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Silent CD describes the situation of an individualwithout signs or symptoms of CD, but who has small
bowel biopsy evidence of CD; usually these patients
have an associated condition or a family history of
CD, and are identified on screening as having CD-
associated antibodies. Latent CD applies to individuals without signs or
symptoms of CD, but who have some risk for future
development of CD, such as expression of CD-
related antibodies or DQ2 or DQ8 permissive genes,
family history of CD, or having an associated condi-
tion. These individuals do not have small bowel
biopsy changes, but may have CD-associated anti-
bodies. Refractory CD describes an individual with defined
CD who continues to have signs or symptoms of
active CD despite pursuing a GFD. In this situation,
considerations include considered exposure to gluten,
enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL), or
possibly another condition such as allergy or inflam-
matory bowel disease.
Incidence and Prevalence
The prevalence in the United States and Europe is
roughly 313 cases per 1000 individuals (1:300 to
1:80).1There is a female predominance with a ratio of
roughly 2:1.2 These estimates indicate that there areapproximately 3 million people with CD in the United
States alone, and a roughly equal number in Europe, of
which 90% are undiagnosed (Table 181). Recent
screening studies suggest that in developing countries
in Africa, parts of Asia, and South America, the fre-
quency is similar to that of the U.S. and European
countries.3To date, there are very little data exploring
DEFINITIONS AND EPIDEMIOLOGYCeliac disease (CD) is a permanent sensitivity to gluten
in wheat and related proteins found in barley and rye,
occurring in genetically susceptible individuals, and
manifesting as an immune mediated enteropathy as
defined by characteristic changes seen on intestinal his-
tology.1A conservative definitionrequires the following:
typical signs or symptoms; presence of CD-associated antibodies; a small intestinal biopsy showing villous atrophy; resolution of clinical manifestations with a gluten-
free diet (GFD), including complete healing of the
intestinal mucosa; reduction or disappearance of the CD-associated
antibodies on a GFD.
In practice, it is questionable whether it is neces-
sary to meet all aspects of this definition. Controversy
continues about whether a small bowel biopsy is required
to diagnose CD. Because of numerous reports of CD-
associated seropositive individuals with no signs or
symptoms of CD, guidelines continue to require a
biopsy to confirm the diagnosis and need for
treatment.
Different terms have been applied to common
clinical situations:
Classic CDrefers to a presentation with typical clini-cal features such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, failure
to thrive, or abdominal distention. Atypical CDdescribes a non-traditional presentation,
primarily with extraintestinal manifestations, such as
arthritis or iron deficiency anemia. In older children
and adults, the atypical presentation may be more
common than the classic presentation.
Celiac DiseaseEdward Hoffenberg
CHAPTER18
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266 Section 3: Disorders of the Stomach and Intestine
the rates of CD in China, Japan, and Southeast Asian
countries, and these populations are thought to be at
lower genetic risk for CD. A number of conditions are
associated with an increased risk of CD in children and
adults (Table 182).
Genetic Considerations
Specific HLA types are permissive for development of
CD. HLA molecules bind peptide antigens and presentthem to CD4helper T cells. An estimated 95% of CD
patients express the HLA-DQ2 gene and the remain-
der express DQ8.5HLA II molecules are made up of
dimers, expressing one alpha and one beta chain. The
vast majority of CD patients express the HLA II sub-
type DQ2 coded by alleles DQA1*0501 and DQB*0201,
or DQ8 coded by alleles DRB*04-DQA1*03-
DQB1*0302. The DQ2 dimer contains specific pockets
that bind deamidated gluten peptides and present
them to CD4lymphocytes. Expressing two copies of
HLA-DQ2 (homozygous state) increases the risk for
developing CD, and an estimated 25% of CD patients
are DQ2 homozygous. The genes coding for HLA II
are located on chromosome 6p21, termed the CELIAC1locus.
However, other genetic factors are important,
and the absolute necessity of DQ2/DQ8 for develop-
ment of CD has been questioned, as apparent cases of
CD occur in individuals who do not express DQ2 or
DQ8.2,4The DQ2 gene is expressed by approximately
30% of Caucasians, but only 3% of these develop CD.
