Nazneen Mahaboob
Upper 6 science
MODULE ONE
LOCATION AND DEFINITION OF THE CARIBBEAN
REGION
Definition of the Caribbean Region
Geographical
This describes the area washed by the Caribbean Sea and is often
described as the Caribbean Basin. It would therefore include most
of the islands of the Lesser Antilles, Greater Antilles as well as the
mainland territories in Central America (Costa Rica, Belize,
Panama, Honduras) and Northern South America such as
Columbia and Venezuela. The common link here is the Caribbean
Sea.
Geological
There are deep seated structural features of Caribbean geology
which also identifies commonalities. It is the area that is defined by
the Caribbean Plate and which experiences similar tectonic,
seismic and volcanic features and processes.
Historical
It describes the area that saw the impact of European colonization,
slavery, indentureship and the plantation system. this refers to all
the territories so that one way of defining the Caribbean is to
identify those countries that experienced the rule of specific
European countries. Thus the Caribbean may be defined as being
broken up into the English, French, Dutch and Spanish speaking
countries and territories.
Political
In the Caribbean at least three types of governmental systems are
found. They include Independent States, Associated States and
Colonial Dependencies.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY
Society
Society is a collection of people occupying a defined geographical
area over a long period of time.
Society in the Caribbean is often considered the boundaries of a
nation state.
The sociological understanding of the term society stresses the
interaction amongst its members.
Culture
Culture is widely regarded as the way of life for a people.
It is often defined as the learned behavior of a people. Culture is
sub divided into material and non-material culture.
Material culture includes the products of people such as their styles
of architecture, types of food preparation, economic organizations
and their forms of technology.
Non-material culture refers to the cherished values, ideas, beliefs
and ideas.
Cultural values refer to a set of rankings people in a society
confer on to a myriad of social behaviors.
Norms are standards of behavior that are culturally accepted and
emanate from the realm of cultural values that we share.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND
CULTURE
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Cultural Diversity
Cultural Diversity is the existence of sub-cultures within a main
culture or different cultures in a larger area such as the Caribbean
and the US.
Social Stratification
This is the social arrangement of society based on criteria such as
race, wealth and education.
Social Mobility
This is the movement, usually of individuals or groups, from one
social position to another within the socially stratified system in
any society.
Hybridization
This is the admixture of cultural traits and exchange of values from
other cultures.
Cultural Erasure
This is where traits or practices of a culture are no longer practiced
over time.
Cultural Retention
This may occur as a result of the deliberate desire to keep
traditions alive and help some groups to preserve their sense of
identity. It is also defined as the process where past cultural
practices are practiced presently.
Cultural Renewal
This is where cultural practices that were once done are being
revived or the fashioning of new practices based on those of the
past.
IMPACT OF HISTORICAL PROCESSES
Migratory Movements
The ancestors of the pre-Colombian Amerindians may have come
out of North Eastern Asia across the frozen Bering Straits to
Alaska during the fourth Ice Age some fifteen to twenty thousand
years ago. The nomads wandered southwards through North,
Central and South America evolving distinct physical and cultural
characteristics.
Over hundreds of years the Amerindians moved and some settled.
Some of the familiar names are Aztec, Maya and Inca.
The Orinoco Basin and the Guianas in South America were the
original homeland of the Caribs and Arawaks who migrated
northwards through the Lesser Antilles to the Greater Antilles. By
1492, the main Arawak groups which inhabited the West Indies
were the Lucayans in the Bahamas and Tainos in Cuba, Jamaica,
Haiti and Puerto Rico. The greatest Amerindian civilization
flourished on the mainland of Mesoamericas and South America.
It is perhaps the constant movement of people into and out of the
Caribbean that led Richardson to refer to a regional migration
tradition. This propensity to migrate, he argued, took off
immediately after emancipation in the 1830’s when thousands of
men and women most notably from smaller islands, migrated to
Trinidad and British Guiana in search of higher wages and better
conditions. By 1845, more than 10 000 migrants from small West
Indian Islands had travelled to Trinidad and over 8000 others had
gone to British Guiana. Many of these emigrants eventually
returned home displaying the fruits of their labour. This movement
continued from a long time as a feature of Caribbean people, that
is, to move from small islands of the Eastern Caribbean to larger
ones in a complex inter-island migration.
Encomienda System (System of Unfree Labor)
Hispaniola was the first test ground for Spain’s Indian Policy.
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Amerindians had to present Columbus with a certain amount of
gold each week which were measured in ingots (a calabash full of
gold dust)
He made them dive for pearls. Amerindians drowned because they
were not accustomed to diving so deep.
Chiefs were hunted and killed by Spanish dogs if they did not
adhere to the rules.
Nicholas De Ovando, a Spanish Governor was appointed by the
crown to oversee the encomienda system.
The rich Spanish (encomendero) gained jurisdiction over land and
they had Amerindians working for them.
Nicholas De Ovando had to protect the Amerindians but he did not
do so.
Many Amerindians died of starvation.
In 1510, in Hispaniola, the first Dominican friar arrived to help the
Amerindians.
Father Antonio Montesinos on Advent Sunday in 1511 addressed
Spanish telling them they were “hypocritical and warped.”
The Law of Burgos (1512-1513) sought to alienate the tension
between Spanish and Amerindians.
Bartolome de Las Casas was a former encomendero who had a
religious epiphany and freed the Amerindians. He went to King
Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to look to Africa for labor since it
was cheap and easily accessible.
The audienca moderated the amount of tribute the slaves had to
pay and they functioned like a High Court. (1531-1532)
The New Laws of the Indies (1542) dealt with the prohibition of
enslavement of Indians and prevention of doing personal services
for encomenderos.
By 1560, encomienda system was partially banned as some
encomenderos still practiced the system.
By the second half of the 16th Century, there was a virtual genocide
of the Amerindians.
Repartimiento and Yanconaje
Repartimiento was primarily practiced in Central Mexico and
Andean Highlands.
Adult males had to do rotation work.
In New Spain, the Repartimiento was called Mita.
There was an encomendero who had to oversee the work usually a
rich Spanish.
