RunningwithScissors,13thEADConferenceUniversityofDundee,10-12April2019
Copyright©2019.Thecopyrightofeachpaperinthisconferenceproceedingsisthepropertyoftheauthor(s).Permissionisgrantedtoreproducecopiesoftheseworksforpurposesrelevanttotheaboveconference,providedthattheauthor(s),sourceandcopyrightnoticeareincludedoneachcopy.Forotherusespleasecontacttheauthor(s).
Combiningdesignresearchwithmicrobiologytotackledrug-resistantinfectionsindifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana:Challengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking
EmmanuelTseklevesa*,AndyDarbya,CollinsAhorlub,DziedzomDeSouzab,RogerPickupc,DanielBoakyebaImaginationLancaster,LICA,LancasterUniversity,UnitedKingdombNoguchiMemorialInstituteforMedicalResearch-UniversityofGhana,GhanacBiomedicalandLifeSciences,LancasterUniversity,UnitedKingdom*Correspondingauthore-mail:[email protected]
Abstract:Theaimofthispaperistwofold.Firstly,topresentdesignresearchworkthat crosses into specialist medical areas, in this instance that of antimicrobialresistance(AMR);andsecondly,tocontributetothedebateontheneedfordesign-drivenresearchtoexplorealternativewaysofdeliveringhealthcarebyfocusingonpreventivedesign responses. Thesepoints are addressed in theexplorationof aninternational design-led research project, Dust Bunny. The project uniquelycombinesdesignresearchandmicrobiologytoprovideaninformedassessmentofsocietal practices in domestic cleanliness and to co-create novel solutions thatreduce infections in the home. The findings and experiences from this uniquetransdisciplinary collaboration (design, microbiology, epidemiology and socialscience)revealseveral insightsonthechallengesandopportunitiesonchallengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking.
Keywords: Design for health, antimicrobial resistance, preventive design,globalhealth,designthinking
1.IntroductionAlthoughpredominantlymedical,globalchallenges,suchasAMR,arehugelycomplexproblemswithdiverseinfluences,drivenbyhumanactivityasmuchasbybiologicalmechanisms.Biomedical,clinicalandmedicalexpertisealonecannottackleAMRandcollaborativeandinnovativeinterdisciplinaryapproachesareneededtotacklethechallenge.
EmmanuelTsekleves,AndyDarby,CollinsAhorlu,DziedzomDeSouza,RogerPickup,DanielBoakye
2
Bacteriafoundinthenaturalandbuiltenvironment(e.g.,homes,schools,hospitals,etc.)arebuildingtheirresistancetodrugs.Theyarechangingtoprotectthemselvesagainstantibiotics.Thismeansthatinthenot-too-distantfuture,somethingassimpleasaminorcutorinfectioncouldbecomelife-threatening(O’Neill,2014).TheissueissuchaconcernthatAMRisnowconsideredaglobalhealthcrisis.ThesituationisevenmorecriticalindevelopingcountriesinAfrica,suchasGhana,wherethereareagreatnumberofdeathsfrominfectiousdiseases(Feiginetal.,2010).
Despitetherebeingclearevidenceformicrobialexposureandinfectiontransmissionwithinthehome(Rintalaetal.,2012),therehasbeenlessresearcheffortinvestedinunderstandingthehomeenvironment,duetothedifficultyofconductingdetailedstudies(Curtisetal,2003).Althoughthetransmissionroutesofdustinthehomeenvironmentarewellknown(Rintalaetal.,2012),whathasnotbeenstudiedishowtopreventbacterialinfectioninhomeenvironmentsandtherebyreduceresistance.
Furthermore,thehygieneguidelinesavailableforpreventinginfectioninthehomeenvironment,aretargetedathygieneprofessionals(Beumer,2002)anddonotreachtheeverydayhouseholdinGhana.Thereis,therefore,amuch-requiredandunmetneedtoidentify,understandanddevelopdomestichygienepracticesthatarerelevanttodifferenthomeenvironments,andeducationalandculturalbackgroundsindevelopingcountries,suchasinGhana.Thesenewpracticesmustreduceexposuretobacterialpathogensand,thereby,limitthedevelopmentofAMR.
Withinthiscontext,theDustBunnyprojectaimsatdevelopinganunderstandingofthehomeasasourceofinfectionbyantibioticresistantbacteria,foundandcarriedbydust.ThisisdonebyexploringhygienepracticesacrossdifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana,todefinethebacterialmicrobiome,toconsiderwhetherthisantibioticresistanceisdrivenbyhouseholdpracticeswiththeultimateaimtoreducebacterialinfectioninthehomeenvironmenttherebyreducingAMR.
Followinganintroductionoftherelatedworkandresearchmethodology,wepresenttheinitialfindingsfromtheDustBunnyprojectanddiscussthechallengesandopportunitiesindesignresearchbeingappliedinsuchaspecialistmedicalarea
2.RelatedWork2.1DesignResearchinPreventiveHealthDevelopingstrategiesforpromotinghealthorpreventing‘illbeing’ofthepopulationformsoneofthemostcomplexglobalchallenges.Traditionallydesignershavepaidattentionpredominantlytoacuteandchroniccare,throughnewmedicalproducts,prostheses,hospital,clinicandcarehomedesign(Jones,2013;Tosietal,2016;Mawsonetal.,2014;Ludonetal.,2014).Morerecentlythecomplexpictureofmaintainingpopulationwellbeingandhealthpreventionhasbeguntoemerge,andthustheroleofdesignersindirectlyinsupportingthepromotionofhealthylifestyleorintheircontributiontoillbeing.Workssuchas(Ulrichetal.,2008;Chamberlainetal.,2015;TseklevesandCooper,2017)havedemonstratedthepropensityofdesigntocontributesignificantlyinhealthandwellbeing.