Having a first-degree relative with CD increases the
risk of CD to between 5% and 18%.4There is an esti-
mated 7086% concordance in monozygotic twins
with CD, but only 3040% with HLA-matched twins,
and less than 20% concordance in dizygotic twins and
first-degree relatives.6Expression of DQ2 or DQ8 onlyaccounts for approximately 3653% of the disease
risk. Therefore, other genetic and environmental fac-
tors are important.7,8 Gene linkage analysis and
genetic-associated studies, including genome-wide
association studies, have identified a number of other
loci of possible importance in CD5,9 (Tables 183
and 184).
Worldwide Disease Prevalence Based on
Screening Data
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Egypt
Finland
India
Iran
Israel
Italy
Netherlands
Russia
Spain
Sweden
Tunisia
Turkey
United KingdomUnited States
1:167
1:251
1:66 to 1:119
1:187
1:99 to 1:67
1:310
1:166 to 1:104
1:157
1:106
1:198
1:133
1:118
1:77
1:157
1:115
1:1001:105
Table 181.
Conditions Associated with Increased Risk for CD
in Children and Adults1,4,11
Condition Prevalence of CD (%)
Type 1 diabetes
Down syndrome
Turner syndrome
Williams syndrome
IgA deficiency
Autoimmune thyroiditis
First-degree relatives with CD
Second-degree relatives
Dermatitis herpetiformis
Short stature/delayed puberty
Dental enamel defects
Adults specifically: Irritable bowel syndrome Persistent aphthous stomatitis Peripheral neuropathy Unexplained cerebellar ataxia Elevated transaminases Unexplained iron deficiency
anemia Decreased bone mineral density Infertility
816
315
48
10
28
8
518
3
80100
Table 182.
Genetic Linkage Studies5,9
Locus Gene Region Function
CELIAC1 6p21 HLA II coding region
CELIAC2 5q315q33 Cytokine gene cluster
CELIAC3 2q33 T-cell regulatory genes
CELIAC4 19p13.1 MYO9Bunconventional
myosin molecule
Table 183.
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CHAPTER 18 Celiac Disease 267
Pathogenesis
The exact mechanism by which ingestion of gluten pro-
teins by genetically susceptible individuals leads to
immune-mediated intestinal injury remains unclear
(Figure 181). An inciting event such as a viral infec-
tion, plus additional genetic factors, may be important
to development of CD. Both innate and adaptive immu-
nity are thought to be involved.
Gluten proteins are found in wheat and related
grains, and can be divided into gliadin and glutenin
components. Hordeins in barley and secalins in rye are
equivalent proteins that promote the CD process. The
oat avedin protein is more distantly related to Triticeae
Gluten
Gut lumen Brush border
Deamidated
peptideAPC
T cell
TG2
Mucosal
epithelium
TG2
CD4 + T cell
CD4 TCR
HLA-DQ2or -DQ8
APC
Lamina propria
FIGURE 181 Cartoon highlighting steps involved in pathogenesis of CD.41 Gluten peptides survive digestion and
cross the mucosal epithelium, where deamidation by tissue transglutaminase (TG2) occurs. HLA-DQ2 or -DQ8 molecules
on antigen-presenting cells present these peptides in the intestinal lamina propria where they are recognized by specific
CD4T cells Adapted by permission from Ref.41(Macmillan Publishers Ltd).
Genetic Association Studies5,4345
Gene Region Function/Association
1q31 Contains RGS1, regulator of G protein signaling molecule. Involved in B-cell act ivation/proliferation; found
in intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes
2q112q12 2 genes coding for receptor for IL-18 that stimulates T-cell synthesis of IFN-gamma
3p21 Large cluster of chemokine receptor genes CCR1, CCR2, CCR3, CCR5, CCRL2, and XCR1
3q253q26 Immediately 5of IL-12 gene. IL-12 induces Th1 IFN-gamma secretion
3q28 Associated with LPP gene of unclear significance
4q27 Strongest current association with CD outside HLA locus. Cluster of 8 associated single nucleotide
polymorphisms; 2 contain genes for IL2 and IL21, involved in T-cell activation. Associated with type 1
diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis
6q25 Contains TAGAP gene (T-cell activation GTPase-activating protein) expressed in act ivated T cel ls
12q24 Contains LNK and ATXN2strongly expressed in monocytes, dendritic cel ls, and small intest ine
Table 184.
