, as states in the global
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
17/105
system aim towards building societies capable of sustainable
development.
Obasanjo (2004) shared the same sentiment as Anyaokwu above when
he argued that development and democracy (freedom) are intimately
linked. According to him, development is as important to freedom, as
freedom is to leading a fulfilled meaningful life. He went further, by
arguing that democracy and development are mutually enforcing. That
is, democracy and development go hand-in-hand. So, where there is
democracy, there will be development and vice-versa.
Democracy goes a long way in helping to bring development to
societies where the core principles of democracy are being upheld, as
leaders in power would have a sense of responsibility and
accountability to the people that have given them the opportunity to
serve by voting them into office. Although this is not exactly the case
in many 3rd world countries where democracy is being practiced, the
developed nations of the world have demonstrated that the belief that
democracy and development are not just theories but are practicable
and realistic if properly applied in the right environment. This
particular literature contributed greatly to this work as helped shed
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
18/105
more light on the development-democracy link as it argues quite
convincingly on the nexus between democracy and development in
modern societies.
Obasanjo (2005) discussed the importance of the Commonwealth to
Nigeria and reiterated that the Commonwealth is of strategic
importance to Nigeria, and vice versa. Nigeria attaches great
importance to its membership of the Commonwealth. On the occasion
of Nigeria's admittance as the 99th member of the United Nations, the
first Prime Minister, Late Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, publicly declared
that Nigeria is proud of its membership of the Commonwealth. This
means that in spite of our membership of the United Nations, the
commitment of Nigeria to the Commonwealth would always be of
prime importance.
A review of Nigerias post-independence history reveals the important
roles that the Commonwealth has played in our national life. For
example, during the Nigerian crisis of the 1960s, which eventually
led to the Civil war in 1967, the Commonwealth was the first
international organization to attempt a solution to the crisis. The then
Secretary-General, Arnold Smith, organized the first ever peace
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
19/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
20/105
other international sanctions and bans slowly ensured that Nigeria
returned to a democratic system, especially with the eventual death of
Gen. Sani Abacha in 1998.
Anyaokwu (1999) emphasized how the Commonwealth has been able
to bring development to Nigeria by consistently pushing for a return
to democracy and the rule of law. Consequently, Nigeria was
suspended from the Commonwealth Organization by the
Commonwealth Heads of Government Ministerial Action Group
(CMAG) and subsequently readmitted, after considerable efforts had
been made by the government of the day to adopt and enforce the
internationally accepted norm of fundamental human rights. However,
this unfortunate episode in Nigeria-Commonwealth relations came to
a smooth end with the return of Nigeria to a democratic state on May
29th 1999 and Nigeria consequently resumed her rightful place in the
Commonwealth thereafter.
He also stressed the Commonwealths pride in Nigerias return to
democracy. According to him, democracy in Nigeria is a fresh start
and a victory for democracy, which is a very important and
fundamental principle of the Commonwealth. Anyaokwu went further
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
21/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
22/105
democratic systems of government that guarantees the rights of all
citizens and the rule of law can deliver long-term political stability,
which in turn would provide the basis for sustainable development in
a country as pluralistic and diverse as Nigeria.
The Commonwealth organization has tried in so many ways, to
influence democracy and development not only in Nigeria, but also in
other member countries. This goal has necessitated the formation of
many internal sub-organization and committees within the
Commonwealth. Some include; the Overseas development Assistance
(ODA), the Commonwealth Expert Group, the Commonwealth
Reconstruction and Development Programme, the Commonwealth
Eminent Persons Group (EPG), the Commonwealth Youth
Programme (CYO), the Commonwealth Observer Group, the
Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC), the
Commonwealth Scholarship Programme, amongst others. These
organizations, with different mandates, have been trying, at their
various individual levels to effect positive change in their target
societies.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
23/105
Eze (2004) argued that the Commonwealth is engaged in diverse
aspects of development such as education, peace and security,
democracy, and human rights. According to him, bold initiatives have
been taken in the aspect of debt relief and/or cancellation since the
1980s. Furthermore, the pace-setting Harare Declaration also
emphasized the vitality of sustainable development and poverty
alleviation. According to him, the Commonwealth places prime
importance on issues relating to gender equality, poverty reduction, as
well as conflict prevention and resolution. The influence of the CFTC
on development is also extensively discussed with particular reference
to the aim of promoting economic and social development, as well as
the achievement of poverty alleviation in member states. He also
discussed the conditions for sustainable development which includes;
the peace, security, democracy and political governance initiative, the
economic and corporate governance initiative, the human resource
development initiative, etc. All these are believed to be capable of
bringing about sustainable development if strictly adopted.
Eze (2004) also recognized the financial limitation of the
Commonwealth as it does not have the wherewithal and resources to
cater for all the needs of her member states. He further argued that the
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
24/105
Commonwealth has a limited capacity to have a major impact on
sustainable development especially as its major agencies or
organization such as the educational facilities, capacity building
facilitators and the CFTC, have financial obligations which cannot all
be met. Furthermore, he lamented Africas marginalization in the
process of globalization, as market liberalization and deregulation
have tended to promote de-industrialization and undermined our
capacity to compete in the global market. He then recommended some
solutions which include enhancing the capacity of the Commonwealth
to act by reinventing it as a premium organization with greater
commitment and practical pursuits of its aims and objectives,
reforming the World Trade Organization (WTO) through the G8
members to promote the new partnership envisaged under NEPAD
and also promoting peace, conflict prevention, management and
resolution. Eze then concluded that the Commonwealth must show
that she is truly committed to the cause of her member states and is
ready to fight for the common good of all her member states by
ensuring equity in the distribution of the benefits of globalization and
also, a corresponding burden-sharing of its negative consequences.
This literature focused extensively on the activities of the
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
25/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
26/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
27/105
action will be needed on the part of the government in dealing with
the acute energy shortage in Nigeria, especially of petrol and
electricity, and improving its transportation and telecommunications
infrastructure. In this regard, private-public partnerships may have a
role to play in accelerating infrastructure development in the country.
He further went ahead to say that Nigeria is not alone in addressing
the challenges of economic growth and development. The country can
expect support from the international community, including the
Commonwealth, which provided assistance during the last transition
programme, and which stands ready to work with Nigeria in
promoting its fundamental political values of democracy, human
rights, the rule of law and a just and honest government.