Yanaconaje was practiced in Peru and Bolivia.
African Slaves
African slaves were accessible, stronger, healthier, less prone to
diseases and had knowledge of cultivation.
The journey of slave ships from Africa to the West Indies (Middle
Passage) was wrought with horror, waste of human life and was
characterized by high mortality rate.
Chattel- African slaves were treated as commodities.
Asiento- a contract between a company and the Spanish Crown.
All forms of colonial labor depended on servitude/ coercion
Economics was the start and end of slavery.
Plantation Society
Race, color, status, occupation, ethnicity affected the social
pyramid of the plantation society.
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The plantation society is a capitalist type of enterprise in which
land is treated like a commodity.
Indentureship
Indentured laborers were assigned contracts in which they were
paid wages to work for a specified period of time.
After the contracts expired they were given the option to return to
their homelands or to receive a plot of land. Many chose to stay.
Indentureship was supposed to differ from slavery, however, the
servants were treated as harshly as the slaves.
Caribbean Reponse to Oppression
Encomienda
Amerindians used bows and arrows with poisoned tips.
Infanticide and Group or Individual Suicide
If caught, they were burnt to the stake
Slavery
They were intentionally idle on the plantation (Go Slow)
They destroyed valuable machinery
Marronage – Maroons were the runaway slaves who established
communities in the hilly terrain of many areas of the Americas.
Marronage was not always an option in island communities but
existed in large territories where the hilly terrain was ideal for
settlements. The most famous Maroons in the Caribbean are found
in Suriname, in the Blue Mountains and Cockpit Country of
Jamaica and in Las Villas in Cuba. They were successful at
defending their liberty and in 1739 the British were forced to sign a
treaty of peace.
Movement towards Independence
Foster Commission (1935) in Trinidad and Moyne Commission
(1938) looked at the economic situation in each country.
Universal Adult Suffrage –the right to vote
In the 1930s political parties were formed.
Entrepreneurial activities- shop-keeping and saving society (sou-
sou)
IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHIC PHENOMENA
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the study of the movement of plates and their
resultant landforms. The crust is made up of two plates, the
Continental or Oceanic and they move or float on molten rock.
Types of Plates Margins
Convergent Plate Margin
At these margins two plates move towards each other and it is
called a destructive plate margin. At a convergent plate margin,
either a collision zone or a subduction zone may be formed. A
collision zone occurs where two continental plates collide forming
fold mountains. E.g. Eurasian and Indian plates collide to form the
Himalayan Mountains. A subduction zone occurs when an oceanic
plate collide with a continental plate and the denser oceanic plate is
forced under.
At a convergent plate margin volcanoes and earthquakes occur.
E.g. the eastern end of the Caribbean Plate along the line of the
Lesser Antilles and the North American plate and the Caribbean
plate.
Divergent Plate Margin
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At this plate margin, the plates move away from each other and is
called a constructive plate margin as new crust is formed. This
results in gentle volcanis and earthquake activity. Magma is forced
upwards and new crust is created. E.g. the Caribbean and North
American plates move away from each other to form the Cayman
Island Ridge.
Transform Plate Margin
At this plate margin, the plates slide past each other with
converging or diverging. It is also called a fault. Volcanic activity
does not occur here, instead only seismic activity is experienced.
E.g. the Cayman Island Trench.
Volcanoes
A volcano is an opening in the earth’s crust through which molten
rock, ash, steam etc are ejected.
In the Caribbean:
Mt. Pelee-Martinque
Erupted in 1902, and killed 30 000 people.
A nueeardente (glowing cloud filled with super heated ash and
gases) descended on the village and thus suffocated the residents.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are sudden earth movements or vibrations in the
earth’s crust. They are caused by the development of faults in the
crust which result from collision of plates or from the movement of
molten rocks below or within the crust or the sudden release of
stress that has slowly built up along the fault plane at a transform
plate margin. The focus is the point at which the earthquake
originated. The epicenter is the point on the surface of the earth
directly above the focus.
Risks involved with Earthquakes
Tremors
The ground vibrates during an earthquake. Waves travel outwards
from side to side. Walls may crack and windows may break.
Utility poles fall and buildings collapse.
Ground Fissures
The ground splits and cracks.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction is the process whereby reclaimed land or loose
sediments behave like a liquid during an earthquake.
Floods
Fires
Port Royal- Jamaica (1692)
The entire city of Port Royal slumped into the sea as a result of
liquefaction.
Over 3000 people died as a result.
Kingston Jamaica (1907)
Registered a 6-6.5 on the Richter scale
Caused fires
800 deaths
85% buildings destroyed
Ground fissures over 15cm apart
Jamaica (1993)
5.4 on the Richter scale
2 deaths
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Triggered landslides
More than 500 homes destroyed
Dominica (2004)
6.3 earthquake
3 historic churches destroyed
Hospital damaged
Landslides
Wall collapsed
Indonesian Earthquake and Tsunami (2004)
Occurred off the island of Sumatra
Upward displacement of 10m
Tsunami travelled at speed of 800km/h
Hurricanes
A hurricane is a low pressure system formed in warm waters. All
hurricanes develop over the sea. They do not develop close to the
equator as they require a surface temperature of 27 degrees.
Before a hurricane
Calm weather, high humidity and strong swells
As hurricane approaches, cloud cover builds up and winds
intensify
During a hurricane
Wind strongest near the eye of the storm
Eye: calm, down draught of warm air
Wind drops suddenly after eye passes and starts again
After a hurricane
Wind speeds gradually drop
Heavy rain may continue
Wind damage
40% increase in wind speed doubles the destructive power
Wave damage
Waves may reach 8m high
May be severe beach erosion
Marine life damaged or killed
Corals damaged
Coastal structures damaged
Ships and boats at risk
Storm surge
Near eye of major hurricane sea levels are several metres above
normal
Strengthened as approaches shore
Flooding
Flooding by slowly rising waters (Caroni, Barrackpore)
Landslide
Triggered where steep hills are sodden with rain
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Hurricane Ivan in Grenada ( September 2004)
80-90% houses damaged or destroyed
5000-6000 slept in shelters
Power lines brought down
Water supply contaminated
Recently built national stadium destroyed
Most schools damaged
90% nutmeg trees destroyed
90% trees fell
Roads blocked and airport closed
Landline phone and radio transmitters down
1700 hotel rooms, 300 available
Prison roof blown off
Soils
Soil is the uppermost layer of loose material on top of the orck
which makes up the surface of the earth. It consists of tiny oarticles
derived from the broken down fragment of rock together with
humus.