Akeychallengethatemergeswithinthiscontextishowshouldweshapeourbuiltenvironmentsandinfrastructuretosupporthealthierbehaviours?Whatisabundantlyclear,here,isthatasweshapeourenvironmentitisshapingus,ourpsychological,physiologicalandphysicalstatusaswellasourinteractionswithotherpeopleandwiththenaturalenvironmenttoo(Frank&Engelke,2005;Wood
Combiningdesignresearchwithmicrobiologytotackledrug-resistantinfectionsindifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana:Challengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking
3
etal.,2010;Dempseyetal.,2012).Theenvironmentiscloselylinkedtothelifestylesweadoptandagainitisclearfromthewealthofresearchinthisarea(Franketal,2003;Smith&Cummins,2009;Robertson-Wilson&Giles-Corti,2016)thatthecurrentstateofourenvironmentplaysasignificantroleinthepredominantlysedentarylifestylesadoptedtodaybutalsointermsofmicrobialexposureandinfection(viral/bacterial)transmission(McMichael,2000;Weiss&McMichael,2004;Kembeletal,2012;Prussin&Marr,2015).
2.2DesignResearchinSpecialistMedicalAreasTheuseofparticipatorydesignandcodesignwithinhealthisrelativelycommoninthedesignliterature(Donettoetal,2014;Minkler&Wallerstein,2011)withpositiveoutcomesreportedintheareasofcommunity-basedhealth(Israeletal,2001;Greenhalghetal,2016)thoughtherehasbeenlimitedexplorationoftheseapproacheswithinAfricananddevelopingcountriescontexts(DelaHarpeetal,2012;Cepiku&Giordano,2014).
Designresearchhas,also,previouslyengagedinspecialisedareas,suchasMotorNeuroneDisease,tocodesignanddeveloppatient-acceptableneck-supportproducts(CraigandChamberlain,2017);cerebralpalsyandrheumatoidarthritisforthedevelopmentofanatomicallypersonalisedfootorthoses(Paterson,etal.,2017);strokeandbiomechanicsforthecodesignofmotionvisualisationofcomplexinterventions(MacDonald,2017).However,combiningmicrobiologywithdesignresearchwithinadevelopingcountrycontextgoesbeyondthetraditionalboundariesofdesignresearchintheareasofhealthandmedicine.
PartoftherationalebehindthemarriageofdesignresearchwithmicrobiologyintheDustBunnyproject,liesinthedifficultyofconductingdetailedstudieswithinthehome,incomparisonwithdataavailablefromotherenvironmentssuchashospitals(Stanwell-SmithandBloomfield,2004)andduetotheprivateandmorallyboundnatureofthesubjectofhygiene(Curtisetal.,2003).Furthermore,theworkproposedinthispaperarguesthatthereisaneedtoshiftthehealthcaremodelofdiseaseinfectionsfromtreatmenttoprevention.Itthereforeproposesthatbystudyinghouseholdhygienepractices,withtheaimofreducingbacterialinfectioninthehomeenvironment,theresultantpreventativeinterventionswillinturnreduceexposuretobacterialpathogensminimizingthegrowthofAMR.
3.Methodology3.1CombiningDesignwithMicrobiologyResearchMethodsDustBunnyemploysandcombinesqualitativedesignresearchmethodswithquantitativemicrobiologyresearchmethods.Theseinclude:hardcopysurveystoobtainabroaderspectrumofrespondersandpictureofhygienepracticesacrossarangeofdifferenthouseholdsinGhanaandtohelprecruitasub-sampleofhouseholdsforamoredetailedstudy;designethnographymethods(observations,etc.)tocollectmorein-depthinformationforidentifyingthecurrentlocalhygienepracticesacrossdifferentsocio-economicurbanandruralhouseholdsinGhana;culturalprobes,tohelpprovideadeeperunderstandingofhouseholdculturalpracticesandbeliefsbetween‘dust’and‘germs’,andbetween‘cleanliness’and‘hygiene';interviews,toelicitrichdatatohelpestablishthe
EmmanuelTsekleves,AndyDarby,CollinsAhorlu,DziedzomDeSouza,RogerPickup,DanielBoakye
4
impactofhouseholdbeliefs(exploredbytheculturalprobes)ondomestichygienepractices;codesignworkshopswiththecommunityofhouseholdsinvolvedintheresearchandexpertsinordertoconsiderhowtobestmakesafehygienepracticespartsofdailyroutinethataresustainedbysocialnorms(seeFigure1).
Figure1.DustBunnyresearchframeworkandplan.
