The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence: Defining and Operationalizing Self-Confidence in Organizational Settings
by
Kelsey Evelyn Perkins
A dissertation submitted to the
College of Psychology and Liberal Arts
Florida Institute of Technology
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Philosophy in
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Melbourne, Florida July 2018
We the undersigned committee hereby approve the attached dissertation,
“The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence: Defining and Operationalizing Self-
Confidence in Organizational Settings,” by Kelsey Evelyn Perkins.
_________________________________________________ Dr. Lisa Steelman Interim Dean COPLA Professor & Program Chair I/O Psychology
_________________________________________________ Dr. Alice Che Assistant Professor I/O Psychology
_________________________________________________ Dr. Patrick Converse Associate Professor I/O Psychology
_________________________________________________ Dr. Heidi Edwards Associate Head, School of Arts and Communication Professor and Chair Communication Program
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Abstract Title: The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence: Defining and Operationalizing Self-
Confidence in Organizational Settings Author: Kelsey Evelyn Perkins, M.S., A.B.D.
Advisor: Lisa Steelman, Ph. D.
Research suggests that self-confidence is related to success, educational achievement, negotiation, and personal well-being, among other things. It is commonly asserted that employees need to have some degree of self-confidence in order to succeed in the workplace. However, the practical and scientific literatures are lacking in providing a consistent definition and operationalization of the construct. The purpose of this research is to not only summarize the current state of literature on self-confidence, but to use that information to provide a coherent and theoretically-derived definition of self-confidence, so that it can be measured and studied in organizational contexts. This study explores Internal Self-Confidence as a form of self-trust through the development of the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence, which states that Internal Self-Confidence, as an overarching latent construct, is mainly influenced by three factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion. Together, these constructs determine how trustworthy an individual considers themselves to be, and how much they trust themselves. While one’s attitude towards themselves is undoubtedly important, subtle signals and behaviors (i.e., External Self-Confidence) are thought to be indicative of an individual’s level of self-confidence—and therefore inform others’ perceptions of their competence. According to this research, the most discernible and recognizable confidence cues include affectivity/optimism; taking action, risks, and initiative; nonverbal communication; verbal communication; independence in thought and action, and trust in one’s own decisions and judgment.
The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence is used to develop and validate both the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales (ISCS & ESCS) through a series of six studies. Study 1 was a qualitative assessment of how people define and recognize signs of self-confidence. This information was used to inform the development of the items used in Study 2—the exploration of initial items with the purpose of understanding which factors comprise the measure of self-confidence, and which are often mistaken for the construct. The results of this study were used to develop both the Internal Self-Confidence Scale (assessed in Study 3), as well as the External Self-Confidence Scale (assessed in Study 4), using Exploratory Factor Analysis. Finally, Study 5 serves as both a Confirmatory Factor Analysis and a construct validation of both measures, and Study 6 serves as a criterion, or outcome, validation of both measures for the career success of employees. Overall, both the Internal Self-Confidence Scale (ISCS) and External Self-Confidence Scale (ESCS), were found to be highly reliable (with α ranging .902-.942) and valid measures, which can feasibly be used in workplace or organizational settings.