Soil erosion
Soil may be eroded by:
1. Soil compaction by grazing animals and machinery
2. Deforestation
3. Over grazing
4. Over use of artificial fertilizer
5. Monoculture
6. Slash and burn cultivation
7. Forest fires
8. Bad agricultural practices
Soil conservation
Soil may be conserved by:
1. Terracing
2. Mulching
3. Wind breaks
4. Contour ploughing/drainage
5. Crop rotation
6. Canopy cover
7. Cover cropping
8. Intercropping
9. Reforestation
Coral Reefs
How are coral reefs formed?
1. The main frame of the reef is built up by coral polyps whish are
small soft bodied creatures which use calcium carbonate dissolved
in water to build up a hard casing of limestone to protect
themselves.
2. These tiny polyps live in colonies or large groups.
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3. Layer after layer of limestone is added to the colony as new polyps
build on top of the structure.
4. Other organisms also live on the reef and these creatures produce
hard skeletons which help to build up the structure of the reef
around the framework of the coral.
5. Only the surface layer of the reef is made up of live coral.
6. Between the reef and the shore, there is usually a shallow lagoon.
The floor of this is made up of sand, dead coral and rubble.
7. On the seaward side, the reef slopes down more steeply. At the
base of this slope there will also be an accumulation of sand and
rubble.
Conditions in which coral reefs grow
1. The temperature of the water should be between 21 and 30 degrees
Celsius. Thus is why there are few coral reefs outside the tropics or
in places where there are cold sea currents.
2. Corals mat be killed where the water is too hot.
3. Sunlight must be able to penetrate where the coral is growing.
Corals grow only in fairly shallow water. The exact depth depends
on the clarity of the water.
4. Coral grow where the water has the right amount of salt. Few reefs
are near the mouth of rivers.
5. Corals need to grow in clean water. Muddy water damages coral
because it shuts out sunlight and because silt particles choke the
coral polyps. Organic growth of other organisms are promoted.
Organic pollution damage coral. Corals may be starved from lack
of oxygen or smothered in algae. When the growth of the coral is
held back, it often becomes diseased and may die.
Types of Coral Reefs
1. Fringing Reefs- This type of reef consists of a platform of coral
which is connected to and which is built out from the coast. The
surface of the platform is usually flat or slightly concave and its
outer edge drops away steeply to the surrounding seafloor. A
shallow lagoon usually occurs between the coast and the outer
edge of the reef. Buccoo Reef is an example of a fringing reef.
2. Barrier Reef- A barrier reef is similar to a fringing reef except that
it is situated several kilometers off the coast and is separated from
it by a deep, water lagoon. The coral of a barrier reef is often
joined to the coast although the lagoon may be too deep for coral
to grow on its bed. In some cases, fringing reefs develop on the
inner side of lagoons which lie between a barrier reef and the coast
of the island.
3. Atolls- Atolls tend to form horseshoe shapes or rings. The reef
surrounds a deep lagoon. Atolls occur off the coast of Belize.
Importance of coral reefs to the Caribbean
1. They protect the coastline from wave erosion and they dissipate
wave energy.
2. A rich source of marine flora and fauna-a marine ecosystem
3. Promotes tourism. E.g. scuba diving and snorkeling therefore
provides income and earns foreign revenue
4. Source of sand for beach when reefs break down.
Droughts
Droughts are caused by a lack of rain over a long period of time. If
rain does occur, it usually isn’t enough for the ground to absorb
therefore it is evaporated again.
IMPACT OF SCIETAL INSTITUTIONS ON CARIBBEAN
PEOPLE
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Family
The family is the most fundamental universal social institution and
has several functions. These include reproduction, socialization,
economic unit to supply basic needs and emotional and
psychological support. The family ought to be the first to instill in
a child attitudes, norms and values so that his or her own behavior
can be developed.
Education
The primary function of the education system is to promote
socialization of young people. Schools transmit a society’s values,
attitudes, beliefs, norms, specific skills and system of knowledge
to young people. It also recruits young people for specific
occupational and social roles in society. They also help to keep
people out of the labor market and it promotes technological
change in society by providing the basis of knowledge and skills
that enable technological innovation to occur.
Religion
Religious institutions meet any basic human needs that are not met
by the other institutions. They deal with the ultimate human
concerns of life and death. It provides a set of beliefs that explains
and interprets occurrences in the social and physical environment
that cannot be explained by other means. They also serve as a basic
human need for providing people with ethical principles, morality
and a set of guidelines for appropriate behavior. They also provide
a set of beliefs for interpreting the causes and consequences of a
person’s past, present and future conducts. Religious institutions
provide people with an identity as members of a specific group and
a sense of connectedness with the past and future/ it provides
emotional support and consolation in the face of uncertainty,
anxiety, defeat, alienation and disappointment.
The Justice System
The justice system has three main features:
1. The use of prisons and policing
2. The informal system which involves diversion and
rehabilitation
3. Surveillance
CARIBBEAN GLOBAL INTERACTIONS
Imports from Canada, US and Europe
Foods- fresh and packaged
Electronic items
Motor vehicles
Computers
Appliances
Films, videos, cable T.V.
Music, entertainment
Books, magazines, software
Clothes
Consultants, experts, advisors
Exports from Caribbean
Oil
Natural gas
Foods-fresh, packaged and agricultural produce
Fish
Clothes
Music, Carnival costumes, songs, artists, performers
Migrants, students, tourists
The Westminster System
The government is chosen by the democratically elected Lower
House.
The head of government is the Prime Minister who leads the
Cabinet which is responsible for the Lower House.
An opposition exists, led by the leader of the party with the second
largest number of votes in the Lower House.