ThedesignofallresearchmethodsandmaterialareledbyresearchersintheUKinconsultationwithresearchersinGhana.MostfieldresearchisconductedinGhanabyresearchersatourpartnerresearchinstitution.Wehavedesignedandrecentlyranasurvey(n=251)acrossdifferentdomesticenvironments(i.e.urbanvsrural,privatevscommunaldwellings)andarangeofsocialscales(i.e.low,low-middle,middle,upper)withinAccra,Ghana.Throughtheface-to-facesurveyprocesswehaverecruited12householdsforourdesignethnographicstudy(acrossurbanandruraldomesticenvironments,privateandcommunalhouseenvironments,low,low-middle,middleanduppersocialscales).
Wearealsocurrentlycollectingdustsamplesfromeachstudyhouseholdtoassessbacterialdiversity,includingthepresenceofinfectiousbacteriaandtoassessthedegreeofAMRinthosebacteria.ThedustwillbesubjectedtoDNAextractionanddiversityassessedbydeepsequencingusingthelatesttechnologiesandbioinformaticanalysistodescribethecomparativediversityofbacteriainthehouseholds.Furthermore,polymerasechainreaction(PCR)amplificationofDNAfromthesampleswillbeusedtoidentify5specificantibioticresistancegenesrepresentingestablishedandemergingresistances.MicrobiologicalCulturewillbeperformedusingselectiveantibioticgrowthmediatolinkAMRtobacterialspecies.
Thedesignethnography,whichhasalreadycommenced,willbefollowedbyculturalprobesbeingdeployedinparticipatinghouseholds(n=12).AftertheculturalprobesarecompletedaseconddustsamplingwillbetakenandsubjectedtoDNAanalysisasdescribedabovetoassessthecomparativestabilityandrobustnessoftheresultsobtainedinthefirstbacterialsurvey.
Thequalitativeandquantitativedatawillbeanalysedusingthematicanalysis(BraunandClarke,2006)anddatatriangulation(Denzin,2012)andsynthesizedtoproducepersonasandstoryboardsof
Identify- Survey (i)
- Design Ethnography (iii)
- Dust sampling I (v)
Design Ethnography Co-Design
Establish- Cultural probes (iii)
- Interviews (iv)- Personas (viii)
- Dust sampling II (v)
Co-design- Co-design Wks (vi)
- Prototyping (viii)- Storyboards (viii)
Validate- Thought leadership
Workshops (ix)- Dissemination activi-
ties
DiscoverIndentify hygiene
practicesMonth 1 - 8
DefineEstablish household
hygiene beliefsMonth 9 - 15
DevelopCo-design hygiene
practicesMonth 16 - 20
DeliverValidate & disseminate
hygiene practicesMonth 20 - 24
Combiningdesignresearchwithmicrobiologytotackledrug-resistantinfectionsindifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana:Challengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking
5
hygienepracticesfordifferentcommunitiesandhomeenvironments.Thesewillbefurtherenrichedbyaseriesofcodesignworkshops.Thehygienepracticesandideasofhowtobestdisseminatethemtocommunitieswillbeexploredbytheresearchteamthroughprototypingandtheco-creationofvisualmaterial.ThesematerialsandhygienepracticeswillbepresentedatlocalchampionsworkshopinGhanaforfeedbackandvalidation.
Lastly,followingthemorallyboundnatureoftheresearchsubject,ethicalprocedureshavebeenembeddedinthemethodologydesign.TheseincludeadheringtotheethicspolicybothatLancasterUniversityandatNoguchiMemorialInstituteforMedicalResearchinGhana,bysubmittingethicsapplicationtobothEthicsCommittees.Ethicsreviewwasalsoincorporatedthatmonitorsstudyethicsassessmenttwiceayearandanannualethicsstudyreport.
4.Findings4.1SurveyThesurveydataiscurrentlybeinganalysedbyaGhanaiandatascientist,howeversomesimpleanalysishasbeensharedbelowtodemonstratethebreadthofthesurveyandaspectsofourapproach.
ThesurveywasconductedbyfourfemaledatacollectorsintheAccraGreaterRegion’sAdentaMunicipalAssembly,GaEastMunicipalAssembly,andtheLaNkwantanangMunicipalAssembly.Itfocusedonrespondentswhohadeitherheldresponsibilityfordirectinghouseholdcleaning99.60%(n=250)orwhohadidentifiedthemselvesastheprimarycleanerofthehouseholdforaperiodoverthreeyears90.44%(n=227).Thehouseholdersvisitedwereacrossthesocio-economicspectrum,withhousingbreakingdownasfollows;16.33%detachedhouses,11.55%semi-detachedhouses,31.47%flatsorapartmentsand38.25%roomsincompoundhouses.Therespondents(n=251)rangedfrom18to83yearsoldandwere85.66%(n=215)femaleand13.94%(n=35)male,withoneundeclared(0.40%).
Thesurveyengagedwithanethnically,religiouslyandeducationallydiversesetofrespondentsacrossthesocio-economicspectrum.Theethnicgroupingswerereported,asfollows;Akan41.04%,Ewe27.09%,Ga/Dangme11.95%(theindigenousethnicgroupingoftheregion),Mole-Dagbani5.18%,andOther14.34%.Thereligiousaffiliationswerereported,asfollows;PentecostalorCharismatic32.67%,Presbyterian17.93%,Islam12.75%,Catholic7.57%,Methodist4.78%,Protestant1.59%,andOtherChristian15.54%.Educationalattendancewasbroadlyspreadwithrespondentsreportingattendanceasfollows;Primary7.97%,Middle7.97%,JSS/JHS13.55%,Secondary14.34%,SSS/SHS17.13%,andHigher34.26%.