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268 Section 3: Disorders of the Stomach and Intestine
glutens, and seems to be non-immunogenic for most
CD patients.10
Several properties of gluten may be important in
stimulating the immune response of CD:
Gliadin stimulation of IL-15 secretion through a non-
HLA-binding mechanism. Gliadin induction of zonulin expression in small
intestinal epithelium, with subsequent increase in
intestinal permeability, CD4T-cell antigen exposure,
and alteration in cell morphology. The high proline (15%) and glutamine (35%) content
confers important chemical properties to gluten. First,
gluten peptides resist human acid and peptic diges-
tion, and reach the intestinal mucosa in antigenic seg-
ments. Second, constitutively expressed tissue trans-
glutaminase (TTG) in the small intestine alters gliadin
peptides by deamidating specific glutamine residues
to the negatively charged glutamate. Individuals with
CD express antibodies to both TTG and deamidated
gliadin peptides; these antibodies are specific sero-logic markers for CD. Deamidated gliadin peptides
show enhanced binding to specific pockets in the DQ2
molecule, resulting in enhanced presentation to
CD4T cells by local antigen-presenting cells
(APCs).
Both activated APCs and CD4T cells secrete
increased amounts of inflammatory cytokines such as
IFN-gamma and IL-15, causing local recruitment of
fibroblasts and clonal expansion of cytotoxic intraepi-
thelial lymphocytes (IELs). The increased numbers of
IELs and the subsequent mucosal damage are the
classic changes seen on intestinal biopsy of CD
patients.
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
Well-recognized clinical presentations of pediatric CD
include: failure to thrive, chronic diarrhea, distended
abdomen, irritability, constipation, and growth or puber-
tal delay (Table 185).1,11 Extraintestinal manifestations
such as arthritis, iron deficiency anemia, dental enameldefects, and dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) are also com-
mon. Asymptomatic children may be identified on
screening because of increased risk due to having an
associated condition or a family history of CD or diabe-
tes (Table 182). Recently, a variety of presentations have
been imputed to be related to undiagnosed CD in adults
(Table 182). These include neuropsychiatric presenta-
tions such as ataxia and epilepsy, as well as infertility.
Because the signs and symptoms may be mild, vague,
and non-specific, delays in diagnosis are common.1113
Celiac crisis is a rare medical emergency charac-
terized by explosive, watery diarrhea and dehydration/
electrolyte imbalances, marked abdominal distension,
hypotension, and lethargy. It is typically seen in toddlers
and responds to corticosteroids within a few days.
Clinical Course/Progression of Disease
With institution of a GFD, symptoms often improve by
the second week, but may take months to completely
resolve. Normalization of the intestinal histology may
take 612 months. Lactose intolerance tends to resolve
within a few weeks. Treatment of nutritional deficien-
cies, such as iron deficiency, is generally not needed over
long term. Adults tend to improve more slowly.
For those with silent or latent CD, continued expo-
sure to gluten leads to eventual clinical manifestations in
Manifestations of CD1,11
Classic CD Extraintestinal Neuropsychiatric Symptoms
Failure to thrive* Dermatitis herpetiformis* Ataxia
Diarrhea* Dental enamel defects* Epilepsy/cerebral calcifications
Abdominal distension* Anemia* Migraines
Vomiting* Aphthous stomatitis* Depression
Abdominal pain* Arthritis/arthralgias Fatigue/malaise
Constipation* Abnormal liver function tests* Anxiety
Pubertal delay/short stature* Peripheral neuropathy
Osteoporosis/osteopenia*
Infertility
Recurrent fetal loss
*Strong evidence for association.Less strong.
Table 185.