There is a career public service which impartially serves the
government of the day.
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The armed services are outside politics and act on the instructions
of the government.
The rule of law prevails with an independent judiciary subject to
the constitution.
Impact of Caribbean Cultural Practices Abroad
1. Notting Hill Carnival-United Kingdom
2. Caribana Festival- Toronto
3. Brooklyn Labor Day
4. Point Fortin Day- New York
All met with resistance in the beginning but then tourism
became enticing
Music
Soca, reggae, calypso
Chutney, Tassa
Steelpan (Pan European Association responsible for creating a
network to promote the development of pan in Europe.)
Impact of Rastafarianism
Rastafarianism evolved as a cult in Jamaica. The cult perfected in
1930’s and leaders such as Marcus Garvey stimulated this
movement with their belief in racial dignity. Rastafarians form
tribes and live in communes with each tribe having a leader who
possesses power over all other tribe members. Within the
Rastafarian religion women are regarded as inferior to men and
exist only for their pleasure. Often times, the women folk are seen
walking behind their men and never in front or even to the side.
This has evolved in modern times where the women are treated
equally.
How Caribbean Art and Culture contribute to the Development
of our Caribbean
Reflect our everyday experiences of physical and social
environments e.g. Derek Walcott (St. Lucia) intertwines the
physical aspect of the Caribbean in his poems
Represent important aspects of our history e.g. Bajan writer
George Lamming wrote a book the Pleasures of Exile (1960)
where he writes about the struggle to reclaim our voice with
reference to European colonizers and Sculpture “Negro Aroused”
by Jamaican sculptor Edna Manley (1935) showed workers from
Jamaica rising from oppression
Economic development e.g. Carnival, Crop Over festival
However in order to promote economic development we have to
use modern technology namely an international reggae festival
launched on the internet.
-What are some of the dangers we face when we begin to adapt our
arts and culture to make them attractive to persons outside of the
Caribbean?
-How might packaging them appropriately to suit these new
technologies change their character?
-Will we lose important that make them our own?
-What sorts of policies might Caribbean governments need to put
in place to ensure that while the arts and popular culture are
properly developed we also protect what they reflect of our actual
heritage?
-How can we ensure that our artists and cultural entrepreneurs
develop skills that will provide them with employment and help
them to survive and prosper economically?
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MODULE TWO
CONCEPTS AND INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable Development
This is a concept of advancing people’s quality of life, assessing
such advance in terms of economic criteria as well as human
dynamics, particularly the conservation and protection of the
environment.
This is the development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
Sustainable Development addresses:
Poverty
Human Rights Violations
Sexual Prejudice
Environmental Destruction
Elements of Sustainable Development
1. Society- social institution, democratic system of
government, resolving differences
2. Environment- awareness of the fragility of the
environment, availability of resources
3. Economy- sensitivity to the limits and potential of
economic growth and the impact on society and
environment.
4. The impact of globalisation on development- foreign
trade, WTO, IMF, World Bank, Trans-National
Corporations.
Economic Development
This is the development of the production of goods and services in
a country.
Indicators of Development
GNP/ capita
Industrialization
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Employment levels
Economic structures such as primary, secondary and tertiary
sectors
The level of local and foreign debt
Levels of foreign aid receipts
Non-economic indicators of Development
Life expectancy
Levels of education
Ratio of doctors to the population
Labor productivity
Distribution of income
Improved institutions and attitudes
Urbanization
Birth rate
Death rate
Growth and Development
Growth is the all round expansion of the economy. It can be
measured in GNP which reflects the general increases in total
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output. Examples of growth include advances in technology,
quality of life, standard of living education, health care etc.
Development is the qualitative concept concerned with the pattern
of economic change. In order to have development, there must be
growth.
Economic Growth
Economic growth is affected by:
Rate of investment
Rate of increase in the working population
Technological development
Balance of payments
Role of government and government expenditure
Balance of Payment
Balance of Payment = (Money made+ Money Brought In) -
(Money Sent Out)
If Balance of payment,
Positive- Favorable Economic Growth
Negative- Less Economic Growth
Zero- No Economic Growth
Features of underdevelopment
Poor economic performance
High rates of population growth
Low standard of living
Relatively short life expectancy
High unemployment
High crime rates
Poor educational opportunities
Considerable dependence on agriculture
High infant mortality rate
Problems of Development
Economic dualism- division of the economy into two distinct and
radically different sectors
Unemployment
Size of population
Migration
Industrialization
The role of education
The role of information technology
CARICOM- problems of regional trade
Structural adjustment
FACTORS THAT PROMOTE OR HINDER DEVELOPMENT
1. Most Caribbean countries have the legacy of slavery
and this has stratified the society under factors of
economic status, race, color, education, wealth and
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marriage. Because of this there is a sense of inferiority
and superiority among the classes which in turn hinder
development.
2. Unfair discrimination other than by merit hinders
development. A person should not be discriminated
against because of race, color, religion, sex, status or
creed. Where such discrimination exists, low levels of
production will occur.
3. A country with high levels of crime and violence can
generate a fear throughout the population. As a result,
productivity is diminished and distorted and the
development is hindered.
4. Access to education and training is critical in assessing
the development of a country.
5. Health care should be a priority of the government as
unhealthy workers will spend less time at work and
therefore they will be less efficient than expected.
6. Technology allows for increased knowledge.
Knowledge can help to promote development as new
and modern techniques can be implemented.
GLOBALISATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Globalisation
This is the growth and intensification of political, economic, social
and cultural relations across national borders.
Six global factors are:
1. Submission to an economic model
2. Constriction of capital flow
3. Access to more markets
4. Removal of preferential trade
5. Erasure and/or hybridization of culture
6. Deepening of social inequality
Impact of Golabilsation
Globalization impacts:
Communication
Money
Organization
IMF (International Monetary Fund)
The IMF was established in December 1945 in the aftermath of
World War II as there was the need to have an agency to stabilize
the international monetary system.
For the lending and disbursement of funds, certain stipulations
apply, all of which fall within the economic philosophy of free
market capitalism.
World Bank/International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD)
This was established around the same time as the IMF.