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Table of Contents Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Literature Review.................................................................................................................4
Business & Entrepreneurship ...................................................................................6 Cognitive Psychology ..............................................................................................8 Consumer Behavior ...............................................................................................12 Education ...............................................................................................................13 Leadership & Management ....................................................................................16 Nursing & Medicine ..............................................................................................19 Personality..............................................................................................................20 Social Psychology ..................................................................................................23 Sports .....................................................................................................................26 Trials & Law ..........................................................................................................29 Summary ................................................................................................................30
Theory Development .........................................................................................................41 Integrated Model of Organizational Trust .............................................................41 The Model of Self-Trust ........................................................................................43 Indicators of Self-Confidence ................................................................................46 The Self ..................................................................................................................49 The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence .............................................................52
Present Study .....................................................................................................................55 Study 1: Qualitative Assessment .......................................................................................57
Methods..................................................................................................................58 Results & Discussion .............................................................................................65
Study 2: Exploration of Initial Items .................................................................................68 Methods..................................................................................................................68 Exploratory Factor Analysis & Results .................................................................70 Confirmatory Factor Analysis & Results ...............................................................72 Structural Equation Modeling & Results ...............................................................74 Discussion ..............................................................................................................76
Study 3: Internal Self-Confidence Scale ............................................................................77 Methods..................................................................................................................77 Results ....................................................................................................................81 Discussion ..............................................................................................................85
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Study 4: External Self-Confidence Scale ...........................................................................87 Methods..................................................................................................................87 Results ....................................................................................................................89 Discussion ..............................................................................................................93
Study 5: Construct Validation ............................................................................................95 Methods..................................................................................................................97 Results ..................................................................................................................103 Discussion ............................................................................................................126
Study 6: Criterion Validation ...........................................................................................129 Networking Opportunities ...................................................................................135 Mentoring Relationships ......................................................................................136 Development Programs ........................................................................................138 Developmental Assignments ...............................................................................139 Support for Development & Career Advancement ..............................................140 Methods................................................................................................................142 Results ..................................................................................................................150 Supplementary Gender Analysis ..........................................................................165 Discussion ............................................................................................................171
General Discussion ..........................................................................................................175 Scientific and Theoretical Implications ...............................................................182 Practical and Workplace Implications .................................................................183 Limitations ...........................................................................................................184 Future Directions .................................................................................................186 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................188
References ........................................................................................................................190 Appendices .......................................................................................................................218
Appendix A. Self-Confidence Definition Categories by Discipline ....................219 Appendix B. Trends in Scales Used to Measure Self-Confidence ......................220 Appendix C. Internal Self-Confidence Scale .......................................................223 Appendix D. External Self-Confidence Scale .....................................................224
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List of Tables
Table 1. Confidence Database Fields.................................................................................. 5
Table 2. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Business & Entrepreneurship 8
Table 3. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Cognitive Psychology ......... 11
Table 4. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Consumer Behavior ............ 13
Table 5. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Education ............................ 15
Table 6. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Leadership & Management 18
Table 7. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Nursing & Medicine ........... 20
Table 8. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Personality .......................... 22
Table 9. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Social Psychology .............. 25
Table 10. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Sports ................................ 28