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CHAPTER 18 Celiac Disease 269
at least some individuals.14Data from the adult literature
also show a mortality risk significantly above the stan-
dard mortality rate (SMR) by a factor of two- to three-
fold for patients not adhering to a GFD, not responding
to the GFD, or with lengthy delay in diagnosis.15There is
reasonable evidence that early compliance with a GFD
reduces the risk of mortality to close to baseline.16
Malignancy
The two- to three-fold increase in all-cause mortality in
CD adult patients, as compared to controls, is mostly
due to gastrointestinal malignancies such as EATL, non-
Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), and small bowel adenocar-
cinoma. CD is associated with an increased relative risk
2.16.6 times above baseline for NHL and a 30-fold
increased risk for small bowel adenocarcinoma.16
Dermatitis Herpetiformis
DH is the most common skin lesion associated with CD,
occurring in up to 24% of adult patients with CD, but is
rare in children. Classic DH is a chronic, pruritic, papu-
lar/vesicular rash symmetrically located on the extensor
surfaces of the elbows, knees, buttocks, back, and sacrum,
and occasionally is seen on the face, neck, and trunk.
Biopsy of skin lesions shows microabscesses with neu-
trophils and eosinophils in the dermal papillae. Immu-
nofluorescence of adjacent skin shows IgA deposits in
the papillary dermis directed toward an unknown anti-
gen, but theorized to possibly be epidermal transglu-
taminase. Markers of CD are often elevated in DH, with
positive TTG IgA, endomyseal antibody assay (EMA),
and anti-gliadin antibody assays (AGA). The vast major-ity of DH patients will have villous flattening or increased
IELs, even in the absence of overt gastrointestinal symp-
toms. Most, 8590%, are HLA B8 positive, and there is a
strong association with HLA DW3, and DRW3. A glu-
ten-containing diet is necessary to manifest the lesions of
DH, and symptoms often resolve with GFD. Dapsone is
often used as a suppressive medication.1,17,18
Skeletal ManifestationsThere is strong evidence supporting the increased risk
for osteopenia and osteoporosis in untreated CD. Bone
mineral density, area, and content may be reduced but
assessment should adjust for growth and pubertal delay.
In children, bone density normalizes within 12 years of
treatment with GFD.19
Association with OtherAutoimmune Diseases
The most commonly seen concurrent autoimmune dis-
eases are type 1 diabetes and Hashimoto thyroiditis.
Less common are associations with juvenile arthritis,alopecia areata, vitiligo, hepatitis and cholangitis,
Sjogrens syndrome, Addisons disease, peripheral neu-
ropathy, psoriasis, and autoimmune cardiomyopathy.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Because of its many and varied clinical features, CD can
be a great imitator of other disorders, and it can also be
silent. The differential diagnosis depends on the way it
manifests as well as the age of the patient (Table 186).
The presentation of diarrhea, abdominal distention,
irritability, and vomiting may mimic gastroesophageal
reflux, milk or soy protein allergy, Giardia infection,malrotation, lymphangiectasia, and iron deficiency ane-
mia in toddlers. The same presentation in school age
children and adolescents should lead to considerations
Differential Diagnosis
Toddler School Age and Adolescent Flattened Mucosa (Villous Atrophy)
Gastroesophageal reflux Irritable bowel syndrome Malnutrition
Milk or soy protein allergy Functional abdominal pain Infectious enteropathy: GiardiaGiardia Post-infectious chronic diarrhea Tropical sprue
Lymphangiectasia Small bowel bacterial overgrowth IgA/immunodeficiency
Malrotation Immunodeficiency (IgA deficiency, HIV, other) Allergic enteropathy: cow/soy milk
Iron deficiency anemia IBD (Crohns disease) Autoimmune enteropathy
Chronic constipation/
Hirschsprungs
Growth hormone deficiency ZollingerEllison syndrome
Fibromyalgia
Acid peptic disease, ulcer
Table 186.
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270 Section 3: Disorders of the Stomach and Intestine
of irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel dis-
ease, lactose intolerance, ulcer, post-infectious diarrhea/
bacterial overgrowth, as well as parasite infection, and
immunodeficiency such as IgA deficiency or HIV. Of
note, lactose intolerance may be a consequence of the
intestinal injury of CD and often resolves with therapy.
The histological hallmark of CD is the small bowel
biopsy showing increased numbers of IELs and villous
atrophy. The differential diagnosis for this histological
finding includes HIV and immunodeficiency, allergy,
Giardia infection, viral gastroenteritis, autoimmune
enteropathy, ZollingerEllison syndrome, tropical sprue,
and malnutrition (Table 186).