The World Bank focused on specific projects lending.
Both the IMF and the World Bank were designed to help countries
recover form the effects of World War II.
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) now WTO
GATT was founded in 1947 with headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland
The main purpose was the promotion of free trade
Its principal function has been to encourage compliance of trade
agreements, lowering barriers to trade, and focusing on tariffs.
Multi-national corporations
Also called Trans-National Corporations and these are businesses
that carry out at least 25% of production internationally.
Example of Multinational Corporations in the Caribbean
Cable and Wireless
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Scotiabank
Texaco
Shell
Esso
Holiday Inn
Pepsi
Alcan
Courts
Price Waterhouse
Advantages
1. Employment can be created
2. Increase of foreign exchange
3. Transfer of technology
Disadvantages
1. MNCs may use their power in the markets to drive
domestic producers out of business
2. They buy few or none of their raw materials, instead
they are imported
3. Technologies and skill brought by MNCs may be
severely guarded.
THE INTEGRATION MOVEMENT
Federation
British West Indian Federation idea came up again in Montego,
Jamaica in 1947.
Decided that Trinidad would be the site for the West Indian
Parliament which upset Jamaican delegates who said Port of Spain
was too far away.
Princess Margaret declared the Federal Parliament open in 1958.
Most urgent problem facing the Federal Government was to
identify a source of funding for the smaller islands who had little
to fall back on.
Important Objectives
Strengthen the movement for self government.
Safeguard the democratic system of government.
Achievements
Facilitated the movement form colonialism to independence
through a united voice.
Coming together of smaller states and strengthen their
effectiveness in dealing with larger bodies.
Reasons for Failure
Masses were not educated about the Federation
Communication among islands (postal, shipping) were inefficient
Petty rivalry among member states
Distrust by smaller states for the larger bodies.
CARIFTA
Heads of Government meeting in December 1965 confirmed the
agreement to achieve a Free Trade Area
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Agreed name: Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA)
CARICOM
Caribbean Community and Common Market came into effect in
August 1st 1973.
Signed by Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago
and was known as the Treat of Chaguaramas.
Eight other countries joined CARICOM
Bahamas- 13th state on July 4th 1983
Suriname- 14th state on July 4th 1995
Concentrated on the promotion of Integration of the economics of
member states
OECS(Organization of Eastern Caribbean States)
July 4th 1981
The states close proximity to each other would facilitate
integration and co operation.
Objectives
Co-operation among member states at regional and international
levels.
Promotion of unity and solidarity among member states and
defending their sovereignty and independence
Promotion of economic integration through the Eastern Caribbean
Common Market
Arranging for overseas representatives to work together for
common foreign policy objectives
ACS(Association of Caribbean States)
Main objectives
To strengthen co-operation and integration among members
through increased economic activity by trading raw materials and
finished products among members
To preserve the Caribbean environment
To conduct joint negotiations on external economic relations
ACS Initiative
Intra-ACS trade seeks to increase the flow of goods between
members
Co-operative functions
External economic relations
ACS was envisioned to
Provide a unique opportunity for pursuing a range of objectives
that relate to a shared patrimony of the Caribbean sea and seaboard
making provisions for their use on a sustainable basis
Address ecological and environmental questions
Institute measures to control the spread of diseases
Provide mechanisms for prevention and control of toxic waste
emissions
Gather information for the control of drug trafficking activities
within the area
CSME(Caribbean Single Market and Economy)
Includes the negotiations of protocol which will efficiently amend
the treaty of Chaguaramas
Came into force on July 4th 1997
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Benefits of the CSME
Increasing trade and exchange of goods in an assured market of
over 5 million persons creating opportunities for employment,
investment and trade
Improved services provided by enterprises and individuals
including transportation and communications
Greater opportunity for travel
Expanded scope for artistes to showcase their goods and services
Opportunities for nationals to study in CARICOM countries and to
work in the country of their choice
CARIBBEAN EXAMINATION COUNCIL
Established in 1972 to develop a system of regional examinations
at the Ordinary and Advanced Levels to replace the London
General Certificate of Education
In 1981 the first examinations were held in 5 subjects
In 1998 the council had 7 examinations at the Advanced Level
UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES
Created a regional institution in 1948
University College at Mona Jamaica was the first campus of
University
Campus was established in St. Augustine in Trinidad in 1960
Cave Hill Campus Barbados in 1962
Eleven University Centers situated in non-campus countries
throughout the region as well as a Center for Hotel Tourism and
Management in the Bahamas
UWI plays a critical role in the education advancement of the
region
CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
First suggested at an official level in July 1966 at the Canada West
Indies Prime Ministers’ meeting in Ottawa
Formal agreement establishing the CBD was signed in Kingston
Jamaica on 18th October 1969 at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries
from 18 countries and territories
Agreement was to come into force on the 26th January 1970 and
Secretary General of the UN acted as the Depository for the
agreement where the government of Barbados was appointed as
Trustee
First meeting of the Board of Governors of the CDB was held in
Nassau on 31st January 1970 and Professor Sir Arthur Lewis was
elected as the first President of the Bank
CARIBBEAN NEWS AGENCY
Based in Barbados
Has seen the introduction of regional news that emanates from a
source that has regional overage as its primary mandate without
having to compete with the international sources for coverage
WEST INDIES CRICKET BOARD
Responsible for the administration and organization of cricket in
the region
Comprises representatives from Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, the
Leeward Islands and Trinidad and Tobago and the Windward
Islands
Headquarters held in Antigua and Barbados
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SPORT
Served as an integrating force in the Caribbean: different races and
classes come together
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Socialization
Served as a boost of morale and identity of West Indian people
While cricket has a special place in the West Indian consciousness
there are other areas that need to be capitalized on. E.g. we should
perform better at swimming and water sports given the fact that we
are islands
Performance in athletics far outstrips the level of support and
infrastructure
We need programmes and infrastructure from the school and
community levels up to the national level
Making a living from sport
Aside from cricket few other sporting disciplines afford Caribbean
people to make a living
Coaches, sport psychologists, physical education instructors,
physical therapists
Sports equipment and goods has become a lucrative business
ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MASS MEDIA
Mass media are those channels that can be used to communicate
messages to a large number of people simultaneously.