Table 11. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Trials & Law .................... 29
Table 12. Trends in Conceptualizations of Self-Confidence ............................................ 31
Table 13. General Trends in the Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence ........... 37
Table 14. Sample Demographics for Qualitative Study ................................................... 60
Table 15. Category Response Themes .............................................................................. 62
Table 16. Coding Percentages for Q1 (What does self-confidence mean to you?) .......... 64
Table 17. Coding Percentages for Q2/Q3 (Signs someone has/lacks self-confidence) .... 64
Table 18. General Trends in Coding Frequencies ............................................................ 67
Table 19. Coding Categories for Self-Confidence Item Pool ........................................... 69
Table 20. Study 2 Exploratory Factor Analysis of the 6-Factor Solution ........................ 72
Table 21. Study 2 Confirmatory Factor Analyses ............................................................ 74
Table 22. Study 2 Structural Equation Modeling Analyses .............................................. 75
Table 23. Study 3 Internal Self-Confidence Scale EFAs .................................................. 82
Table 24. Study 3 Item Correlations for the Internal Self-Confidence Scale (ISCS) ....... 84
Table 25. Study 3 Gender Descriptives for Internal Self-Confidence Scale (ISCS) ........ 84
Table 26. Study 3 Full Correlation Matrix ........................................................................ 85
Table 27. Study 4 External Self-Confidence Scale (ESCS) EFA ..................................... 90
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Table 28. Study 4 Item Correlations for External Self-Confidence Scale (ESCS) ........... 92
Table 29. Study 4 Gender Descriptives for External Self-Confidence Scale (ESCS) ...... 93
Table 30. Study 5 Hypothesized Correlation Coefficients ............................................. 106
Table 31. Study 5 Subscale Correlations ........................................................................ 107
Table 32. Study 5 Item Correlations ............................................................................... 108
Table 33. Study 5 Gender Descriptives .......................................................................... 109
Table 34. Study 5 Full Correlation Matrix ...................................................................... 110
Table 35. Study 5 Internal Self-Confidence Scale EFA ................................................. 111
Table 36. Study 5 External Self-Confidence Scale EFA ................................................ 112
Table 37. Study 5 CFA—Internal Self-Confidence Scale .............................................. 115
Table 38. Study 5 CFAs—External Self-Confidence Scale ........................................... 117
Table 39. Study 5 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) Fit Statistics........................... 122
Table 40. Study 6 Demographics .................................................................................... 148
Table 41. Study 6 Correlation Coefficients – Gender Comparisons .............................. 154
Table 42. Study 6 Full Correlation Matrix ...................................................................... 155
Table 43. Study 6 Full Gender Mean Comparison ......................................................... 156
Table 44. Study 6 Analysis of Developmental Opportunities Single Items ................... 156
Table 45. Study 6 Measurement Model Fit Statistics ..................................................... 158
Table 46. Study 6 SEM Fit Statistics – Outcomes Only ................................................. 162
Table 47. Study 6 FIT Statistics - Antecedents ............................................................... 162
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Integrated Model of Organizational Trust Diagram (Mayer et al., 1995) ......... 42
Figure 2. The Model of Self-Trust .................................................................................... 46
Figure 3. The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence ......................................................... 53
Figure 4. Construct Validation Model ............................................................................. 97
Figure 5. Study 5 CFA—Internal Self-Confidence Scale Measurement Models ........... 115
Figure 6. Study 5 CFA—External Self-Confidence Scale Measurement Models .......... 118
Figure 7. Study 5 Best Fit SEM Model - External Self-Confidence as the Outcome ..... 123
Figure 8. Study 5 Best Fit SEM Model - Multiple Theoretical Outcomes ..................... 123
Figure 9. Study 5 Structural Models – External Self-Confidence as the Outcome ........ 124
Figure 10. Study 5 Structural Models - Multiple Theoretical Outcomes ....................... 125
Figure 11. Criterion Validation Model ........................................................................... 134
Figure 12. Study 6 ISCS Measurement Model ............................................................... 158
Figure 13. Study 6 ESCS Measurement Model .............................................................. 159
Figure 14. Study 6 Best Fit SEM Model – Outcomes Only ........................................... 163
Figure 15. Study 6 Best Fit SEM Model – Full Model ................................................... 163
Figure 16. Study 6 SEM Model Compilation – Outcomes Only .................................... 164
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
1
The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence:
Defining and Operationalizing Self-Confidence in Organizational Settings
Introduction
According to the author of Peter Pan, J. M. Barrie, “The moment you doubt
whether you can fly, you cease for ever to be able to do it.” In other words, you will
never be able to meet your goals and find success in life if you doubt yourself and your
abilities. Having confidence in yourself is a large part of what drives you to put effort
and persistence towards meeting your goals, and helps you recover in the face of failure
or mistakes. This is what leads people to take meaningful action and achieve success—
both in their life and in their career. Research cited by Kay and Shipman in their New
York Times Bestseller, The Confidence Code (2014), suggests that confidence is related
to success, educational achievement, negotiation, and personal well-being, among other
things—and there is no doubt that employees need to have some degree of self-
confidence in order to succeed in the workplace. Employees must value themselves and
their capabilities, and be able to show understanding and forgiveness towards their own
shortcomings and failures if they wish to project confidence and appear competent to
their coworkers, subordinates, and supervisors alike. Employees must also believe that
they are capable of succeeding in the face of challenges, and that the environment will
respond positively regardless of these challenges if they wish to have the high
expectations that allow for risk-taking and great, highly visible successes.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
2
But, one question remains: What exactly is this critical construct of self-
confidence? Going back to the basics, the Oxford Dictionary defines self-confidence as
“a feeling of trust in one’s abilities, qualities, and judgment.” Therefore, it would seem
reasonable to operationalize self-confidence as a form of self-trust. However, no known
previous research has operationalized self-confidence in such a manner. This is
somewhat surprising, considering the breadth and diversity in how self-confidence has
been defined in previous literature. A ProQuest search for the phrase “self-confidence”
results in just under 550,000 hits (as of June 2018)—46,000 of which are from peer-
reviewed, scholarly journals. While this may seem like a large number, the resultant
articles focus on self-confidence in almost just as many disciplines: sports, education and
learning, nursing and health, consumer purchasing behavior, finance and business—just
to name a few. No discipline, however, has a cohesive and agreed-upon definition of
self-confidence, meaning that there are even more conceptualizations of the construct in
the scientific literature than there are disciplines which discuss it.