Anyaokwu also highlighted the fact that the role the Commonwealth
has played or is playing in the development of Nigeria cannot be
understated. For example, as regards Nigerias huge debt profile, the
Commonwealth has taken a prominent role in drawing attention to the
crippling effect of debt on many countries and has given its support to
agreements to provide deeper, wider and faster debt relief, particularly
for the Heavily-Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs). He finally
reasoned that a realistic approach to Nigeria's requirements will help
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
28/105
to advance the country's emergence from an unsustainable position.
This work extensively discussed the importance of globalization and
its impact on Commonwealth and member state relations, the vitality
of transparent leadership by those in political offices. It also touched
on issues relating to domestic development, and the need to practice
democracy in the real sense of it. Another pertinent issue discussed
was debt relief and sustainable development.
Adelusi (2006) defined sustainable development as development that
not only generates economic growth but distributes its benefits
equitably, that regenerates the environment rather than destroys it; that
empowers people rather than marginalizing them. It is development
that gives priority to the poor, enlarging their choices and
opportunities and providing for their participation in decisions that
affects their lives. According to him, it is development that is pro-
people, pro-nature, pro-jobs, and pro-woman. (UNDP; HDR, 1994: P.
iii). He views development as an essential component of the ethic of
the universalism of life.
Douthwaite (1999) defined sustainability as the ability of the world to
engage in processes by which all things are produced, and once
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
29/105
established, would be capable of being continued for an indefinite
period of time without causing a progressive deterioration in any
factor, human or environmental, that they affected or on which they
relied.
Ogunyemi (2005) argued that the term "Sustainable development" has
meant different things to different writers. Whilst some have tended to
focus on production and thus narrowly viewed it as a process of
achieving a buoyant economy (e.g. Stepanov, 2004; Adesanya, 2004),
others who focus on the natural environment (e.g. Taranets & Alyona,
2004; Raheem, Hanninem & Ogunyemi, 2004), believe sustainable
development is all about achieving an ecological balance. And yet for
others (e.g. Scoullos, 2004; Newman, 2004), the process goes beyond
what is expressed in these two constricted standpoints, to include all
what mankind and nature require for their survival both at the present
moment as well as in the future. It is particularly important to note
that there are at least three major groups who employ the term
sustainable development for very different and often contradictory
goals i.e economic, social, and environmental (Goodland and Daly,
2006).
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
30/105
This last definition/view is particularly evident in the popular report of
the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)
which asserts that sustainable development is "a process in which the
exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation
of technological development, and institutional change are all in
harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human
needs and aspirations" (WCED 1987, p.43). This particular definition
of sustainable development has been amplified to integrate issues of
economic growth, social development and environmental security
following the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 and the Johannesburg World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) of 2002.
Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 of the Rio Summit underscores the
importance of education in achieving sustainability principles or
sustainable living. The Rio conference specifically called on all
countries to develop and implement an Education for Sustainable
Development Strategy by 2002. The World Conservation Union
explains that, since Rio and Johannesburg, Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD) has been understood beyond the traditional view
of education about sustainability which focuses merely on
dissemination of knowledge. Rather, ESD is seen as a process of
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
31/105
adaptive management and systems thinking, requiring creativity,
flexibility and critical reflection. And central to this process is
learning to access and influence systems for public participation for
decision-making (IUCH, 2003).
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), (2003) identified four principles or conditions of
sustainable development (SD) accompanied with associated
educational skills for attaining them. The first condition is
"recognition of the challenge"; this requires skills in "learning to
know". Secondly, SD demands "collective responsibility and
constructive partnership": the skill needed here is "learning to live
together". The third condition for attaining SD is "acting with
determination"; this calls for skills in "learning to do". The last
principle of SD is "the indivisibility of human dignity"; with the
educational task of "Learning to be". To implement these principles
within the ESD framework, UNESCO (2003) highlights four domains
which are basic education, reorienting existing education programs,
developing public awareness and understanding of sustainability, and
training. It is thus hoped that the implementation of the SD principles
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
32/105
in concurrence with the associated educational tasks, within these four
domains, would translate into sustainable living.
Sustainable development as an aspiration is global; as an ongoing
process, it is local. Gaining inspiration from the Brundtland (WCED,
1987) definition of 1987, sustainable development at the global level
is now generally understood as development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. This has broad appeal and little specificity, but
some combination of development and environment is found in most
attempts to describe it. The Brundtland commission therefore
considered population control, food security, and energy supply as the
critical components of sustainability (Charles Hall, 2000). Many in
the scientific community have adopted the notion of a sustainability
transition, one in which basic human needs are met, hunger and
poverty are reduced, all while sustaining the life support systems of
the planet. (NRC-BSD, 1999).
Douthwaite (1999) in Richard Munck and Denis OHearns Critical
Development Theory questioned the possibility of building a
sustainable world. According to him, the wide gulf and deepening
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
33/105
conflict between the developed and developing world has led to the
absence of a consensus on the creation of a harmonized global policy
that would help engender a sustainable world. He further argued that
another reason the global system is unsustainable is because resources
are being depleted faster than they can be replaced. As a result, we
witness desertification, deforestation, animal endangerment and
extinction, as well as a general Tragedy of the Commons. The
unsustainability of the world was illustrated with the problems created
by the growing use of chemicals alone. According to the United
Nations (1997), The increasing, pervasive use and spread of
chemicals to fuel economic development is causing major health risks,
environmental contamination, and disposal
problems..Environmental emergencies involving chemicals appear
to be steadily increasing.
In conclusion, it is very evident from the above that Nigeria is still a
long way off, if she really aims to achieve the millennium goals and
indeed, the seven point agenda of President YarAdua, which aims
towards rapid growth and development of Nigeria. It is truly
unfortunate that after the much celebrated Independence Day on the
1st of October 1960, 49 years on, Nigeria still does not have much to
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
34/105
celebrate about. The sorry state of our infrastructure and economy has
prompted the intervention of various international and non-
governmental organizations in various aspects of the Nigerian
economy in order to help stem an otherwise negative trend. Thus, this
project will be taking a look at the British Commonwealth, and how it
has been able to impact upon sustainable development in Nigeria.
1.10 Theoretical framework
In this study, the theoretical framework to be employed shall be the
development theory. The development theory was adopted because it
best captures the essence of this project work, and would provide
valuable insights into development in nations. It will also help explain
the development phenomena in the pursuit of sustainable development
which entails capacity building, and the utilization of resources in
such a way as to ensure the sustainability of the environment.