Major Role
1. To enhance communication among members of a
society and of the global village. They have their major
functions: to inform, to entertain, to make us visible
to others
2. To let individuals know what is going on in their
immediate environment and in their wider community
3. To lessen countries feelings of remoteness providing an
adequate supply of news from and to these areas
4. To ensure that programs of public education are
effectively implemented
5. To support the school curriculum
6. To provide entertainment e.g. TV, radio stations
7. To make ourselves visible to others which in turn
promote economic development
Factors affecting the media performance
1. The availability of communication technologies:
satellite, computing, optic, laser and digitalizing
technology
2. Media rights and privileges
3. Professional training: CARIMAC- Caribbean Institute
of Mass Communication
4. Dominance of foreign media e.g. 76% of Jamaica and
95% of Montserrat’s programming is imported.
INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS
Pan-Africanism
It is a socio political world view as well as a movement which
seeks to unify and uplift both native Africans and those of the
African diaspora. It is part of a global African community. It is
usually seen as a product of the African slave trade. Pan-
Africanism sets aside cultural differences, asserting the principality
after sharing experiences to foster solidarity and resistance to
exploitation.
The calling of the first Pan African Congress occurred in 1900.
Marcus Garvey founded The Universal Negro Improvement
Association in 1914. The emergence of a Marxist state in 1917
threw into the political and ideological ring the challenge of social
analysis perceived principally as class struggle. Color became a
problematic element. The issue of class and race remained
unresolved theoretically for Caribbean Marxists, by some, largely
ignored, was connected to Pan Africanism.
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Negritude
It is a literary and political movement that developed in the 1930’s.
The Negritude writers found solidarity in a common black identity
as a rejection of French colonial racism. They believed that the
shared black heritage of members of the African Diaspora was the
best tool in fighting against French political and intellectual
hegemony and domination.
The movement was influenced by the Harlem Renaissance
particularly the work of African American writers Langston
Hughes and Richard Wright whose work addressed themes of
blackness and racism. Further inspiration came from the black
culture and history of Haiti. Key figures include Paulette Nardal,
Jane Nardal, Dr. Leo Sajoo, Martiniquan poet Aime Cesaire, Leon
Damas, Langston Hughes and Richard Wright.
The term Negritude was first used by Aime Cesaire in the 1930s
while in Paris, discussing the status of blacks with fellow
international French students, Leopold Senghor of Senegal and
Leon Gontran-Damas of Cayenne. Their concern at the time was
how to recover black pride and dignity from white intellectual
assault.
Industrialization by Invitation
Industrialization by invitation was a term coined by Sir William
Arthur Louis. Arthur Louis believed that manufacturing could
emerge whether or not there was a regional manufacturing class
throughout the Caribbean. Louis re-iterated the idea that
industrialization was only possible if there was foreign investment.
Louis’ reason for this was that industrialization was expensive and
export promotions required breaking into foreign markets and
building new distribution outlets. This could only be done if
islands concentrated on inviting manufacturers who are well
established in foreign markets. Once an increase in foreign direct
investment is attracted, the private sector’s income will increase.
He referred to this strategy as “Industrialization by Invitation.”
Some of Louis’ strategy can be seen in the economic reform of
Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. After World War II, the
People’s National Party in Jamaica called for industrial
development programs. Some of these programs were encouraged
by the Norman Manley Government. In the 90’s Jamaica
privatized it’s industries in the period 1972-1995. Industrialization
by invitation was interpreted by competing political leaders in the
search for the key to development of Jamaica’s economy.
From 1962, Dr. Eric Williams of Trinidad and Tobago proposed
and eventually implemented Dr. Louis’ economic strategy of
industrialization by invitation. This led to the development of a
booming manufacturing and petrochemical sector in Trinidad and
Tobago.
In Puerto Rico, the government launched “Operation Bootstrap” in
1948. The basis of this policy indicated that the Puerto Rico
government provided incentive for industries in the US to locate in
Puerto Rico. The incentives included exemption from Puerto Rican
taxes from ten to thirty years and the provision of infrastructure,
factory building and trained workers.
Impact
1. Rapid structural changes
2. Economic reform in the case of Puerto Rico and
Trinidad and Tobago- industry overtook agriculture by
generating most of the GDP.
3. Repatriation of profits to home countries of the industry
4. Pollution
5. Exploitation of the labor force by keeping them at
minimum wage
Positive impact
1. Offered Jobs
2. Industrialize country providing a revenue generating
sector
Marxism
Marxist Theory arose in a capitalist world and as an analysis of
that world as well as antidote prescription for diagnosed ills. Marx
the social philosopher and Lenin the field officer gave the world
inherent tensions of Marxism.
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Seven basic characteristics of Marxism:
1. Centralized authority- Marxism is a power focused
system and the initial effort of it emergence is about the
obtaining of or seizing political power. All basic
communal or national necessities must be in the
controlling hands of leaders of the state. This principle
is socioeconomic and political theory developed by
German philosopher Karl Marx in the nineteenth
century.
2. Revolutionary character
3. Anti-imperialist rhetoric
4. Scientific principles
5. Historical rootedness
6. Enforcement leadership
7. Sublime end
Caribbean Marxism
Marxism is important to this region. The issue of race complicated
the adoption of Marxism in the Caribbean. British Caribbean
Marxists linked the problems of class and race. The European
thinkers were fixed on Marxism as having essentially, even
supremely, a class character, and so the issue of race was at best
secondary and often subsumed.
Caribbean perspective on British Capitalism
Capitalism was introduced into the Caribbean with the first trans-
shipment of Black African Slaves across the Atlantic. According to
Walter Rodney, this type of capitalism was one-sided. It was non-
negotiable for two fundamental reasons. The first is that Africans
had little or no say in the system and the second is that the system
was forced upon the Africans.
Capitalism in its simplest terms means free market enterprise. This
system is a means of organizing the economy whereby the
exchange of goods and services is done according to the forces of
the market, that is, demand and supply.