While the scientific literature fails to provide a coherent and unified
conceptualization of self-confidence, the practical literature often fails to define the
construct at all, merely treating it as a vague and ominous quality that is important for
employees to possess (Berman, 2005; De Mascia, 2015; Goldsmith, 2008; Ibarra, Ely, &
Kolb, 2013; Kerfoot, 2010; Knippen & Green, 1989; Mohr, 2014; Tichy & Charan;
1989). While there is some speculation on the antecedents and outcomes of self-
confidence in the practical literature (such as developmental opportunities and leadership
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
3
effectiveness), these propositions are not yet empirically backed (Baldoni, 2009;
Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991;
White, de Sanctis, & Crino, 1981). What both the scientific and practical literature is
missing is a clear, concrete definition, operationalization, and measure of self-confidence.
Because of this considerable gap in the literature, the scientific and practical communities
are particularly limited in understanding self-confidence as a construct, as well as its
implications in the work world.
The purpose of this research is to not only summarize and consolidate the current
state of literature on self-confidence, but to use that information to provide a coherent and
theoretically-derived definition of self-confidence, so that it can be operationalized,
measured, and studied in organizational contexts. This study will explore internally-
perceived self-confidence as a form of self-trust through the development of the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence, as well as the most effective way to define and
operationalize self-confidence in organizational settings. What makes the model unique is
that it (a) operationalizes internally-perceived self-confidence as self-trust, not only as
self-efficacy or self-esteem, (b) operationalizes internally-perceived self-confidence as an
attitude, like trust, which can be changed with proper interventions, and (c) includes
affective, behavioral, and cognitive components in the discussion of self-confidence, and
(d) includes a multiple-perception perspective of the construct by differentiating between
internally- and externally-perceived self-confidence. The model will be used to develop
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
4
and validate measures of both internally- and externally-perceived self-confidence that
can reliably and feasibly be used in organizational settings.
Literature Review
In order to get a better understanding of the state of the literature on self-
confidence, a database of 200 relevant articles was compiled, including the citation, field,
methodology, measure of confidence used (if any), definition of confidence used or
alluded to, as well as any possible antecedents or outcomes mentioned in the article. The
compilation began by gathering all confidence and leadership articles accumulated
through previous research, and well as searching for articles with “self-confidence” in the
title in ProQuest. Of note, preference was given to articles with a distinct Western point-
of-view, considering that self-confidence is a Westernized construct (Heine, Lehman,
Markus, & Kitayama, 1999).
In ProQuest, a search for peer-reviewed, scholarly articles with “self-confidence”
in the title resulted in just over 500 results (in January-March of 2016). Any peer-
reviewed, scholarly article that was available either through the search engine or through
the university library, had a proper citation (i.e., was not authored anonymously), or was
published after 1980, was sought out and included in the database, resulting in a
comprehensive accumulation of confidence articles across various fields and disciplines.
In each of the articles, citations that referred to how the author(s) defined or
operationalized self-confidence were also sought out and included in the database if
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
5
available, regardless of the publication date. After some merging of smaller categories,
ten different fields of study were included in the database over the 200 articles:
Table 1. Confidence Database Fields # of Articles % of Database Cognitive Psychology 35 18% Leadership & Management 34 17% Social Psychology 33 17% Business & Entrepreneurship 25 13% Sports 24 12% Education 18 9% Nursing & Medicine 9 5% Personality 10 5% Consumer Behavior 8 4% Trials & Law 4 2%
Of the 200 articles in the database, 77 (39%) were surveys or questionnaires, 53
(27%) were experimental, 29 (15%) were practice pieces, 24 (12%) were theoretical or
propositional, 10 (5%) were interview analysis, and 7 (4%) were meta-analyses. Further,
60 (30%) articles referred to confidence as being a state, 37 (19%) referred to it as a trait,
27 (14%) articles considered it as both a trait and a state, and 76 (38%) were unclear as to
whether the construct was more a trait or a state. These vast disparities in the definition
of self-confidence undoubtedly leads to the present state of confusion in the literature.