In recent years, development programming has been focused on the
overriding issues of equity and equality in the distribution of the gains
from developmental efforts. A lot of concern has been expressed
about the predication of the rural poor and the imperatives of several
baseline requirements for human development. These include access
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
35/105
to land and water resources, agricultural inputs and services; including
extension and research facilities, and participatory development
strategies to tackle rural poverty, with social equity and social
participation viewed as essential to well rounded socio-economic
development.
Development theory emerged as a stable, academic field of inquiry
after WW2 when European countries were trying to keep their former
colonies at arms length. Throughout these years, development theory
and practice was strongly characterized by the transmission of moral
values from industrialized countries to less developed ones.
Development has been primarily measured by increase in the gross
national product (GNP). Early development theorists such as Bert
Hoselitz, Simon Kuznets, W. Arthur Lewis, etc were among the first
economists to begin analyzing development as a distinct subject
(Berbantti, 2004:1)
This relatively new system has produced concepts such as people-
centred development, participatory development and sustainable
development. The concept of people-centred development emphasizes
the need for meaningful development to be human centred, since
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
36/105
development entails the full utilization of a nations human and
material resources for the satisfaction of diverse human needs.
According to Chinsman (1995), a development programme that is
people-oriented should achieve the following;
Enable people realize their potential, build self-confidence and
lead lives of dignity and fulfillment.
Free people from poverty, ignorance, filth, squalor, deprivation
and exploitation, recognizing that underdevelopment has wider social
consequences; and
Correct existing social, economic or political injustices
The notion of participatory development bridges the interrelated goals
of development and empowerment of people. Development has to be
designed to capture what the people themselves perceive to be their
interests and needs.
Development should be understood as a process, not a product.
Societies are always changing. Some improve, others degenerate or
worsen. Development theory aims at explaining both processes.
Development practice intends to provide tools that can be applied to
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
37/105
entire societies or specific communities. Such interventions are
intended to move communities or societies from a situation in which
they are believed to be worse off, to a situation in which they are
assumed to be better off. Critics of development theory such as
Jonathan Crush and Arturo Escobar, see development as a set of
rational, managerial prescriptions through which industrialized
nations have largely imposed their views and models onto the
beneficiaries of aid, forcing to some extent, a change in the identities
of those who have benefitted (Berbantti, 2004:1).
Globalization and development intervention are intended to move
societies from a situation in which they are believed to be worse off,
to situations in which they are assumed to be better off. However,
there is a great deal of contention or argument on what determines
who is worse and who is better (Adelman, 1998:2).
In conclusion, if society is to become more sustainable, major
alterations will be needed to the nature of government, personnel
behavior, ethics and ability to cope with uncertainty. Therefore,
societies most sympathetic to the wind of positive change will most
likely experience development. Therefore, this framework is
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
38/105
applicable to this work in that it helps bridge the gap between
development efforts and actual development and whether such
development can be termed as sustainable on the long run
1.11 Outline of Chapters
This study would comprise of four chapters, they include:
Chapter one comprises of the background of study, problem of
research, research questions, research objectives, rationale for study,
scope/ limitations of study, literature review, theoretical framework
and then research methodology.
Chapter two comprises of the history of the Commonwealth in Nigeria
and Commonwealth-Nigeria relations.
Chapter three focuses on the case study. It comprises of an analysis on
the Commonwealth and sustainable development in Nigeria.
Chapter four comprises of the Summary, Conclusion and
Recommendations
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
39/105
References
Adeleke, A. (2004), Nigeria and the Commonwealth in Ogwu.U(ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos:Printserve Limited.
Adelusi, O. (2006), Development Policies and Analysis: A Reader.Akure: Standard Mass Concept Company
Adelman, I. (1998), Theories of economic growth and development.PaloAlto: Stanford Press.
Akinrinade, S (1993), Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Quo Vadis?in Owoeye, J (ed.) (1993) Nigeria in International Institutions.
Ibadan: College Press Limited.
Anyaokwu, E (1999), Nigeria Resumes Full CommonwealthMembership Retrieved fromhttp://www.thecommonwealth.org. Accessed on the 28th ofAug. 2009.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
40/105
Anyaokwu, E (2000),Eye of Fire. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Asobie, H (1993), Nigeria in International Institutions: Review ofLiterature and Methodological Issues in Owoeye, J (ed.)(1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: CollegePress Limited
Awolowo, O. (1960), Awo: The Autobiography of Chief ObafemiAwolowo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg 309.
Bolaji, A. (1983), A farewell to policy: Valedictory lecture byDirector-General of the Nigerian Institute of InternationalAffairs. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs. pg 14.
Chinsman, B. (1995), Putting people first. Summit for SocialDevelopment 20 February.
Douthwaite, R (1999), Is it Possible to Build a Sustainable World?
in Munck, R and OHearn, D (eds.) Critical DevelopmentTheory. United Kingdom: Bidles Limited.
Eze, O (2004), The Challenge for Sustainable Development inAfrica: What Role for the Commonwealth? in Ogwu. U (ed.)(2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos:Printserve Limited.
IUCH (2003), Supporting the United Nations Decade of Education forSustainable Development 2005-2015. The World Conservation
Union. Switzerland
Oshuntokun, A. (2004), Britain, Nigeria and theCommonwealth.inOgwu. U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa andthe Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
41/105
Obasanjo, O (2004), Message from the Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office in Ogwu, U (2007) Years of Reconstruction: Selected
Foreign Policy Speeches of Olusegun Obasanjo. Lagos: NationalInstitute of International Affairs.
Obasanjo, O (2005), The Commonwealth in the 21st Century:Prospects and Challenges in Ogwu, U (2007) Years of
Reconstruction: Selected Foreign Policy Speeches of OlusegunObasanjo. Lagos: National Institute of International Affairs.
Owoeye, J. (1983), Nigeria in international institutions ed. Ibadan:College Press Limited.
Sam, E. (1964), Nigeria Speaks: Speeches of Alhaji TafawaBalewa.Lagos: Longman Publishers pg 4-6.
Scoullos, M. (2004), Science, Culture and Education for SustainableDevelopment. Paper presented at the UN Decade of Educationfor Sustainable Development conference, Braga, Portugal, May19-22, 2004.
UNDP (1990), Human Development Report,1990.Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. p.10
UNESCO (2003), United Nations Decade for SustainableDevelopment (January 2005-December 2014): Framework for aDraft International Implementation Scheme. UNESCO, July2003.
