Intercellular SignalingLocal Cell Junctionssignaling substances
in cytosol pass freely between cells o Gap Junctions in Animals o
Plasmodesmata in Plants Cell-Cell Interaction interaction between
molecules that portrude from cell surface (animals) o Important in
embryonic development and immune responses
Slide 3
Intercellular SignalingLocal Local Regulatorscell secretes a
local regulator molecule which acts on specific nearby target cells
o Paracrine Signalingregulators (i.e. growth factors) are released
into extracellular fluid) o Synaptic Signalingneurotransmitters are
released into synapse
Slide 4
Intercellular SignalingLong Distance Hormonesmolecules used in
plants and animals for long-distance signaling o Animals =
Endocrine Signalinghormones move through circulatory system o
Plants = Plant Growth Regulatorsmove through vessels or (more
commonly) diffuse through cells or air
Slide 5
Intercellular SignalingLong Distance Nervous System in
Animalsuses a combination of electrical and chemical signals to
send a message
Slide 6
Intracellular Signaling Three Major Parts o Reception o
Transduction o Response
Slide 7
Reception Signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein,
causing it to change shape o Ligandmolecule that specifically binds
to another molecule (messenger molecule ) Two Major Types of
Receptors o Plasma Membrane Receptors o Intracellular
Receptors
Slide 8
Reception Plasma Membrane Receptorstransmembrane proteins
transmit information into the cell by changing shape or aggregating
o G-Protein-Coupled Receptorworks with the help of a G protein. o
Receptor Tyrosine Kinasesattach phosphates to tyrosines (amino
acid)leading to activation of proteins o Ligand-Gated Ion
Channelsligand binds to gated channel protein and opens gate to let
in ions, i.e., Na +, Ca 2+
Slide 9
Reception G-Protein-Coupled Receptors
Slide 10
Reception Tyrosine-Kinase Receptors
Slide 11
Reception Ion Channel Receptors
Slide 12
Reception Intracellular Receptorschemical messengers (small
& hydrophobic) enter cell and bind to a receptor in the
cytoplasm or nucleus o Testosteronesmall steroid hormone Activates
receptor protein in cytoplasm of target cell by binding to it
Activated receptor protein (with attached testosterone) enters
nucleus and turns on specific genes that control male sex
characteristics = transcription factor (proteins that control which
genes are on and off)
Slide 13
Reception Intracellular Receptors
Slide 14
Transduction Cascades of molecular interactions relay signal
from receptors to target molecules Information is relayed by shape
changes of proteins Ex: Protein Phosphorylation &
Dephosphorylation o Protein Kinasesenzymes that transfer phosphate
groups from ATP to a protein (usually activating the protein) o
Protein Phosphatasesenzymes that remove phosphate groups from
proteins (usually deactivating protein and so turn off
pathway)
Slide 15
Transduction Phosphorylation Cascade
Slide 16
Transduction Second Messengersnon-protein, water-soluble
molecules or ions that can pass signal to proteins (1 st Messengers
are the original ligands) Involved in pathways started by
G-protein-linked receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases Most
common second messengers: o Cyclic AMP (cAMP) o Ca 2+
Slide 17
Transduction Cyclic AMP (cAMP) o Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP
to cAMP o cAMP activates a protein kinase
Slide 18
Transduction Ca 2+ --increase in Ca 2+ leads to many responses
in plants and animals o [Ca 2+ ] in blood and extracellular fluid
is often 10,000x greater than in cell o Ca 2+ is actively
transported out of the cell and into ER o Another molecule,
inositol trisphosphate (IP 3 ) stimulates release of Ca 2+
Slide 19
Response Cell Signaling leads to regulation of transcription of
cytoplasmic pathways o Response may be the regulation of protein
synthesis by turning specific genes on or off o Response may be the
regulation of a proteins activity
Slide 20
Response Nuclear Response Cytoplasmic Response
Slide 21
Fine-Tuning Responses Signal Amplification o Number of
activated products increases at each catalytic step of a cascade
because enzymes are active long enough to catalyze many reactions o
Consequence = small number of ligands can lead to large response
Specificity of Cell Signaling and Coordination of Response o
Specific types of cells have specific receptors, relay proteins,
and/or proteins needed for a response to occur
Slide 22
Fine-Tuning Responses Signal is unique to different types of
cells.
Slide 23
Fine-Tuning Responses Scaffolding Proteins & Signaling
Complexes o Scaffolding Proteinslarge relay proteins that other
relay proteins attach to simultaneously o Same proteins can be
involved in multiple pathways Termination of the Signal o Proteins
must be inactivated
Slide 24
Cell Cycle Life of a cell from origin through division.