What may help resolve this confusion is a study of the common trends—or what the
different disciplines, different methodologies, and different conceptions of self-
confidence agree on or have in common.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
6
The following sections will explore each of the ten disciplines regarding common
trends in the definitions, conceptualizations, methodologies, operationalizations, and
antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence. Trends across disciplines will then be
discussed, as well as how those trends relate to the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence
that will later be described.
Business & Entrepreneurship
Literature on business and entrepreneurship accounted for 25 (or 13%) of the
articles in the database. Of the confidence articles classified under business and
entrepreneurship, over half were practice (mostly practical pieces from the Harvard
Business Review), 12% were experimental, 16% were based on interviews, 16% were
based on surveys or questionnaires, and one article was purely theoretical. While there
were a few pieces which alluded to self-confidence as being more of a state or more of a
trait, a clear majority of the articles (72%) were unclear as to how they described self-
confidence. Given the abundance of practical pieces that were unclear in their trait
versus state descriptions of self-confidence, it is no surprise that the construct was rarely
measured with an actual scale or inventory. The few exceptions were Cox and Bauer’s
(1964) use of a measure of feelings of inadequacy as self-confidence, Melamed’s (1996)
use of Cattell’s (1970) 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire, and Emerson’s (1998)
Personal Success Profile. Clearly, none of these articles provide a clear description of
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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self-confidence, nor use measures targeted specifically to measure self-confidence as a
construct in a theoretically meaningful way.
The definitions of self-confidence, or at least the way self-confidence was
described, varied greatly just within business and entrepreneurship articles. As is the
case with many fields and disciplines, self-confidence was often conflated with self-
esteem (Bierema, 1994; Goldsmith, 2009; Pratch, 2011), or self-efficacy/performance
expectations (Addis, 2008; Baldoni, 2009; Clarke, 2011; Emerson, 1998; Gadiesh &
Coffman, 2015; Kanter, 2014; Kirkwood, 2009; Koellinger, Minniti, & Schade, 2007;
Luthans, Luthans, & Luthans, 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2004), or as both self-efficacy
and self-esteem (Cox & Bauer, 1964; Flynn, Heath, & Holt, 2001). Other articles
described self-confidence as judgment accuracy or decision confidence (Bukszar, 2003;
Ghosh & Ray, 1997), or lack of anxiety (Melamed, 1996). Yet, other articles did not
provide any definition (Borno, 2000; Fielden et al., 2003; Goldsmith, 2008; Ibarra, Ely,
& Kolb, 2013; Mohr, 2015; Tichy & Charan, 1989). Studies in this field of literature
examined diverse antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence. Trends in the antecedents
and outcomes of self-confidence within this discipline are listed in Table 2 below.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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Table 2. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Business & Entrepreneurship
Antecedents Outcomes Training, education, and development programs
Bierema, 1994; Clarke, 2011; Luthans et al., 2004 Persuasibility Cox & Bauer, 1964
Support from organization, supervisor, or others
Clarke, 2011; Fielden et al., 2003; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Ibara, Ely, & Kolb, 2013; Kanter, 2014; Kirkwood, 2009
Career or workplace success
Addis, 2008; Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Bierema, 1994; Borno, 2000; Emerson, 1998; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Goldsmith, 2009; Kanter, 2014; Pratch, 2011
Mastery experiences and experiential learning
Bierema, 1994; Luthans et al., 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2004; Kirkwood, 2009; Koellinger, et al., 2007
Taking action and taking initiative
Bierema, 1994; Bukszar, 2003; Kirkwood, 2009; Koellinger, Minniti, & Schade, 2007
Focusing on personal strengths
Addis, 2008; Baldoni, 2009; Luthans et al., 2004
Career progression and promotions
Clarke, 2011; Flynn et al., 2011; Mohr, 2014
Achievements and accomplishments
Addis, 2008; Baldoni, 2009; Bierema, 1994
Individual performance
Luthans et al., 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2004
Locus of control and taking credit
Addis, 2008; Baldoni, 2009; Flynn, Heath, & Holt, 2011; Kanter, 2014
Leadership ability, effectiveness, or success
Baldoni, 2009; Goldsmith, 2009; Melamed, 1996; Pratch, 2011
Organizational culture Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Kanter, 2014 Taking risks Bukszar, 2003; Pratch, 2011;
Ghosh & Ray, 1997 Self-compassion and learning from mistakes
Borno, 2000; Goldsmith, 2009; Kanter, 2014
Happiness and well-being Addis, 2008
Counseling and mentoring
Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Kirkwood, 2009
Ambition and motivation
Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Emerson, 1998; Kanter, 2014; Luthans & Youssef, 2004
Cognitive Psychology
Literature on cognitive psychology accounted for 35 (or 18%) of the articles in
the database. Of the confidence articles classified under cognitive psychology, over half
were experimental, 40% based on questionnaires or surveys, 6% theoretical, and one was
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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a meta-analysis. Further, 43% of the articles described confidence as state-like, 34%
trait-like, 6% both trait- and state-like, and 17% were unclear in their description of
confidence.