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development).1987. Our Common Future (Brundtland Report). New York:Oxford University Press.
World Bank (1984), Towards Sustained Development in Sub-SaharanAfrica: A Joint Programme of Action. Washington D.C
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
42/105
CHAPTER TWO
HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH IN NIGERIA AND
RELATIONS BETWEEN NIGERIA AND THE
COMMONWEALTH.
2.1 The History of Commonwealth-Nigeria Relations
On January 1st 1901, Nigeria became a protectorate of the British
Empire, which was the worlds foremost power at the time. By 1914,
the area which was formally made up of the Protectorates of Eastern
Nigeria, Northern Nigeria and Western Nigeria and the Crown colony
of Lagos, was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of
Nigeria. Nigeria was granted full independence on the 1st of October
1960, under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary system of
government, and a substantial measure of self-autonomy for the
countrys three regions. The Commonwealth of Nations, usually
known as the Commonwealth and previously as the British
Commonwealth, is an inter-governmental organization of fifty-three
independent member states. Most of them were formerly parts of the
British Empire. They co-operate within a framework of common
values and goals, as outlined in the Singapore Declaration. These
common core values include the promotion of democracy, human
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_organisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_Declarationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_Declarationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_organisation8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
43/105
rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty,
egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace.
The Commonwealth was established on 11 December 1931. It is not a
political union, but an intergovernmental organization through which
countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are
regarded as equal in status. Its activities are carried out through the
permanent Commonwealth Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-
General; biennial Meetings between Commonwealth Heads of
Government; and the Commonwealth Foundation, which facilitates
activities of non-governmental organizations in the so-called
'Commonwealth Family'. The symbol of this free association is the
Head of the Commonwealth, which is a ceremonial position currently
held by Queen Elizabeth II.
The formal organization of the Commonwealth has its origins in the
Imperial Conferences of the late 1920s (conferences of British and
colonial prime ministers had occurred periodically since 1887), where
the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of
dominions was recognized, particularly in the Balfour Declaration at
the Imperial Conference in 1926, when UK and its dominions agreed
they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_governancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_libertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_peacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretariathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meetinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Foundationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_Commonwealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Imperial_Conferenceshttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1920shttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1887http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Self-governing_colonyhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Dominionhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Balfour_Declarationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_governancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_libertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_peacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretariathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Secretary-Generalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meetinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Foundationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_Commonwealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Imperial_Conferenceshttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1920shttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/1887http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Self-governing_colonyhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Dominionhttp://www.wordiq.com/definition/Balfour_Declaration8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
44/105
any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by
common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of
the British Commonwealth of Nations". This relationship was
eventually formalized by the Statute of Westminsterin 1931.
According to Asobie (1993), Nigeria formally joined the
Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations as soon as it
became independent in 1960. As a former colony of the British
Empire, close ties were maintained in the aftermath of independence
and this encouraged Nigerias membership of the Commonwealth,
which was to become one of the veritable tools of Nigerian foreign
policy, and acted as a means through which some national interests
were pursued and achieved. Over the years, the degree of importance
Nigeria places on international organizations has varied. From 1960 to
1966, the Commonwealth and the United Nations ranked highest in
Nigerias official diplomatic thinking and practice. In contrast, from
1970 onwards, the Commonwealth was slightly relegated, with the
Organization of African Unity (OAU) gaining Nigerias prime
attention and focus.
Ofuegbu (1978) argued that Nigeria joined the Commonwealth for
five main reasons. Adopting David Eastons systems theoretical
http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Statute_of_Westminster_1931http://www.wordiq.com/definition/1931http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Statute_of_Westminster_1931http://www.wordiq.com/definition/19318/2/2019 Commom Wealth
45/105
framework, he perceived the Commonwealth as a structural device
within the international environment that exerts considerable pulls on
nations and their leaders. One prime reason was the belief that all
members of the Commonwealth were politically autonomous and
legally equal and thus, Nigeria had nothing to lose, but much to gain
by joining the organization.
Another reason he held was that Nigerian leaders felt we could
benefit from the collective wisdom of the association with its wealth
of experience and intelligence, on military and economic matters, as
well as the knowledge that technical assistance and financial aid
schemes from which Nigeria could benefit, existed under the auspices
of the Commonwealth. In analyzing Commonwealth-Nigeria
relations, he stated that before 1967, Nigerias foreign policy priorities
were the Commonwealth, the world, and Africa in that order.
However, the events of the Civil war removed the Commonwealth
from its dominating position, which it had occupied between 1954 and
1967, and replaced it with a new emphasis on Africa, a more realistic
position towards Europe, and a genuine cultivation of the friendship
of Russia and Eastern Europe.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
46/105
The importance Nigeria places on the Commonwealth cannot be
overemphasized, as evidenced by statements from various Nigerian
leaders after independence. Awolowo declared that:
Nigeria should take herplace in the Commonwealth ofNations, and should not hesitate tomake clear beyond any shadow ofdoubt her attitude towards the idealsfor which Western democracies stand.In so far as it is compatible with herhonest convictions, national interestsand her legitimate obligations as aloyal member of the Commonwealthof Nations, she should maintaincordial relations with all other nationsof the world (Awolowo, 1960)
According to Odion-Akhaine (2003), Nigerias participation and
influence in the Commonwealth started immediately after her
membership and this was evidenced by the role Alhaji Tafawa Balewa
played in the evolution of the Commonwealths regulatory
mechanism, by suggesting the creation of a charter of guiding
principles during the Prime Ministers Meeting (PPM) in 1964. The
Commonwealth hitherto did not have a charter of guiding principles
that existed to guide the actions of member states, as well as serve as a
sign-post that displays all that the Commonwealth stands for.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
47/105
Odion-Akhaine further argued that another notable influence of
Nigeria on the Commonwealth was in the area of peace-making and
reconciliation, as well as the fight against racism and apartheid in
Africa, especially Zimbabwe and South Africa. Lagos, Nigeria served
as the venue where the Ian Smith led racist government in Southern
Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) was engaged in talks in January 1966, over the
segregation and oppression of the majority blacks in Zimbabwe. The
Rhodesian crisis was called a crisis of confidence about British
intentions, as it revealed Britains support for the continued control
of Zimbabwe by the minority white imperialists.