Slide 25
Cell Cycle Phases Mitosis and Interphase
Slide 26
Mitosis (M Phase) MitosisDivision of the Nucleus
CytokinesisDivision of the cytoplasm Mitosis + Cytokinesis = ~10%
of Cell Cycle Mitosis Phases o Prophase o Metaphase o Anaphase o
Telophase
Slide 27
Mitosis (M Phase) Mitosis allows cell to go from 4n 2n Produces
somatic cells (2n) Does not produce gametes (1n)
Slide 28
Interphase Interphasephase in which the cell grows,
metabolizes, and copies DNA Interphase = ~90% of Cell Cycle Split
up into 3 smaller phases o Gap 1 Phase (G1)Takes up ~35% of
Interphase Growth Cell is 2n o Synthesis Phase (S)Takes up ~35% of
Interphase DNA Replication occurs Cell goes from 2n 4n o Gap 2
Phase (G2)Takes up ~ 30% of Interphase More GrowthParticularly
molecules for division Cell is 4n
Slide 29
Interphase
Slide 30
Phases of Mitosis Objective 11 Animal Cell
Slide 31
Phases of Mitosis Summary Prophase o Chromatin condenses into
chromosomes (made of sister chromatids attached at centromere) o
Microtubules form o Centrioles/Centrosomes move to poles
Slide 32
Phases of Mitosis Summary Metaphase o Microtubules attach to
the kinetochores of each sister chromatid o Chromosomes line up
along the metaphase plate
Slide 33
Phases of Mitosis Summary Anaphase o Sister Chromatids split
and move to poles
Slide 34
Phases of Mitosis Summary Telophase o New nuclei form o
Microtubules degrade o Cytokinesis occurs
Bacterial DNA One loop of DNA attached to Cell Membrane o Still
highly folded to fit into cell o Only one set of genes (not one
from mom and one from dad like in eukaryotes) May contain 1 or more
Plasmids o Tiny loops of extra DNA that are able to move from 1
bacteria to another o Allows for recombination = advantage!
Slide 38
Binary Fission Asexual Reproduction of most Prokaryotes Basic
Steps: o DNA Replicationunzips to copy o Cell Pinches New cells
should be clones o No genetic recombination o Only variation
through mutations Rate = divides as fast as every 20 minutes
Slide 39
Budding Some prokaryotes reproduce in this manner Asexual
Reproduction Basic Steps o Cell Develops a bulge or bud o DNA
copies o Bud Breaks Off Listeria monocytogenes
Slide 40
Control of Cell Cycle Checkpoints & Regulatory
Proteins/Conditions Objective 12
Slide 41
Check Points Between G1 and S o Go ahead signal from the
environment is needed (i.e. growth factors from other cells) o
Thenthere are checks for enough mass and the condition of the DNA o
If there is no signalcell goes to G0 (non-dividing state) Most
cells in G0 never divide (i.e. nerve/muscle) or they only divide if
there is an injury Between G2 and M o Checks for mass and correct
DNA replication o If all okaycell commits to divide Note: Cancer
often occurs because cell is quickly pushed from G1 S without
proper checks
Slide 42
Regulatory Molecules/Conditions Regulatory Proteins/Enzymes o
Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (Cdk)enzymes needed to drive the cell cycle
Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (enzyme that activates or deactivates other
molecules by phosphorylation) only works when activated by cyclin a
protein that rises and falls in the cell cycle o Example:
Maturation Promoting Factor (MPF) Cyclin increase in concentration
in G2 and bind with a specific Cdk to form MPF MPF signals the
start of Mitosis At end of mitosis, enzymes break down cyclinso no
MPFand no more dividing (Cdk concentration remains the same)
Slide 43
Regulatory Molecules/Conditions
Slide 44
Other internal signals o Kinetochores must be attached before
anaphase can occur unattached kinetochores send a signal to stop
sister chromatids from splitting
Slide 45
Regulatory Molecules/Conditions External Signals o Growth
Factorsproteins released by certain cells that stimulates other
cells to divide o Density-Dependent InhibitionCrowded cells stop
dividing because there arent enough growth factors and nutrients
for it to divide o Anchorage-DependenceIf cells arent attached to
the extracellular matrix, they do not get growth factorsso dont
divide
Slide 46
Cancer and the Cell Cycle Objective 13Define cancer and explain
how aberrations in the cell cycle can lead to tumor formation.
Slide 47
Cancer Complex collection of diseases that can arise in almost
any tissue in the body. All cancers arise as a result of the loss
of cell cycle control. Cytotoxic T Cell Attacking a Cancer
Cell
Slide 48
Cancer Cell Characteristics Uncontrolled growth Lack of
response to stop signals Immortality Ability to divide infinitely
Recruits food supplies (angiogenesis) Random migration
Slide 49
Cancer Cell Characteristics
Slide 50
Benign versus Malignant Benign (not cancer) tumor cells grow
only locally and cannot spread by invasion or metastasis Malignant
(cancer) cells invade neighboring tissues, enter blood vessels, and
metastasize to different sites
Slide 51
Cancer-Related Genes Stability Genescode for proteins that keep
genetic alterations to a minimum o If mutated, mutation rates
increase Oncogenescode for proteins that promote cell division o If
mutated to be overly active = cancer Tumor Suppressor Genescode for
proteins that inhibit cell from progressing from G1 S o If mutated
to be underactive = cancer o Example TP53 codes for p53 protein =
transcription factor that normally inhibits cell growth and
stimulates cell death when induced by cellular stress