Many of the articles in the database categorized under cognitive psychology
measured and defined confidence the same way—as certainty in decisions or judgments,
including certainty in the correctness of test answers (Balakrishnan & Ratcliff, 1996;
Brewer, Sampaio, & Barlow, 2005; Buratti & Allwood, 2012; Chernev, 2009; Crawford
& Stankov, 1996; Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Jackson & Kleitman, 2014; Kleitman &
Moscrop, 2010; Koriat, 2012; Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Mayseless & Kruglanski, 1987;
Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller, Spengler, & Spengler, 2015; Nygren & Ransom-
Flint, 1997; Oskamp, 1967; Pallier, 2003; Patalano & LeClair, 2011; Stankov &
Crawford, 1997; Stankov & Lee, 2008; Stankov, Lee, Luo, & Hogan, 2012; Tormala,
Rucker, & Seger, 2008). Other articles defined and measured confidence as some form
of self-efficacy (Brabender & Boardman, 1977; Heppner & Petersen, 1982; Johnson &
McCoy, 2000; Johnson, Zava, & McCoy, 2000; Kleitman & Stankov, 2007; Larrick,
Burson, & Soll, 2007; Moore & Healy, 2008; Preckel & Freund, 2005), or in terms of
thoughts, attitudes, or opinions—or the certainty and veracity with which one holds a
certain thought, attitude, or opinion (Briñol, DeMarree, & Petty, 2010; Briñol, Petty, &
Barden, 2007; Fazio & Zanna, 1978).
Much of the research in this field measures “self-confidence” as a self-rating of
certainty in test answers or response accuracy (Balakrishnan & Ratcliff, 1996; Brewer,
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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Sampaio, & Barlow, 2005; Buratti & Allwood, 2012; Crawford & Stankov, 1996;
Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Kleitman & Moscrop, 2010; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Pallier,
2003; Preckel & Freund, 2005; Stankov & Crawford, 1997; Stankov & Lee, 2008;
Stankov, Lee, Luo, & Hogan, 2012). A few articles also used a measure of self-
confidence (originally developed in French) which was not able to be located in any
language (Garant, Charest, Alain, & Thomassin, 1995; Johnson et al., 2000; Johnson &
McCoy, 2000). Besides the Garant et al. (2000) measure, there are no readily-available
or usable scales of self-confidence as an individual-level trait or attitude—only state-level
or situational, single-item-type operationalizations of the construct. Trends in the
antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence within this discipline are listed in Table 3
below.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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Table 3. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Cognitive Psychology
Antecedents Outcomes
Difficulty of task
Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Koriat, 2012; Larrick, Burson, & Soll, 2007; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller et al., 2015; Moore & Healy, 2008; Stankov & Lee, 2008; Stankov et al., 2012
Performance and achievements
Johnson et al., 2000; Kleitman & Moscrop, 2010; Koriat, 2012; Larrick et al., 2007; Stankov & Crawford, 1997; Stankov & Lee, 2008; Stankov, Lee, Luo, & Hogan, 2012
Social comparisons
Fazio & Zanna, 1978; Larrick, Burson, & Soll, 2007; Johnson, Zava, & McCoy, 2000
Risk-taking and risk perceptions
Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Siegrist, Gutscher, & Earle, 2005
Social and situational cues
Brabender & Boardman, 1977; Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Larrick et al.; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Patalano & LeClair, 2011; Pallier, 2003
Response or memory accuracy
Balakrishnan & Ratcliff, 1996; Brewer et al., 2005; Kleitman & Stankov, 2007; Miller et al., 2015; Stankov & Lee, 2008
Performance feedback
Buratti & Allwood, 2012; Brabender & Boardman, 1977; Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller et al., 2015; Price & Stone, 2004; Stankov & Crawford, 1997
Decision making and decisiveness