Capitalism boasts of two major ideals:
1. Private owned capital and investment
2. Profit making
Eric Williams was one of the first persons to link slavery and
Capitalism. He argued that slavery was purely economic and it
embodied the Capitalist ideal of the British.
The only form of Capitalism which the British taught in the
Caribbean was slavery and colonialism. When both were no more
useful to the British, they discarded them. Both slavery and
colonialism were maintained through a system of torture and
coercion. CLR James pointed out that the system of slavery and
colonialism had to be brutal to ensure that the system of Capitalism
worked and worked well. The brutality was not only mental but
psychological. The black West Indian was constantly reminded of
his/her blackness and this blackness was closely linked to
backwardness.
British capitalism only involved the Caribbean to the extent that
the position of the Caribbean performed only to the needs of the
British government, nothing more. The forced arrangement was
that the Caribbean produced and the British consumed.
Trends in Caribbean feminist thought
A simple definition of a feminist is one who advocates the
recognition of rights for women rather than the mere granting of
the privilege.
Throughout the world, males are in charge and have been in charge
for centuries. Women have fared badly under males. During
slavery, women were abused sexually and their resistance was
largely individual such as infanticide, abortion, arson or even
murder.
The struggle of women to be treated justly is a necessity for the
proper morality of any society. Women are not asking for special
rights and privileges. Their priority is for treatment deserving as
human entitlement.
SOCIAL JUSTICE
Social justice is based on a premise that all people are entitled to
the same basic rights and freedom as everybody else.
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Equality refers to efforts to treat everyone in a similar way
Equity attempts to ascertain whether the treatment is fair or just.
Evolution of Social Justice in the Caribbean
The traditional notions of civil society did not apply to the
Caribbean region in early colonial times
The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) that purported to divide the world
between Spain and Portugal laid the foundation for colonial
exploration and expansion in the Caribbean region by other
imperial powers
The Treaty of Ryswick 1697 established the principle of no peace
beyond the line which reinforced that whatever applied in Europe
between the European powers did not apply to the Caribbean
The area beyond the line to which the treaty referred was the west
of the prime meridian and south of the Tropic of Cancer. As a
result the Caribbean was established as a zone of war in which
even the basic assumption of a civil society did not apply.
Equality was not a principle that applied in the colonial state. This
manifested itself in the introduction of exploitative labor systems
and led to the recognition of slaves as both people and property
After the emancipation of slave in 1834 and the failure of the
apprenticeship in 1838 the concept of people as property was
removed. However the indentureship systems limited the freedom
of movement as indentured workers needed to have passes to leave
their estate.
Indentureship ended in 1917
The Universal Adult Franchise was first implemented in Jamaica
in 1944 and in Trinidad and Tobago in 1946 and later in the other
territories. It gave all persons older than 21 years the right to vote
regardless of ownership or rental of property or levels of income.
Movements toward real social justice came with the introduction
of the Bill of Rights in constitutions of the newly independent
countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean starting with Jamaica
and Trinidad and Tobago in 1962.
The Bill of Rights were chapters in their constitutions that
recognized, declared and protected the fundamental human rights
and freedom of the individual in all societies
Fundamental Human Rights and Freedom
The inclusion of a Bill of Rights in the constitutions of
independent countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean affords the
citizen the power to redress any infringement of his/her
constitutional rights through the use of the court system.
All of the independent territories of the Commonwealth Caribbean
have Bill of Rights which are enshrined and protected in their
constitutions.
All the independent territories except Trinidad and Tobago have
followed the format of the European Convention for the Protection
of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom for the inclusion in
their constitution.
The Council of Europe drew up this Convention in 1950
Trinidad and Tobago copied the formula of the Canadian Bill of
Rights 1960 for the inclusion in its constitution in 1962 and
retained this model when it became a republic in 1976
The Bill of Rights diminished the effect of the Westminster
doctrine of the Supremacy of Parliament. It also places constraints
on executive action. The doctrine of the supremacy of the
constitution applies to all of the constitutions of the
Commonwealth Caribbean.
The Entrenchment of the Constitutions
The constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean are all
protected from easy amendment by the entrenchment of their
positions.
The Parliaments of the region cannot amend all of the sections of
their constitutions by a simple majority because this is one of the
various checks and balances that have been placed in the
constitution to protect it from political abuse or amendment.
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There are three main types of entrenchment in the constitutions of
the Commonwealth Caribbean:
Special majorities in the Parliament- all of the constitutions of
the Commonwealth Caribbean have this procedure which specifies
that certain sections of the constitution require special majorities in
the Parliament.
Approval of bills for amendment by referenda- some of the
constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean require that certain
bills that seek to amend the constitution be subjected to the
approval of a referendum after they have been passed in
Parliament.
Time delay procedures between readings of a Bill of
Amendment- some of the constitutions of the commonwealth
Caribbean specify that there should be a period of 90 days between
the first and second readings of a bill that seeks to amend the
constitution before the head of state gives his/her assent to the bill.
The effect of such a delay is that the Parliament cannot consider
any bill to amend the constitution hurriedly and more time is given
for a deeper consideration of the proposed amendment by the
wider society.
The Caribbean Court of Appeal
The Caribbean Court of Appeal is intended to be a replacement for
the Privy Council as the final court of appeal for the countries of
the Commonwealth Caribbean
The Caribbean Court of Appeal faces critical issues such as
budget, the method of selecting judges, the location of the
headquarters, the status of a circuit court or maintaining a fixed
location and the confidence of the Caribbean public.
DEFINTION OF KEY TERMS
1. Atlantic Slave Trade- the commercial buying of
Africans from West Africa crossing the Atlantic Ocean,
to be sold to plantation owners in the western
hemisphere.
2. Chattel slavery- form of slavery where people are
owned as property and can be bought or sold
3. Communism- a theory of a society where all property
should be owned by the community or state and labor
organized for the common good.