DIAGNOSIS
The criteria for diagnosis of CD have been recently
updated separately by the North American Society for
Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition
(NASPGHAN),1the Federation of International Societ-ies of Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutri-
tion,20 the National Institutes of Health (NIH),11 and
the American Gastroenterological Society (AGA).21,15
Unfortunately, these guidelines are not uniform. In gen-
eral, the diagnostic algorithm depends on whether the
presentation includes clinical signs or symptoms (Fig-
ure 182), or whether identified because of associated
conditions or risks (Figure 183).
The current NASPGHAN and FISPGHAN rec-
ommendations are to use TTG antibody assays or EMA
as the single screening test. These tests have sensitivity
and specificity above 0.95. The role of new serologic
tests such as the deamidated gliadin peptide antibody
test is not yet clear. There is no benefit to a celiac panel
of multiple antibody tests. Because of the rare case of
CD in a patient with IgA deficiency, and to increase the
confidence in a negative result, quantitative IgA levels
may be obtained, or IgA plus IgG-based TTG tests
ordered. AGA are no longer recommended for any
patient suspected to be at risk for CD as it has a low
specificity and high false-positive rate.
A positive serologic screening test should be fol-
lowed by a small bowel biopsy showing villous atrophy
in order to confirm the diagnosis of CD, and to exclude
other causes for the symptoms. The presence of increased
IELs alone, the Marsh 1 lesion, is commonly seen in
other conditions and experts do not consider it enough
for diagnosis of CD. Multiple biopsies (four to six)
should be taken from the second portion and distal
duodenum. Villous atrophy with increase in IELs is the
characteristic finding (Figure 184), but is not specificfor CD (see Table 186). Finally, a complete resolution
of symptoms within weeks of following a GFD clinches
the diagnosis in the child with a clinical presentation
of CD.
Value of DQ2/DQ8 Testing
Virtually all patients with CD will test positive for DQ2
or DQ 8. However, 3040% of Caucasians will express
DQ2 or DQ8, and fewer than 5% will ever develop CD.
Therefore, the value of HLA haplotype testing is in its
Clinical signs or symptoms
TTG and quantitative IgA
Biopsy consistent
with celiac disease
Gluten free diet
Biopsy uncertain
Consider repeat biopsy, trialof gluten free diet, other
diagnoses
If normal, celiac disease
unlikely, evaluate further
If abnormal, refer topediatric GI for small
bowel biopsy
FIGURE 182 Diagnostic algorithm for evaluation of the symptomatic child.
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CHAPTER 18 Celiac Disease 271
high negative predictive value. Situations to consider
DQ2/8 testing include those individuals with an unclear
diagnosis and those with a risk factor but negative initial
screening. In this situation, if testing is negative for DQ2
or DQ8, CD is unlikely.
Current recommendations for biopsy-positive indi-
viduals are to recheck TTG 6 months after initiating GFD
to measure compliance and response, as serology should
normalize during this time with good compliance. For the
asymptomatic patient, TTG should be rechecked at inter-vals of 1 year or longer. Gluten challenge and repeat biopsy
are no longer recommended if patient improves on GFD.
If the patient has been on a GFD after serologic testing but
prior to biopsy, or if the patient is receiving corticoster-
oids or immunosuppressants, biopsy results may not
reflect true level of disease. In this situation, a gluten
load of 24 weeks of a gluten-containing diet usually is
sufficient to produce typical CD changes on biopsy.
CONTROVERSIES
Stool Testing
Fecal tests for CD-associated antibodies are commer-
cially available but have not been well validated in adults
and have not been studied in children.
Rapid In-office Assays
Rapid whole blood assays for TTG are also being com-
mercialized, with as yet limited data on use in clinical
practice.
Asymptomatic, at-risk child
TTG
Biopsy consistentwith celiac disease
Consider gluten-free diet
Biopsy uncertain
Consider repeat biopsy,trial of gluten-free diet
If normal, consider re-screening every 2-3 years,sooner if clinical concerns
arise
If abnormal, either re-testto confirm, or refer topediatric GI for small
bowel biopsy
FIGURE 183 Diagnostic algorithm for evaluation of the asymptomatic child with
a risk.