Jackson & Kleitman, 2014; Koriat, 2012; Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Larrick et al., 2007; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller et al., 2015; Nygren & Ransom-Flint, 1997; Patalano & LeClair, 2011; Pallier, 2003
Characteristics of task or goals set
Chernev, 2009; Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Koriat, 2012; Siegrist, Gutscher, & Earle, 2005
Information seeking
Chernev, 2009; Patalano & LeClair, 2011
Personal experience or practice
Kleitman & Moscrop, 2010; Moore & Healy, 2008; Oskamp, 1967; Preckel & Freund, 2005; Price & Stone, 2004; Siegrist, Gutscher, & Earle, 2005; Stankov & Lee, 2008
Goal or choice commitment
Chernev, 2009; Patalano & LeClair, 2011
Confirmation or consensus with others
Koriat, 2012; Patalano & LeClair, 2011 Attitude-behavior consistency
Briñol, Petty, & Barden, 2007; Fazio & Zanna, 1978
Metacognitive awareness and metacognition
Kleitman & Stankov, 2007; Stankov & Lee, 2008
Info processing quantity/quality
Briñol et al., 2010; Tormala et al., 2008
Fear of failure Preckel & Freund, 2005 Persuasability Briñol, Petty, & Barden, 2007
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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Consumer Behavior Literature on consumer behavior accounted for eight (or 4%) of the articles in the
database. Of the confidence articles classified under consumer behavior, half were
experimental, 38% based on survey or questionnaire, and one was a theoretical piece.
Further, three-quarters of the articles described confidence as having both trait- and state-
like characteristics, while one quarter described confidence as being more trait-like in
nature. Many of the confidence articles in consumer behavior considered the construct as
synonymous, or at least similar, to self-esteem (Bell, 1967; Chuang et al., 2013; Taylor,
1974), or similar to both self-esteem and self-efficacy (Chelminski & Coulter, 2007;
Greenacre, Tung & Chapman, 2014; Locander & Hermann, 1979). Other articles focus
on more specific forms of confidence—such as confidence in consumer behaviors and
decisions (Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001), or as general social confidence or
information-processing confidence (Greenacre, Tung & Chapman, 2014; Wright, 1975).
Unlike some of the other foci of study, the articles listed under consumer behavior often
use validated measures, even if they tap into constructs other than self-confidence. For
example, several articles use the Day and Hamblin (1964) self-esteem scale (Bell, 1964;
Chuang et al., 2013), items from Tafarodi and Swann’s (1995) Self-Liking/Self-
Competence scale (Chelminski & Coulter, 2007), or the Generalized Social Confidence
Scale, which assesses one’s efficacy and comfort in social situations (Greenacre, Tung &
Chapman, 2014; Wright, 1975). Trends in the antecedents and outcomes of self-
confidence within this discipline are listed in Table 4 below.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
13
Table 4. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Consumer Behavior
Antecedents Outcomes
Task- or goal-related experiences
Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001; Chelminski & Coulter, 2007; Greenacre, Tung & Chapman, 2014
Risk-taking and use of risk-reduction strategies
Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001; Chuang et al., 2013; Locander & Hermann, 1979; Taylor, 1974
Inherent knowledge, skills, and abilities
Bell, 1967; Wright, 1975 Persuasability and message acceptance
Bearden et al., 2001; Bell, 1967; Greenacre et al., 2014; Wright, 1975
Feedback and successful peer interactions
Tung & Chapman, 2014 Certainty and independence of thoughts/decisions
Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001; Bell, 1967; Chuang et al., 2013
Perceived control and dominance
Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001
Counter arguing and propensity to voice
Chelminski & Coulter, 2007; Wright, 1975
Education
Literature on education accounted for 18 (or 9%) of the articles in the database.