While85.26%ofrespondentsrecognisedustintheirroomsasacauseforconcernalessernumber,74.10%,believethereisaconnectionbetweendustandgerms.Additionally,asignificantnumberofrespondents,64.54%,considerthepresenceofdustinthehometobenormal.Thisisanissuethatwillneedtobeunpackedfurtherasweconsiderpotentialinterventionslaterintheproject.
Recognisingtheneedfortheprojecttodisseminateitsfindingsthesurveyinstrumentincludedasetofquestionscoveringtheleasingorownershipofanumberofservicesoritemssothatwecouldfurthergaugetheeconomicstatusofrespondentsandtoinformpotentialcommunicationstrategies.Thisknowledgeimmediatelybeginstoshapetheproject’soutputsanddisseminationplansaswe
EmmanuelTsekleves,AndyDarby,CollinsAhorlu,DziedzomDeSouza,RogerPickup,DanielBoakye
6
foundthat60.56%ofrespondentshavearadioand66.14%haveacolourTV,whileInternetaccessismorelimitedatonly20.32%despite65.34%ofrespondentshavingamobiletelephoneand27.89%haveacomputerortablet.
Theconceptsembeddedinthesurveyandtherelationshipsbetweenthemarecurrentlybeingvisualised,asarethedataarisingfromit,inordertobetterinformtheparticipantsofthecodesignworkshopstoberunlaterintheprocess.
4.2RapidEthnographyInthissectionwepresentinitialfindingsfromonehousehold,focusingontheethnographicaccountoftheobservationandparticipantobservation.Therapidethnographyincludesdatafrom12households,wehave,however,selectedheretopresentoneofthesetwelve,asthepaperfocusisnotontheethnographicdatafindings,buttheonthenatureandchallengesarisingfromthecollaborationacrossdisciplinesandgeographicalregions.
TheobservationtookplaceonasingledayinSeptemberforaperiodoftwohoursand25minutes.TheparticipantobservationtookplaceonasingledayinOctoberforaperiodofonehour.Theaccountsfocusonthecleaningpracticesthatthehouseholdconduct.Theparticipant,a37yearoldtrader,livedinacompoundhousethatopenedontoanunsurfacedcompoundwithanunsurfacedroadrunningalongside.Thedescriptionofcleaningpracticesfromtheobservationrevealedthepossibilitythatdiseasetransmissionmaypresentasanissueasthesametraditionalbroomwasusedtosweepfloorsfromthebedandthroughoutthehouseandthegroundoutsideandinthetoilet.Aspectsofthispracticewereconfirmedintheparticipantobservationsession,despitethesessionbeingcutshortbytheparticipant’sworkcommitments.
Compoundhousestendtosharecleaningresponsibilitiesbetweenmultipletenants.Forexample,inthisinstance,mosttenantssweepinfrontoftheentrancetotheirownroomandnotthewholecompound(seeFigure2).Thispracticemayindicateaneedtocodesignbothindividualcleaningpracticesandcommunalcleaningprocesses.
Combiningdesignresearchwithmicrobiologytotackledrug-resistantinfectionsindifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana:Challengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking
7
Figure2.CompoundhouseexampleinGhana.
Theseinsightsaredrawnfromaninitialsummary,andcurrentlytheteamiswritingupdetailedethnographicaccountsandtriangulatingthedatabetweentheobservationandparticipantobservationsessions.
5.DiscussionDespiteusefulinsightsarisingfromthefindings,asthesearepreliminaryandgiventheconferencetracktheme,weselecttofocusthediscussiononhowDustBunnyischallengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking,instead.
Design,likemicrobiology,hastheabilitytoshiftthroughenormousamountsofinformationandprovideclaritythatallowsyoutoseesomethingdifferentlythateitherpre-existsoryoureinvent.Nevertheless,challengesandopportunitiesariseindependentlyinboththedesignandthemicrobiologicalstrategiesandwhencombiningthetwo.
Thefollowingsectionsarebasedonreflectionsfromthenon-designresearchersinvolvedintheproject,sharedinresponsetoashortquestionnairedistributedamongsttheteam.
EmmanuelTsekleves,AndyDarby,CollinsAhorlu,DziedzomDeSouza,RogerPickup,DanielBoakye
8
5.1Insights,ChallengesandOpportunitiesforDesignFormicrobiologistsgoingintotheprojecttheyrecognisedthatlimitingthesamplesizetoasmallnumberwouldexacerbatetheproblemoflinking“themicrobiologydatatopossiblehealthimpacts”(ResearcherOne:microbiologyresearcher).Asthesamplesizewasdictatedinpartbythefinancialscaleofthefunder’scall,onechallengefordesignmaybeinconvincinghumanitiesresearchfundingbodiesthatthehigherfinancialcostsofscientificprocesses,suchasthemicrobiologymethodsusedinthepilot,shouldbeaccountedfortoallow(design-ledtransdisciplinary)projectstobemoreexpansiveandsotheymightbecomemorethanfeasibilitystudies.
Theresearchersinvolvedheldseveralunderstandingsoftheroleandfunctionofdesignintheproject.Whileoneresearchernotedthebenefitbroughtaboutbyhowthedesign-ledapproachalteredthenatureofhowtheprojectmightunderstandcontext.