By 1979, Nigeria increased the pressure on Britain by severing
diplomatic relations with Britain, and nationalized the British
Petroleum Company Nigeria Limited through decree No. 56 of
August 31, 1979. Nigeria also led the fight for the liberation of South
Africa from colonialism and apartheid by contributing to the exit of
South Africa from the Commonwealth in 1961 and also mobilizing for
the boycott of the Commonwealth games of 1986, which was hosted
by Britain. This pressure, in conjunction with other frontline states
bore fruit as a seven-nation Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group
(EPG) was set up in Nassau, in 1985. The group was co-chaired by
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
48/105
Malcolm Fraser of Australia and Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, both
of whom made attempts to bring an end to the apartheid system and
the restoration of Black majority rule in South Africa.
Nigerias role during those years was one of democratic engagement,
and the South African Question (Rhodesia, apartheid South Africa and
Namibia) led to the articulation of some concrete guiding principles
that were integrated into the final communiqu of the Singapore
summit of 1971; these principles are known as The declaration of
Commonwealth Principles. They were in essence, democratic
principles that could be regarded as the forerunner of the Harare
Principles. That declaration stressed in part that:
We believe in the liberty of
the individual, in equal rights for allcitizens regardless of race, colour,creed or political belief, and in theirinalienable right to participate bymeans of free and democratic political
process in framing the society inwhich they live. We therefore strive to
promote in each of our countries thoserepresentative institutions and
guarantees for personal freedomunder the law that are our commonheritage.. (Singapore, 1971)
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
49/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
50/105
draconian hold on political power. Nigeria endured military rule for
nearly 15 years following the demise of her Second Republic, until
May 1999 when the democratically elected government of Chief
Olusegun Obasanjo assumed power. The Nigerian political history has
weathered various storms, characterized by seven military regimes
and two democratically elected governments since it gained
independence from Britain in 1960. From 1967-1970, Nigeria fought
a 30-month civil war due to a failure of governance at the national
level. Also, between 1986-1993, a costly transition programme was
initiated by the military regime of General Ibrahim Babangida. It
consequently resulted in the election of Chief M.K.O Abiola, the
Social Democratic Party (SDP) flag bearer.
The June 12, 1993 elections was consensually adjudged to be the most
free and fair in the countrys electoral annals, although it was annulled
by the Babangida led military regime. The various peaceful protests
embarked upon by Nigerians, as well as pressures from external states
and organizations through sanctions forced the Babangida government
out of power on 27 th August 1993. A hurriedly arranged interim
government (ING), headed by Chief Ernest Shonekan was put in place
to fill the ensuing power vacuum. However, the highly delegitimized
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
51/105
government was declared illegal by a court ruling on October 10 1993
and by 17 November the same year; the military staged a comeback
that witnessed the emergence of General Sani Abacha as the head of
state. Under the leadership of Gen. Sani Abacha, Nigeria gained
widespread international notoriety for her abysmally poor human
rights record, which was evidenced by the lack of press freedom, the
jailing of Chief M.K.O Abiola, the winner of the annulled 1993
presidential elections, and the hanging of Ken Saro-Wiwa and the
Ogoni 9.
According to Odion-Akhaine (2003), Nigeria-Commonwealth
relations were most strained during the regime of Gen. Sani Abacha.
Following the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential elections
by General Ibrahim Babangida, Nigeria began the perilous march
towards international isolation. Also, the failure of the ING to
stabilize the nation, following the persistent challenges of legitimacy
and credibility, led to the emergence of Gen. Sani Abacha through a
palace coup. The popular demands by pro-democracy activists such as
Femi Falana, Prof. Wole Soyinka, Late Chief Gani Fawehinmi, etc
and other human rights activists for the revalidization of the June 12
electoral mandate only strengthened Abachas resolve to remain in
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
52/105
power. He re-introduced the unpopular decree no.2 of 1984, invented
by the erstwhile regime of his past predecessor, General Muhammadu
Buhari. This, among other became the fighting tools of his regime.
Many journalists, pro-democracy campaigners and human rights
agitators were arrested and detained indefinitely without trial.
Abachas resolve to hold onto power indefinitely became strengthened
with the discovery of two coup plots between 1995 and 1997. The duo
of General Olusegun Obasanjo and Major General Shehu Musa
YarAdua, innocent civilians, and some top military personnel in the
Abacha regime were accused of complicity in the attempted coup and
sentenced to death.
The disregard for the pleas by the international community to Gen.
Abacha to respect the rule of law and fundamental human rights of
Nigerians drew the ire of the International Community, especially the
Commonwealth Secretariat in London. The Secretary-General of the
body, Chief Emeka Anyaokwu, a Nigerian, rose to condemn the gross
violation of human rights abuses and pleaded for fair trial and the
release of Chief Abiola and others, who had been unjustly jailed and
punished for their role in the phantom coups. He consequently warned
the regime to desist from acts of state terrorism or face sanctions,
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
53/105
which may include the suspension of the country from the
Commonwealth. However, all these seemed to only motivate Abacha
the more and more pro-democracy activists were arrested without trial
and human rights fighters such as Pa Alfred Rewane, and Mrs.
Kudirat Abiola, wife of Chief M.K.O Abiola were assassinated by
state agents. All these led to the labeling of Nigeria as a pariah state
by the International Community.
The Nigeria-Commonwealth relations suffered a major setback over
the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others of his Ogoni
kinsmen. The highly profitable crude oil export Nigeria engaged in
was causing extensive and far- reaching damage to humans and the
environment in the Niger-Delta, as oil wealth had become a nightmare
for the people of the oil producing areas to which Ogoni people
belong. However, the fact that they are a minority ethnic group,
coupled with the intricacies of the Nigerian political system, helped
relegate the Ogonis and their interests to the background. They argued
that the wealth being exploited from their environment is being used
to develop other areas with no special attention to them, the oil
producers.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
54/105
Ken Saro-Wiwa, who found the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni
People (MOSOP) later led a campaign for self determination, as the
Nigerian federation was viewed to have failed the Ogonis in their
quest for a cleaner, more sustainable environment. Saro-Wiwas
struggle was hinged on the need for social justice for minorities,
equity in Nigerian power sharing, amongst others. The MOSOP
campaign was not domestic in nature as the case was taken to the
American government, the United Nations, the London Rainforest
Group, the Unrepresented Nations, and the special conference for
indigenous peoples at The Hague, Netherland. Films and lecture tours
on the vast environmental degradation in Ogoniland were also
produced. The MOSOP action gained widespread attention when it
was able to forcibly stop SHELL operations in Ogoniland, and this
action became a recurring event across the Niger-Delta.