4. Cultural accommodation- acceptance of aspects of or
traits or traits of foreign cultures
5. Cultural assimilation- integration of aspects of or
traits of foreign cultures into local culture
6. Cultural beliefs- ways of thinking common to a group
people from a specified geographical area
7. Cultural diversity- the existence of sub-cultures within
a main or different culture
8. Cultural domination- where a culture of one country
is pervasively influencing a local culture
9. Cultural erasure- where traits of a culture are no
longer practiced over time
10. Cultural expressions- ways in which one’s culture is
demonstrated
11. Cultural hybridization- the admixture cultural traits
and exchange of values from other cultures
12. Cultural norms- the standards of behavior that are
accepted and shared by members of a society
13. Cultural pluralism- where minority cultures exist
alongside a main culture
14. Cultural renewal- where cultural practices that were
once done are being revived or the fashioning of new
practices based on those of the past
15. Cultural retention- where past cultural practices are
practiced presently
16. Cultural relativism- the comparison between cultures
based on the notion that no culture is superior
17. Diaspora- the dispersion and distribution of members
of a race or society
18. Repartimiento- a Spanish labor system where a
percentage of the male population of any village
between the ages of 18-60 could be recruited to work
for a Spanish settler for a week or fortnight
19. Social stratification- the social arrangement of society
based on criteria such as race, wealth and education
20. Sugar revolution- the period where sugarcane
production and processing was the main economic
activity in the western hemisphere.
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21. Common market- a form of economic integration
where restrictions on the free movement of
commodities, capital and labor among member states
are abolished and a common external tariff is
established
22. Cultural imperialism- one country’s imposition on
another directly or indirectly, of it’s value system
23. Development- the sustained high level of economic
and social well being or standard of living.
Development was traditionally defined as the ability of
a country to advance economically, as measured by
increments in its GNP per capita. Today the concept has
been broadened to recognize the Human Development
Index that includes assessments such as life expectancy,
literacy and educational attainment-quality of life
indicators.
24. Economic growth- the increase in the production of
goods and services in a country over one year
25. Free Trade Area- an agreement between countries to
abolish tariff and minimize restriction of trade between
but set restrictions against outside countries
26. Globalization- the growth of a single, unified world
financial market where geography plays a diminishing
role
27. Industrialization- a country or area where there are a
large number of factories and the use of technology
28. Inter Monetary Fund- a specialized agency of the
United Nations that seeks to maintain monetary
stability and to assist member states in funding balance
of payment deficits.
29. North American Free Trade Agreement- agreement
made in 1983 that brought together Mexico, Canada
and the United States together as a free trade zone
30. Popular culture- the range of expressions of creativity,
artifacts accessible to, produced by, and enjoyed by the
majority of people in a society
31. Single market- the joining of economies in a free trade
area
32. Social justice- the fair and equitable treatment of all
class of people
33. Tariffs- taxes levied on imported goods
34. Treaty- a contract between states, relating to peace,
truce, alliance, commerce, or other international
relations
35. White collar crime- deviant or corrupt behavior by
people of very high social standing in society
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Name of country
2. Population size
3. Size of island
4. Language spoken
5. History of the island
6. Type of government and details of government
7. Relief of the land- vegetation, soil, rock
8. Crops grown
9. Types of industry
10. Weather patterns
11. Foods
12. Festivals and celebrations
MODULE THREE
Definition of research
Research is an activity that entails formal, systematic processes for
carrying out a scientific method for analysis.
Characteristics of Research
1. Is directed towards the solution of a problem.
2. Emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles or themes that will be helpful in predicting
future occurrences.
3. Is based upon observable or empirical evidence, selects
valid data gathering procedures, and uses mechanical.
Electronic or psychometric devices to refine
observation, description and analysis of data.
4. Involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand
sources, or using existing data for a new purpose.
Merely recognizing or restating what is already known
and has already been written is not considered research
since it adds nothing to what is known.
5. Is rigorous and systematic.
6. Tries to be logical and to apply every possible test to
validate procedures employed, data collected and
conclusions reached.
7. Is carefully recorded and reported. Each important term
is defined, limiting factors are acknowledged,
procedures are described in detail and references are
carefully documented.
Purposes of research
Basic Research- The findings of this type of research informs the
development of broad generalizations or principles.
Applied Research- The goal of this type of research is to improve
products and processes. Theory is tested in actual situations.
Action Research- this is focused on immediate application. It
places emphasis on current problems in a local setting. Its findings
are evaluated in terms of local applicability and not necessarily
universal validity.
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Types of research
Historical Research
Describes what was. Entails investigating, recording, analyzing
and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of
discovering generalizations that help us to understand both the past
and present and possible implications for the future.
Descriptive Research
This type of research describes, records, analyses and interprets
conditions that presently exist. It entails some type of comparison
or contrast and attempts to discover relationships between existing
variables.
Experimental research
This type of research focuses on variable relationships and
describes what happens when the variables are carefully controlled
or manipulated. Deliberate manipulation is always a part of the
experimental method.
Qualitative Studies
These are studies that use a numerical method of describing
observations of materials or characteristics.
Quantitative Studies
These are studies in which the description of observations is not
ordinarily expressed in quantitative terms. Numerical measure may
be used but other means of description are emphasized.
Sampling Procedures
Types of sampling procedures
1. Simple Random Sample- where subjects are selected
by lottery or by use of random numbers.
2. Stratified Sample- where the population is stratified
according to lists of units divided into groups or strata
according to an appropriate variable.
3. Quota Sampling- this approach entails stratified
sampling in which the selection within the strata is non
random, once the general breakdown of the sample is
determined.
4. Purposive Sampling- used in qualitative research
where subjects are selected especially for their
particular understandings of and involvement in the
context where the study is being carried out.
Ethics in Research
Informed Consent
The people you speak to, observe, send questionnaires to, should
know what you are doing and that you are involved in a research
project. You should not put undue pressure on people or who
might be afraid to say that they do not wish to participate in the
research.
Invasion of privacy
You should seek permission of the person being interviewed to
allow you to use a tape recorder for example.
Confidentiality
You cannot tell other people what you learned or observed about a
person, venue or situation if the persons are in a position to
recognize the venue, person or situation. You must attempt to
disguise your subjects’ identity.
Knowledge of the outcome
Participants in the research project have a right to know what you
will be doing with the information you collect as well as the reason
for the research.
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