“Combiningmicrobiologywithdesigniscomplimentaryasdifferencesinmicrobiological/AMRprofilesmayreflectdifferencessocio-economicstatus,culturalpracticesandlocation.Microbiologicalmethodsaren’taffectedbutthestrengthliesinthequestionsthatcanbeaskedandthetargetingofthesamplingregime”(ResearcherOne).
Anotherresearcher,expandingonthepoint,recognisedtheopportunityfordesignresearchtohavepositivevaluefroman“epidemiology,publichealthperspective”asitcouldpotentiallyprovide“thebestopportunitytoadequatelyaddresspublichealthconcerns”(ResearcherTwo:epidemiology/microbiologyresearcher).
However,anotherresearcherfeltthattheapproachhadcreatedaninflexibleconstructthatdidnotallowforinterestingquestionstobefollowedupon,theyparticularlywantedtograpplewithparticipant’sresistancetoengagingwithparticularmethods,asking,
“Whysomepeoplewillliketoparticipateinthequestionnairesurveybutnotintheobservationalstudyincludingparticipantobservationsandtheculturalprobes?Whileotherswillparticipateinthesurveyandtheobservationbutresisttheculturalprobes?Convincingpeopletoopentheirhomeforobservationwasdifficult”(ResearcherThree:socialepidemiologyresearcher).
Theissueoffixednesshadnotbeenarticulatedasaprobleminprojectmeetings,andhopefullymorecanbedonetoaddressthesequestions,particularlyastheypointbacktopreviouslyacknowledgeddifficultiesinconductingdetailedhouseholdstudiesaroundthistopicarea.Thatthepointwasnotraisedpreviouslyalsodemonstratesaneedtobettermanageour“north-southcollaborationstothemakethemmutuallybeneficial”(ResearcherThree)andtoensurethatcriticalvoicesareabletoshapetheproject’sdevelopmentinatimelymanner.
“Boththechallengesandtheopportunitiesfordesignarisefromthedisciplinebeingwell-placedtoleadtransdisciplinarymixedmethodaction-orientatedevidence-basedresearchprogrammes”,
asResearcherFour(designresearcher)observes,inlinewithGibsonandOwens(2014)reflections.Advancingtheirreflection,theyspeculatethatbuildingabodyofdesign-ledtransdisciplinarywillbuilddisciplinaryandnon-disciplinarytrust,notingthat
“...ascollaborationsofthiskindcontinueboththeresearchmethodsofdesignandotherdisciplinesandtheresultingdatamaybeincreasinglyunderstoodandarticulatedasthematerialsofadesignresearchprocess.Thiswillhopefullyleadtogreaterconfidence,fromallparties,inresearchthatcrossesscienceanddesign.”
Combiningdesignresearchwithmicrobiologytotackledrug-resistantinfectionsindifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana:Challengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking
9
5.2Insights,ChallengesandOpportunitiesforMicrobiologyCouplingmicrobiologywithdesignhasallowedacomplementarydesignapproachtoincludetheneedsofasocio-economicframeworkontopofmicrobiologythatmaydefinemicrobialdistributionandexposureindomesticdwellings.Thismeansthattheethnographyandculturalprobeactivitiescanbeusedtodirectandfocusthesamplingrequiredforthemicrobiology.Thereforethemicrobiologycanbetargetedatansweringquestionsthatarisefromthe‘design’.Ordinarilythesamplingwouldchoosehousesatrandomandsample.Howeverthrough‘design’onecantargetdwellingsthatarelinkedorofferdifferent‘practices’therebythedatageneratedcanrevealmoreaboutthepeoplethanthedwellingperse.
Fromanepidemiologyandpublichealthperspective,combiningknowledgefrommultiplesourcespresentsthebestopportunitytoadequatelyaddresspublichealthconcerns,suchasinthecaseofthisproject.Theuseofadesignresearchapproachtoaddressantimicrobialresistancemanagementatthehouseholdlevelwillprovideinsightsintothebehaviouralchallenges,andpromotebestpracticesforpublichealthimplementation.Thisisapracticethataddsmorevaluetothemicrobiologyaspectsoftheproject,whichwouldtypicallynotengagefurtherwithhouseholdsaftersamplinghasbeencompleted.
Itshouldbenoted,thatalthoughmicrobiologicalmethodsarenotdirectlyaffectedbypairingthemwithdesignresearchmethods,theyarestrengthened.ThisisbecausemorespecificandrelevantquestionsthatcanbeaskedregardingAMRandthetargetingofthesamplingregimeatahouseholdlevel.
Moreover,asalreadymentionedabove,akeychallengeislinkingthemicrobiologydatatopossiblehealthimpacts.Thelimitationhereisduetothesmallsamplesize.However,asthisafeasibilitystudyandwhatwelearnwillhelpusformulatealargermoreimpactfulstudyproposal.
5.3CombinedViewsCombiningdesignandmicrobiologycontributestothestrengthsofbothdisciplines,butalsohelpsinalleviatingsomeoftheweaknessesfoundineach.Moreprecisely,designresearchispredominantlyquantitative,typicallylackingquantitativedata.Dataprovidethesoughtafterevidence-basedcharacterisingpolicyanddecisionmakinginhealthcare.Althoughthereisanemergingapproachtohealthcaredesignresearch(Ulrichetal.,2008;AbrahamandKools,2012),thisisnotwidelyadoptedanditismainlyappliedinareasrelatedtothedesignofhealthcarefacilitiesandenvironments(McCullough,2010).