According to Ake (1994), factional conflict within the Ogoni
leadership led to the murder of four Ogoni chiefs, who were suspected
of being counter-revolutionaries, by a mob of Ogoni youths and this
act led to the arrest, detention, trial and conviction of ken Saro-Wiwa
and eight other MOSOP leaders. Also, the persistent pleas for
clemency by the International Community, which included the British
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
55/105
Prime Minister, the United States Congress, Nelson Mandela, Robert
Mugabe, human rights groups and the international media, yielded no
results.
It is pertinent to note that international reaction to the brutal killing of
Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni 8 was widespread, witnessing
consensual condemnation and the imposition of diverse bans and
suspensions from various international organization. This era
effectively characterized the dark years Nigeria experienced under
military rule and led to the labeling of Nigeria as a pariah state in
the international system. Nigeria and her leaders were called names.
Most notably, Nelson Mandela called Nigerian leaders irresponsible
and reckless, vowing to call for Nigerias expulsion from the
Commonwealth. Mr. Robin Cook of the British Foreign Office also
supported the widespread sanctions and calls for Nigerias expulsion
from the Commonwealth, arguing that Nigeria should not be allowed
to return to the Commonwealth because it has not made progress on
human rights and democracy since its suspension from the
Commonwealth.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
56/105
References
Adeoti, D (2003), Nigerias Frosty Relations with TheCommonwealth: The Abacha Period in Faseke, M (ed) (2003)
Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.
Ake, C (1994) A people Endangered by Oil in The Guardian(Lagos), 18 August 1994, P.18.
Akhaine,S.O (2003), The Commonwealth and Democratization inNigeria in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and theCommonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.
Anyaokwu, E (2000),Eye of Fire. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Anyaokwu, E (1999), The Missing Headlines: Selected Speeches.Lagos: Heinemann Plc
Asobie, H (1993), Nigeria in International Institutions: Review ofLiterature and Methodological Issues in Owoeye, J (ed.)
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
57/105
(1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: CollegePress Limited.
Awolowo, O (1960), Awo: The Autobiography of Obafemi Awolowo.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, P.308.
Britto, R (2003), Emeka Anyaokwus years in the CommonwealthinFaseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos:JSEP Publishers.
Committee for the Defence of Human Rights (CDHR), 1998, AnnualReport on the Human Rights Situation in Nigeria, P.113-115.
Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the HarareDeclaration (1995) Retrieved from:
http://thecommonwealth.org/. Accessed on the 10th of Sep.2009.
Dates Agreed for Commonwealth Talks with Nigeria (2009)Retrieved from: http://thecommonwealth.org/ . Accessed on the28th of Aug. 2009.
Mcmintyre W.D (2000), Britain and the Creation of theCommonwealth Secretariat, The Journal of Imperial and
Commonwealth History, vol 28, no.1, (January 2000), p.143.
Nigeria Resumes Full Commonwealth Membership (2009)Retrieved from: http://thecommonwealth.org . Accessed on the26th of Aug. 2009.
Ofuegbu, R (1978), The Nigerian foreign policy. Enugu: Star and
Printing Company. p.7.
Sueni, A.A (2003), Nigeria-Commonwealth Relations: Problem andControversy in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and theCommonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.
http://thecommonwealth.org/http://thecommonwealth.org/8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
58/105
The commonwealth at the summit, communiqus of CommonwealthHeads of Government Meetings 1944-1986 (London:Commonwealth Secretariat, Malborough House, 1987), p.156.
The Nation Newspapers, Dateline Nigeria pdf in The Nation diskdatabank commemorating Chief M.K.O Abiola 2009.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
59/105
CHAPTER THREE
THE COMMONWEALTHAND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA (1999-2009)
3.1 Establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations
Keone (1988) defined international institutions as related complexes
of rules and norms identifiable in space and time. Mearshermer (1994)
however defined an institution as a set of rules that stipulate the ways
in which states should cooperate and compete with one another.
International institutions prescribe acceptable forms of state behavior
and proscribe unacceptable kinds of behavior.
According to Faseke (2003), the modern Commonwealth which is
dated to 1949 had its roots in the British Commonwealth of Nations
with its origins in the British Empire. With the first colony in the Irish
Pale in 1169, the English steadily acquired more territory until the
British Empire covered a quarter of the globe, comprising the United
Kingdom, Bermuda (1512), the thirteen American colonies (1514), St.
Christopher (1623), Barbados (1626), Nevis (1628), Bahamas (1629),
and Antigua and Montserrat (1632). Others were Jamaica (1655), the
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
60/105
Virgin Islands (1713), Dominica (1763), St. Vincent and Grenada
(1763), Ceylon (1798), Guyana (1814), the Seychelles (1814), Burma
(1824), India (1828), Aden (1839), Australia (1840), New Zealand
(1840), the Falkland Islands (1842), Hong Kong (1842), South Africa
(1845) and Singapore (1854). Also there were Lagos (1861), the Fiji
Islands (1874), Cyprus (1878), Northern Nigeria (1885), Trinidad and
Tobago (1889), Uganda (1890), Mauritius (1890), Malaya (1895),
Egypt (1898), Tangayika (1919) and Kenya (1921). At its height in
the early 1900s, the British Empire included over 20 percent of the
worlds land area and more than 400 million people (Encarta
Encyclopedia 2009).
It is pertinent to note that a crucial step in the evolution of the
Commonwealth was taken in the 1840s, with the adoption of the now
famous Lord Durham report that resulted in the acceptance of the
popular demand for self-government in Canada and thus laid the
foundation for the emergence of the first Dominion in 1867. By 1914,
all the other colonies of settlement including Australia (1902), New
Zealand (1907) and South Africa (1910) had also achieved Dominion
status. A dominion status implies a self government status and a
considerable degree of freedom in their foreign relations.
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
61/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
62/105
According to Babawale (2004), the modern origins of the
Commonwealth could be traced to the London Declaration of 1950,
which allowed the acceptance of the British Monarch as the symbolic
head of the Commonwealth regardless of the constitutional provisions
of member states. Also, the adoption of a set of principles, which
serve as operative guidelines for the Commonwealth, helped create a
sense of purpose and unity within the association.