FIGURE 184 Small bowel biopsy features of CD, hematoxylin and eosin stain. Panel A shows normal small bowel biopsy with tall slender
villi, 10x magnification (Marsh score 0) Panel B shows tall villi with increased numbers of intra-epithelial lymphocytes, 40x magnification (Marsh
score 1) Panel C shows total villous atrophy typical of celiac disease, 10x magnification (Marsh score 3).
A B C
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CHAPTER 18 Celiac Disease 273
(FALCPA), which took effect on January 1, 2006,
requires food labels to clearly identify eight common
food allergens: wheat, eggs, fish, milk, peanuts, shell-
fish, soybeans, and tree nuts. This law does not, how-
ever, address the use of barley (malt), rye, or oats. FAL-CPA also requires the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration to develop rules for the use of the term
gluten-free on product labels. The final ruling is still
pending, although the FDA proposal is available from
the federal register at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/%7Elrd/
fr070123.html. The parameter for a naturally gluten-
free product is 20 ppm per serving, and for a food ren-
dered gluten-free is 200 ppm.
NEW THERAPIES UNDER
INVESTIGATION
While the only current treatment for CD is lifelong adher-ence to a GFD, several alternative treatments are currently
being investigated as possible adjunctive therapies.
Bacterial Prolyl-endopeptidases
One of the properties of gluten that makes it immuno-
genic is the ability to reach the lamina propria in large,
antigenically intact peptide fragments. This is due to
lack of native peptidases capable of cleavage of peptide
Food and Ingredient List for the Gluten-free Diet
Food Item Foods/Ingredients Allowed Foods/Ingredients to Question Foods/Ingredients Not Allowed
Pastas, potatoes,
and other
starches
Pastas made from allowed grains, rice
including white brown and wild, corn
tacos and corn tortillas, potatoes,
saifun (bean threads), rice noodles
Commercial rice and pasta mixes,
French fries, fried restaurant
foods (gluten-contaminated
grease), polenta
All pastas made from grains not
allowed, couscous, tabbouleh,
soba noodles
Fruits and fruit
products
Fresh fruit, pure fruit juices Thickened or prepared fruits and
pie fillings, dried fruit mixes, jelly
and jam
Beverages Tea (black, green, and white), coffee
(plain), pure fruit juices, cider
Soy and rice beverages, instant
tea and coffee, flavored tea and
coffee, hot cocoa, hot chocolate,
soda, sports drinks, nutritional
supplements
Malted beverages, ground
coffee with added grains
Vinegar Vinegars (apple cider, rice, wine,
and balsamic)
Flavored vinegars Malt vinegar
Condiments Salt, pepper (black, white, and red), pure
herbs, pure spices, pure flavoring
extracts, wheat-free soy sauce, cream
of tartar, pickles, honey
Ground spices, seasoning and
spice mixes, gravy cubes and
mixes, bouillon cubes and
powder, ketchup, mustard,
mustard powder, Worcestershire
sauce, salad dressings, soy
sauce, teriyaki sauce, relish
Most soy sauces contain wheat
Miscellaneous Seaweed (algin, algae, alginate),
alfalfa, aspic
Yeast, yeast flakes, bicarbonate of
soda, baking soda, baking
powder, powdered sugar,
molasses, rice paper,
confectioner sugar
Communion wafers,
brewers yeast
Non-food Lotions, creams, cosmetics, lip
gloss, lip balm, sunscreen,
toothpaste, mouthwash,
products used in dental offices,
medications: prescription
and over the counter (many
contain gluten), laxatives,
vitamins, stamps, envelopes,
and gummed labels, Play Doh,
paper mache
Table 187. (Continued)
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274 Section 3: Disorders of the Stomach and Intestine
bonds of proline residues. Currently being investigated
is the use of exogenous bacterial derived prolyl-
endopeptidases to cleave these peptides into smaller,
less immunogenic fragments prior to reaching the
lamina propria. There are published data on in vitro
and in vivo animal models, and ex vivo human T cells,
with promising results. Controlled studies in CD
patients using these enzymes are yet to be
published.2329
Inhibition of Intestinal tTG
Early work is underway at developing a site-specific
inhibitor of intestinal tTG, to prevent the local deami-dation and binding enhancement of gluten peptides.