Microbiology,ontheotherhand,providesthehardevidenceintheformofquantitativedata,whichareestablishedthroughrigorousresearchcollectionandanalysismethods,aviewsharedbyhealthcareandmedicalprofessionals(Köseretal.,2012;Murrayetal.,2015;Kwongetal.,2015).Itdoesnot,however,includetherequiredtechniquestocommunicateitsfindingsinaformthatisnotonlyplausiblebutpersuasivetoo.Putitsimply,microbiologyresearchersarepowerfulanalystsbutweakstorytellers.
Storytellingisthenaturallanguageofpersuasion(Marris,1997;Moezzietal.,2017;Davidson,2017),sinceanystoryhastoinvolvebothasequenceofeventsandtheinterpretationoftheirmeaning.Designanddesignersaregenerallyverygoodstorytellersbutdonotoftenhavethenumberstoshow.Forpolicyandstrategyyouneedtohavethenumbers.Thusthecouplingofdesignwithmicrobiologyprovidesopportunitiesforstrengtheningbothandindevelopingevidencedinsightsthatmakeconvincingargumentsaroundourneedtoact.
EmmanuelTsekleves,AndyDarby,CollinsAhorlu,DziedzomDeSouza,RogerPickup,DanielBoakye
10
6.ConclusionFromclimatechangetoglobalhealth,wearefacingunprecedentedchallengesthatrequireamoreintegratedandtransdisciplinaryapproachtofindinginterventionsandsolutions.Design’sabilitytoengagerealpeopleandcommunities,understandeverydayproblemsandimplementthe‘right’solution,notjustthe‘newesttechnology’,enablesittoactasabridgebetweenotherdisciplines.
Asthedesigncommunity,alongwithotherresearchcommunities,arecalledupontotacklethecomplexglobalchallengeofimprovinghealthandwellbeing,ourresearcheffortsshouldfocusondevelopingstrategiesforpromotinghealthandpreventingillbeingofpopulationbeyondtheGlobalNorthintotheGlobalSouth.
Withinthiscontext,theDustBunnyproject,explorestheglobalhealthcrisisofantimicrobialresistancebylookingathowtopreventbacterialinfectioninhomeenvironmentsinGhanaandtherebyreduceresistance.Thisisdonebychallengingthetraditionaldesignthinkingboundariesandbycombiningdesign-ledresearchandmicrobiologyinaninternationalcontext.Incorporatingdesignresearchinmicrobiologyandinpublichealth,inDustBunny,hasenabledinterdisciplinary,multidisciplinaryandtransdisciplinaryresearchquestionstobeaddressedthroughcollectiveresearchapproaches.
Theapproachadoptedhastheopportunitytoprovideaplatformforunderstandingcomplexissuesregardingmicrobiology(microbialresistance)andpublichealththroughengagingthecommunityofpractice.Doingthisfromvariousperspectives(design,socialscience,epidemiology/publichealthandmicrobiologicalperspectives)presentsthebestopportunitytoadequatelyaddressemergingpublichealthconcerns,suchasantimicrobialresistanceinthehomesetting.
Theinsightsgainedfromcombiningdesignandmicrobiologysuggestthattherearestillchallengestoaddressinenablingandsupportingsuchtransdisciplinarycollaborations.Furthermore,thereisstillworktobedoneonenhancingotherdisciplines’understandingsoftheroleandfunctionofdesigninsuchspecialistmedicalareas.Thereare,however,severalopportunitiesarisinginembeddingdesigninmicrobiologyresearch,suchasprovidinginsightsintothebehaviouralchallenges,promotingbestpracticesforpublichealthimplementationandimprovedtargetingofmicrobiologicalsamplingatthehouseholdlevel.Inaddition,wepositthatcouplingdesignandmicrobiologyenablesthestrengthsofonediscipline,counterbalancetheweaknessesfoundinanother;namelyevidence-base/dataindesignandstorytellinginmicrobiology.
Lastly,weenvisagethattheexperiencesandinsightsoutlinedinthispaper,willhelpotherdesignresearcherstoembarkontransdisciplinaryresearchthatchallengestheboundariesofdesigninnewspecialistmedicalareas.
Combiningdesignresearchwithmicrobiologytotackledrug-resistantinfectionsindifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana:Challengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking
11
ReferencesAbraham,C.andKools,M.(2012)WritingHealthCommunication:AnEvidence-BasedGuide.London:
Sage.Beumer,R.R.,etal.2002.Guidelinesforthepreventionofinfectionandcross-infectioninthe
domesticenvironment:focusonhomehygieneissuesindevelopingcountries.IntramedCommunicationss.r.l.
Braun,V.,&Clarke,V.(2006).Usingthematicanalysisinpsychology.Qualitativeresearchinpsychology,3(2),77-101.
Cepiku,D.andGiordano,F.,2014.Co-productionindevelopingcountries:Insightsfromthecommunityhealthworkersexperience.PublicManagementReview,16(3),317-340.
Chamberlain,P,Wolstenholme,D,Dexter,M,Seals,E.,(2015).TheStateoftheartofdesigninhealth:Anexpert-ledreviewoftheextantoftheartofdesigntheoryandpracticeinhealthandsocialcare.Sheffield,SheffieldHallamUniversity.