Article 1 of the Commonwealth clearly states that the Commonwealth
shall operate solely on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its
members. Article 2 of the Commonwealth provides for the following
objectives:
Cooperation in political, economic, ecological, humanitarian,
cultural and other fields;
Comprehensive and well-balanced economic and social
development of the Member States within the framework of a
common economic space, inter-state cooperation and integration;
Ensuring human rights and fundamental freedoms in
accordance with the universally recognized principles and norms of
international law;
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
63/105
Cooperation among the Member States in safeguarding
international peace and security;
Implementing effective measures for the reduction of
armaments and military expenditures, for the elimination of nuclear
and other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, and for the
achievement of universal and complete disarmament;
Promoting free communication, contacts and free movements
within the Commonwealth for the citizens of the Member States;
Mutual judicial assistance and cooperation in other spheres of
legal relationships;
Peaceful settlement of disputes and conflicts among the States
of the Commonwealth.
According to Faseke (2003), another significant step in the evolution
of the Commonwealth began with the independence of India in 1947.
India decided to adopt a republican constitution although they still
maintained their link with the Commonwealth. In 1949, the phrase
common allegiance with the crown was dropped. This singular
action opened the door for newly independent and sovereign states to
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
64/105
join the associations. Some States that consequently joined included
Ghana (former Gold Coast, 1957), Malaysia (1957), Nigeria, Sierra
Leone, Cyprus (1960), Tanganyika (1961), etc. Also both Nyasaland
and Northern Rhodesia gained their independence in 1964 and came
to be known as Malawi and Zambia respectively.
Others such as Bangladesh joined in 1972, Papua New Guinea (1975),
Seychelles (1976), Solomon Islands, Tivulu, and Dominica joined in
1978. States such as Tonga, Western Samoa and Fiji joined in 1970.
Cameroun and Mozambique joined in 1989 and 2000 respectively.
Today, the Commonwealth is made up of fifty-four sovereign
countries, their dependencies, and two special members- the island
nations of Nauru and Tuvalu (Microsoft Encarta premium 2009).
In conclusion, it is instructive to note that despite the numerous threats
to the existence of the organization, it has continued to survive and
thrive in a largely instable and competitive international system.
3.2 The Commonwealth and Sustainable Development in Nigeria
The task of attaining sustainable development in Nigeria is one that
demands the concerted efforts of the Nigerian government, Nigerian
citizens, and the support of various supranational organizations. The
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
65/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
66/105
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
67/105
as jurisprudence, economy, and science and technology. He further
added that whilst development is not necessarily a prerequisite for
democracy and vice-versa, democracy is more likely to succeed in
conditions of economic growth and prosperity than in situations of
widespread poverty and economic decline. Similarly, development is
more likely to occur and to be sustainable in conditions of democratic
accountability, the rule of law and good governance.
3.2.1The Commonwealth and the Educational Sector in Nigeria
The educational development of member countries of the
Commonwealth has always been of paramount interest to the
organization, as it has proven to be invaluable forum through which
human capacity is built and developed. The Commonwealth of
Learning is reputed to be the worlds only intergovernmental
organization solely concerned with the promotion and development of
distance education and open learning. The creation of the
Commonwealth of Learning (COL) in 1987 was to mediate the major
challenges related to learning and skills development, which are vital
for living, and the improvement of livelihood. Developing conceptual
frameworks, influencing policy, enabling technology-mediated
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
68/105
learning, and strengthening networks and partnerships are some of the
strategies that COL uses for promoting learning and skills for
agricultural development, poverty alleviation, and environmental
protection. In this context, COL aims at building individual and
institutional capacity in the use of information and communication
technologies (ICT) combined with open and distance learning (ODL)
in the way of technology-mediated open and distance education
(TechMODE).
According to the Commonwealth Education Steering Committee,
Nigeria and Pakistan represents one-third of the Commonwealth out-
of-school population numbering about 75 million children. This
therefore necessitates a special state status, and a comprehensive plan
of action in order to curtail the abnormal trend especially in Nigerias
Northern states, where education is not really a priority. Also, 85 per
cent of children out of school in the Commonwealth live in just six
countries: Ghana, India, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria and Pakistan.
Sixty per cent of these were girls, and these countries account for 30
per cent of the global total of children who do not attend school. In all,
there are 27 million primary aged children out of school in
Commonwealth countries (Malinga, 2007)
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
69/105
In Nigeria, teacher training institutions and other schools are building
up and introducing new eLearning programmes. Organisations such as
National Teachers Institute and the National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN) are launching ambitious eLearning initiatives to
upgrade the qualifications of in-service teachers. COL is supporting
these initiatives by providing training in instructional design, audio
and video script writing, video production and designing eLearning
materials, as well as advocacy, facilitating partnerships and quality
assurance (Daniel, 2009).
The goal of achieving sustainable development in the education sector
in Nigeria cannot be achieved using only conventional and traditional
methods. Open and distance learning offers the promise of fashioning
new techniques, new technologies and new approaches to this end.
Also, Nigeria must produce 40,000 teachers annually for the next ten
years in order to cope with the huge growth in student population
nationwide. The National Teachers' Institute, Open University of
Nigeria and the Commonwealth of Learning are partners in meeting
this formidable and ambitious objective (Perinbam, 2003).
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
70/105
The absence of a national policy on ICT in education is an
impediment to the achievement of sustainable development in the
educational sector in Nigeria. The Ministry of Education created its
ICT department in February 2007, notwithstanding, several
government agencies and other stakeholders in the private sector have
initiated ICT-driven projects and programmes to impact all levels of
the educational sector. The challenge is the lack of electric power and
telecommunications infrastructure in a substantial part of the country.
Mobile telecommunication currently covers 60% of the national
territory, but mobile telephone companies generally power their base
stations using electric power generators since the Power Holding
Company of Nigeria (PHCN) is unable to supply them with regular
power. This phenomenon is prevalent nationwide and constitutes the
bottleneck to effective countrywide deployment of ICT in education
(Agyeman, 2007).
The Commonwealth also aims to develop education not only in
Nigeria but also, in other Commonwealth countries by organizing
events and competitions such as the annual Commonwealth Writers
Prize which have been won by six Nigerians at different times, the
Commonwealth Arts and Craft awards, the Commonwealth Short
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
71/105
Story Competition, the Commonwealth Education Good Practice
Awards, the Commonwealth Youth Programme Art Competition, etc.