There are potential side effects with such an inhibitor,
such as impaired wound healing and perturbation of
the extracellular matrix.30,31
DQ2/DQ8-binding Peptides
Theoretically, a compound can be formulated that will
occupy the binding groove on HLA-DQ2 or -DQ8 and
prevent gluten peptide antigen presentation. This would
effectively block the immunogenic reaction. To our
knowledge, no such compound has yet been formu-
lated.30
T-cell Silencing
Another theoretic therapy would be to stimulate
apoptosis in gluten-specific T cells, or induce toler-
ance in these T cells by targeting tolerogenic dendritic
cells. These therapies again are still in theoretic
stages.30
Cytokine Therapy
Several trials of anti-inflammatory cytokine therapy are
underway for other chronic diseases such as RA and
IBD. IL-15 antagonists have been developed by several
pharmaceutical companies for treatment of RA, but
have therapeutic potential for CD as well. IFN- antago-nists have been developed and are in phase II testing for
reduction of inflammation in IBD, but are being recog-
nized for potential in CD treatment as well. IL-10 has
been tested in both refractory CD and IBD for its poten-
tial ability to shift away from TH1 immune reaction.
Unfortunately, neither trial has so far showed any
success.30,3234
Genetically Modified Wheat
Work is currently underway to evaluate the feasibility of
engineering and cultivating a modified, gluten-free
strain of wheat that would lack immunogenic peptides.
Barriers to this would include cost, palatability, and
industrial quality of the flour derived from such a strain.
This project is in its early stages, and would not be avail-
able to the mass market for many years, if ever.
Other Possibilities
Monoclonal antibodies to the adhesion molecule integ-
rin a4 are currently being used for multiple sclerosis and
are also in phase II trials for IBD. These compounds
may have potential for CD by prevention of T-cell
migration into the lamina propria. Zonulin antagonists
are being looked at for prevention of gluten-induced
intestinal hyper-permeability. The concept of usingNGK2D antagonists to prevent the phenotypic conver-
sion of CD4 T cells to cytotoxic T cells in the intestinal
epithelium has also been raised.30
PREVENTION
With a more thorough understanding of the pathogen-
esis of CD, more emphasis may start being placed on the
prevention of development rather than treatment.
In a recent meta-analysis of breastfeeding prac-
tices and effect on CD, the authors concluded that dura-
tion of breastfeeding and breastfeeding during introduc-
tion of grains reduced future risk of CD development.35,36This is not uniformly accepted, however, and some inves-
tigators feel that breastfeeding may delay or mask, but
not prevent the development of CD.37The mechanism is
speculative, but involvement of probiotic bacteria is
thought to be important for development of tolerance to
food proteins and maintenance of intact intestinal
epithelial barrier in infancy. It is also speculated that
Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity Resources
www.celiac.com: celiac and gluten-free information
www.celiac.org: Celiac Disease Foundation
www.gluten.net: Gluten Intolerance Group of North America
www.celiac.nih.gov: Celiac Disease Awareness Campaign
www.celiaccentral.org: National Foundation for Celiac
Awareness
www.celiachealth.org: Childrens Digestive Health and
Nutrition Foundation
www.americanceliac.org: American Celiac Disease Alliance
www.eatright.org: American Dietetic Association
www.csaceliacs.org: Celiac Sprue Association
www.cdhnf.org: Childrens Digestive Health and Nutrition
Foundation
Table 188.
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CHAPTER 18 Celiac Disease 275
probiotic therapy in at-risk individuals may help to pro-
mote tolerance and prevent CD.
Timing of introduction of gluten and quantity of
gluten in the diet are other controversial topics in pre-
vention of CD. Early (prior to 3 months of age) and late
(after 7 months) introduction of gluten were associated
with increased risk of CD in one prospective study.37
Several recent papers documented a four-fold rise in
incidence of CD in Sweden in children less than 2 years
old, after a significant increase in gluten intake in this
population. A later decrease in gluten consumption cor-
responded to a drop in CD.38
Prevention of infectious triggers such as rotavirus
and the subsequent effect on CD risk is another area
currently being researched. If the increased permeabil-
ity and inflammation corresponding with infection can
be avoided in at-risk individuals, perhaps breakdown of
tolerance will not occur.36,39,40
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