Craig,C.andChamberlain,P.(2017).Behaviours:Designandbehaviourchangeinhealth.In:Tsekleves,RandCooper,R,(eds.)Designforhealth.DesignforSocialResponsibility.Abingdon,Routledge,191-203.
Curtis,V.,etal.2003.Hygieneinthehome:relatingbugsandbehaviour.Socialscience&medicine,57(4),657-672.
Davidson,B.(2017).Storytellingandevidence-basedpolicy:lessonsfromthegreyliterature.PalgraveCommunications,3,17093.
DelaHarpe,R.,Wills,J.,Lotriet,H.,Pottas,D.andKorpela,M.,2013.Socio-technicalapproachtocommunityhealth:designinganddevelopingamobilecaredataapplicationforhome-basedhealthcare,inSouthAfrica.JournalofCommunityInformatics,9(2),1-14.
Denzin,N.K.(2012).Triangulation2.0.JournalofMixedMethodsResearch,6(2),80-88.Dempsey,N.,Brown,C.,&Bramley,G.(2012).ThekeytosustainableurbandevelopmentinUK
cities?Theinfluenceofdensityonsocialsustainability.ProgressinPlanning,77(3),89-141.Donetto,S.,Pierri,P.,Tsianakas,V.andRobert,G.,2015.Experience-basedco-designandhealthcareimprovement:realizingparticipatorydesigninthepublicsector.TheDesignJournal,
18(2),227-248.FeiginVL,etal.2010.GlobalBurdenofDiseases,Injuries,andRiskFactorsStudy2010(GBD2010)&
theGBDStrokeExpertsGroup.Global®ionalburdenofstrokeduring1990-2010:findingsfromtheglobalburdenofdiseasestudy2010.Lancet.2014Jan18;383(9913),245-54.
Frank,L.,Engelke,P.,Engelke,S.F.P.,&Schmid,T.(2003).Healthandcommunitydesign:Theimpactofthebuiltenvironmentonphysicalactivity.Washington:IslandPress.
Frank,L.D.,&Engelke,P.(2005).Multipleimpactsofthebuiltenvironmentonpublichealth:walkableplacesandtheexposuretoairpollution.InternationalRegionalScienceReview,28(2),193–216
Gibson,M.R.,&Owens,K.M.(2014).Makingmeaninghappenbetween‘us’and‘them’:strategiesforbridginggapsinunderstandingbetweenresearcherswhopossessdesignknowledgeandthoseworkingindisciplinesoutsidedesign.InTheRoutledgeCompaniontoDesignResearch(pp.402-415).Routledge.
Greenhalgh,T.,Jackson,C.,Shaw,S.andJanamian,T.,2016.Achievingresearchimpactthroughco-creationincommunity-basedhealthservices:literaturereviewandcasestudy.TheMilbankQuarterly,94(2),392-429.
Israel,B.A.,Schulz,A.J.,Parker,E.A.andBecker,A.B.,2001.Community-basedparticipatoryresearch:Policyrecommendationsforpromotingapartnershipapproachinhealthresearch.EducationforHealth(Abingdon,England),14(2),182-197.
EmmanuelTsekleves,AndyDarby,CollinsAhorlu,DziedzomDeSouza,RogerPickup,DanielBoakye
12
Jones,P.J.(2013).Designforcare:InnovatingHealthcareExperience.NewYork:Rosenfeld.Kembel,S.W.,Jones,E.,Kline,J.,Northcutt,D.,Stenson,J.,Womack,A.M.,...&Green,J.L.(2012).
Architecturaldesigninfluencesthediversityandstructureofthebuiltenvironmentmicrobiome.TheISMEjournal,6(8),1469.
Köser,C.U.,Ellington,M.J.,Cartwright,E.J.,Gillespie,S.H.,Brown,N.M.,Farrington,M.,...&Peacock,S.J.(2012).Routineuseofmicrobialwholegenomesequencingindiagnosticandpublichealthmicrobiology.PLoSpathogens,8(8),e1002824.
Kwong,J.C.,McCallum,N.,Sintchenko,V.,&Howden,B.P.(2015).Wholegenomesequencinginclinicalandpublichealthmicrobiology.Pathology,47(3),199-210.
Loudon,D.,Taylor,A.andMacdonald,A.S.(2014).Theuseofqualitativedesignmethodsinthedesign,developmentandevaluationofvirtualtechnologiesforhealthcare:strokecasestudy.In:M.Ma,M.,L.C.Jain,andP.Anderson,eds,VirtualandAugmentedRealityinHealthcare1.BerlinHeidelberg:Springer-Verlag,(68),371-390.
MacDonald,A(2017).Products:DesigningProductsforChronicHealth.In:Tsekleves,RandCooper,R,(eds.)Designforhealth.DesignforSocialResponsibility.Abingdon,Routledge,311-327.
Marris,P.(1997).Witnesses,EngineersandStorytellers:UsingResearchforSocialPolicyandCommunityAction(No.14).UniversityofMarylandatCollegePark,UrbanStudiesandPlanningProgram.
Mawson,S.,Nasr,N.,Parker,J.,Zheng,H.,Davies,R.,&Mountain,G.(2014).Developingapersonalisedself-managementsystemforpoststrokerehabilitation;utilisingauser-centreddesignmethodology.DisabilityandRehabilitation:AssistiveTechnology,9(6),521-528.