These competitions serve as a veritable avenue through which the
abilities of youths can be positively built-up and enhanced. Some of
these competitions have been won by Nigerians such as Sonde
Emmanuel (CYP Art Competition), Habiba Magaji (Commonwealth
Essay Competition, 2005), Bolatito Eweoya and Uchechukwu
Oniyishi also won the Commonwealth Arts and Craft awards in 2003.
Also, Nigeria's Kachi Ozumba emerged as the winner of the Africa
regional prize of the 2009 Commonwealth Short Story competition.
His story, The one-armed thief, was adjudged as the best from the
region in the yearly competition. Three other Nigerians were named in
the Highly Commended' category. They include, Ayobami Adebayo
for his story Dreams', Akinwumi Akinwale for LIFO and Mbofung
Carlang for The Father's blessings'. Uwem Akpans Say You're One
of Them also won the 2009 Commonwealth Writers' Prize, whilst
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichies Purple Hibiscus won the same award in
2005
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
72/105
The Good Practice awards were also introduced in 2005, to identify
and reward a number of worthy projects during the year-long period
of adjudication. Good practices are regarded as projects, policies,
strategies or significant interventions which have made a positive
difference to primary school children and their teachers or to the
school system of a country. A number of Nigerian schools and
institutions have been recipients, including the Federal Polytechnic,
Ado-Ekiti, for their Innovation Enterprise Empowerment training
Programme (IEEP), Youth Cultural Association of Nigeria for
empowering youths through information and education, the Federal
Polytechnic Kaura Namoda, for improving quality in education,
Federal Polytechnic, Nekede, for improving quality in education
through Information & Communication Technology, Federal Ministry
of Education, Federal Secretariat, for achieving Universal Primary
Education in Nigeria, University of Ilorin for mitigating the impact of
HIV/AIDS, University of Ilorin for their Centre for Supportive
Services for the Deaf, amongst many others.
In evidence of the Commonwealths interest in educational
development in Nigeria and other African states, the Commonwealth
Teacher Recruitment Protocol was adopted in 2004 to advocate for the
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
73/105
rights of teachers to migrate internationally, on a temporary or
permanent basis, while also ensuring the protection of the integrity of
national education systems and to prevent the exploitation of the
scarce human resources of poorer countries (Degazon-Johnson, 2008).
It also made provisions for the creation of a well-managed programme
of teacher exchanges and of trade in skills to boost professional
development of teachers as well as strengthen and enrich education
systems. They also called for the development of a code of
professional ethics for teachers as a means of strengthening their
status, as well as the implementation of a leadership development
programme for school managers and administrators.
In furtherance of the Commonwealths commitment to Nigeria, an
expert was provided on behalf of the Commonwealth Secretariat to
the Psychiatric Hospital in Yaba, Lagos, to establish a School of
Occupational Therapy and to train local experts. The Psychiatric
Hospital in Yaba is known for its specialist care but the number of
qualified occupational therapists in public hospitals has declined
despite an increase in demand for care, particularly care related to
drug abuse and poverty-related stress. The project helped address the
8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
74/105
national shortage of occupational therapists
(www.thecommonwealth.org).
Although school enrolments and teacher supply have expanded
significantly since the Dakar Forum on Education for All in 2000,
many challenges remain. Net enrolment ratios in primary school are
still in the range 6090% in developing Commonwealth countries,
including Nigeria. The situation is particularly critical in Sub-Saharan
Africa which projects a requirement of 4 million teachers in 2015, up
from 2.4 million in 2004. The increased need for teachers is dramatic,
especially in Nigeria, witnessing an increase from 580,000 to 706,000.
Also, a significant portion of Nigerian teachers are untrained with a
reported 44% of the teacher population (www.col.org/openschooling).
Schemes such as the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan
(CSFP) have also helped individuals and countries into prestigious
educational heights and it is envisaged that a revision of the CSFP can
help a greater number of beneficiaries through awards, grants,
scholarships, and other forms of motivation and support tools (Agwu,
2004). Also, a total of 37 Nigerian Universities (federal and state-
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/http://www.col.org/openschoolinghttp://www.thecommonwealth.org/http://www.col.org/openschooling8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
75/105
owned) are under various forms of Commonwealth-sponsored
Masters/PHD scholarships.
In conclusion, the work of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the
Commonwealth of Learning (COL), the Association of
Commonwealth Universities (ACU), the Commonwealth Foundation,
the Commonwealth Institute, the Commonwealth Scholarship and
Fellowship Plan (CSFP), and many other non-governmental
community based organizations within the Commonwealth constitute
invaluable assets through which sustainable development in the
educational sector in Nigeria and other member countries can be
achieved.
3.2.2 The Commonwealth and the Sports Sector in Nigeria.
Sports, is a key part of the Commonwealths identity. Commonwealth
Heads of Government have recognized the benefits of physical
activity and the importance of sport as an effective instrument for
social and economic development. Regular meetings of
Commonwealth Ministers of Sport are usually held to increase
Commonwealth collaboration in this important area. The last meeting
was held in Melbourne on 14 March 2006 where Ministers agreed to
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/145350/ministerial_meetings/8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
76/105
promote: the health benefits of sport and physical activity, promote
education through sport, use sport to develop leadership and
participation in the community, and also build inclusive communities
through sport. The Commonwealth Secretariat, through its Sports
Adviser, is taking forward this work in collaboration with Ministers of
Sport and the Commonwealth Advisory Body on Sport (CABOS).
The Commonwealth Games have been described by Secretary-
General Don McKinnon as the biggest manifestation of the
Commonwealth in action. Usually referred to as the Friendly
Games it is an important event on the global sporting calendar and it
serves as a means through which unity and cooperation is fostered
within and among the Commonwealth states.
In Nigeria, much has been achieved through the use of sport as a
means through which manpower development is achieved. Over the
years, Nigeria has been successful at the Commonwealth games,
which are held every four years. Nigeria has been competing in the
Commonwealth Games since 1950, and has won a total 143 medals. It
is also pertinent to note that Yusuf Alli, a Nigerian, holds the
Commonwealth Games Men's Long Jump record with a jump of 8.39
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/144435/cabos/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/143537/144435/cabos/8/2/2019 Commom Wealth
77/105
metres at the Auckland Games in 1990. Another Nigerian, Emmanuel
Ifeajuna established a games high jump record of 6ft 8in in 1954
(Falode, 2003).
This shows that if given the opportunity, youths can use sports as a
springboard for successful careers in their chosen fields. The
Commonwealth Games helps in the discovery and nurturing of fresh
talents into world beaters in their areas of expertise. T
Top Related