McCullough,C.S.(Ed.).(2010).Evidence-baseddesignforhealthcarefacilities.SigmaThetaTau.McMichael,A.J.(2000).Theurbanenvironmentandhealthinaworldofincreasingglobalization:
issuesfordevelopingcountries.BulletinoftheWorldHealthOrganization,78,1117-1126.Minkler,M.andWallerstein,N.eds.,2011.Community-basedparticipatoryresearchforhealth:From
processtooutcomes.JohnWiley&Sons.Moezzi,M.,Janda,K.B.,&Rotmann,S.(2017).Usingstories,narratives,andstorytellinginenergy
andclimatechangeresearch.EnergyResearch&SocialScience,31,1-10.Murray,P.R.,Rosenthal,K.S.,&Pfaller,M.A.(2015).Medicalmicrobiology.ElsevierHealthSciences.O’Neill,J.,2014.Antimicrobialresistance:tacklingacrisisforthehealthandwealthofnations.
Reviewonantimicrobialresistance.Paterson,A.,Bibb,R.,Downey,KandPallari,J(2017).Products:Negotiatingdesignwithinsceptical
territory:lessonsfromhealthcare..In:Tsekleves,RandCooper,R,(eds.)Designforhealth.DesignforSocialResponsibility.Abingdon,Routledge,241-259.
Prussin,A.J.,&Marr,L.C.(2015).Sourcesofairbornemicroorganismsinthebuiltenvironment.Microbiome,3(1),78.
Rintala,H,Pitkäranta,M&Täubel,M.2012.4MicrobialCommunitiesAssociatedwithHouseDust.Advancesinappliedmicrobiology78,75-120.
Robertson-Wilson,J.,&Giles-Corti,B.(2016).TheRoleoftheChangingBuiltEnvironmentinShapingOurShape.InGeographiesofObesity(pp.155-174).Routledge.
Smith,D.M.,&Cummins,S.(2009).Obesecities:howourenvironmentshapesoverweight.GeographyCompass,3(1),518-535.
Stanwell-Smith,R.andBloomfield,S.,2004.Thehygienehypothesisandimplicationsforhomehygiene.InItalyInternationalScientificForumonHomeHygiene(IFH)NextHealthSrl,P.leTürrMilano.5-20149
Tosi,F.,Rinaldi,A.andRicci,D.B.,(2016).ErgonomicsandInclusiveDesign:InnovativeMedicalDevicesforHomeCare.InAdvancesinDesignforInclusion(pp.401-412).SpringerInternationalPublishing.
Combiningdesignresearchwithmicrobiologytotackledrug-resistantinfectionsindifferenthomeenvironmentsinGhana:Challengingtheboundariesofdesignthinking
13
Tsekleves,E.,&Cooper,R.(Eds.)(2017).DesignforHealth.(DesignforSocialResponsibility).Abingdon,Routledge.
Ulrich,R.S.,Zimring,C.,Zhu,X.,DuBose,J.,Seo,H.,Choi,Y.,Quan,X.andJoseph,A.(2008)Areviewoftheresearchliteratureonevidence-basedhealthcaredesign.HealthEnvironmentsResearchandDesignJournal,1(3):61–125.
Weiss,R.A.&McMichael,A.J.(2004).Socialandenvironmentalriskfactorsintheemergenceofinfectiousdiseases.NatureMedicine10(12),431-440
Wood,L.,Frank,L.D.,&Giles-Corti,B.(2010).Senseofcommunityanditsrelationshipwithwalkingandneighborhooddesign.SocialScience&Medicine,70(9),1381-1390.
AbouttheAuthors:
EmmanuelTseklevesisaSeniorLectureratImaginationLancaster.Heleadsinternationalresearchindesigninteractionsforhealth,whichliesattheintersectionofglobalhealth,designforbehaviourchangeandtechnology.HeistheauthoroftheRoutledgeDesignforHealthbook.
AndyDarbyisaPhDCandidateatHighWireCentreforDoctoralTrainingandaResearchAssociatewithImaginationLancasteratLancasterUniversity,designingresearchtoolsforhouseholdstudiesinGhana.
CollinsAhorluisaSeniorResearchFellowinculturalepidemiology,socialscienceapproachesandcommunityengagementattheNoguchiMemorialInstituteforMedicalResearch.CollinsisaSocialEpidemiologistwhoseresearchworkscover,EpidemiologyandMedicalAnthropology/Sociology.
DziedzomDeSouzaisaSeniorResearchFellowattheParasitologyDepartmentattheNoguchiMemorialInstituteforMedicalResearch.Hisinterestsareinthemolecularbiologyofdiseasevectorsandparasites,medicalentomology,climatechangeandgeographicinformationsystems.
RogerPickupisaprofessorofenvironmentalmicrobiologyatthedepartmentofBiologicalandLifeSciencesatLancasterUniversity.Hisresearchinterestsliein'Environmentandhumanhealth'withexpertiseinmolecularmicrobialecology/environmentalmicrobiology.
DanielBoakyeisaprofessorattheParasitologyDepartmentattheNoguchiMemorialInstituteforMedicalResearch.
Acknowledgements:DustBunnywassupportedbytheArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(Grantno:AH/R002177/1).WewouldliketothankallhouseholdstudyandsurveyparticipantsandinGhana.
Top Related