Of the confidence articles classified under education, a vast majority were based on
surveys or questionnaires (72%), 17% were based on interviews, one was experimental,
and one was more practice-oriented. Further, there was wide variability in how
confidence was described—44% considered confidence as state-like, 6% as trait-like,
11% as both state- and trait-like, and 39% were unclear in their description of confidence.
A majority of the confidence articles categorized under learning and education defined
the construct as being similar to some form of specific self-efficacy or general
expectations for success (Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Guerin, Arcand, & Durand-Bush, 2010;
Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Sadler, 2013; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Tavani & Losh, 2003;
Yorke, 2016). A few others defined the construct as being similar to self-esteem
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
14
(Zuckerman, 1985), similar to both self-esteem and self-efficacy (Al-Hesbaish, 2012;
Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Maclellan, 2014; Malkin & Stake, 2004; Srivastava, 2013),
or as certainty in the correctness of test answers (Foote, 2000; Jones & Jones, 1989;
Lundeberg, Fox, & Puncochar, 1994; Lundeberg, Fox, Brown, & Elbedour, 2000;
Puncochar & Fox, 2004). There were no trends in terms of scales used to measures self-
confidence. Measures used include self-esteem scales (Malkin & Stake, 2004), measures
that tap some sort of specific self-efficacy or general expectations of success (Sander &
Sanders, 2006; Yorke, 2016), and measures that did not specify whether their measure
tapped self-efficacy or self-esteem (Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Srivastava, 2013). One article
even operationalized self-confidence as students’ self-rated intellectual and social self-
confidence in comparison to the average student. Trends in the antecedents and
outcomes of self-confidence within this discipline are listed in Table 5 below.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
15
Table 5. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Education
Antecedents Outcomes
Social capital and interaction with others
Jones & Jones, 1989; Maclellan, 2014; Malkin & Stake, 2004; Sadler, 2013
Academic achievement & success
Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Guerin et al., 2010; Jones & Jones, 1989; Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Maclellan, 2014; Malkin & Stake, 2004; Srivastava, 2013; Tavani & Losh, 2003
Learning strategies Maclellan, 2014 Problem-
solving Jones & Jones, 1989; Maclellan, 2014
Developmental and intervention programs
Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Maclellan, 2014; Sadler, 2013
Achievement effort and motivation
Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Puncochar & Fox, 2004; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Tavani & Losh, 2003
Mastery experiences and practice
Sadler, 2013; Sander & Sanders, 2006
Risk-taking and taking action
Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Sadler, 2013
Performance feedback
Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Puncochar & Fox, 2004; Sander & Sanders, 2006
Learning and academic development
Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Sadler, 2013; Sander & Sanders, 2006
Difficulty of work or task
Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Lundeberg, Fox, & Puncochar, 1994
Approach vs. avoidance behaviors
Jones & Jones, 1989
Previous achievements and successes
Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Srivastava, 2013
Goals and goal attainment
Malkin & Stake, 2004; Srivastava, 2013; Zuckerman, 1985
Self-talk and emotional regulation
Guerin, Arcand, & Durand-Bush, 2010
Satisfaction in academic endeavors
Guerin, Arcand, & Durand-Bush, 2010
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
16
Leadership & Management
Literature on leadership and management accounted for 34 (or 17%) of the
articles in the database. Of the confidence articles classified under leadership and
management, 32% were practice-oriented, 32% based on survey or questionnaire, 21%
theoretical or propositional, 9% experimental, one was based on interview, and one was a
meta-analysis. Similar to the distribution of descriptions in the business and
entrepreneurship section, most of the articles (53%) were unclear in how they described
self-confidence, 26% described the concept as trait-like, 18% as state-like, and one (3%)
considered confidence as both state- and trait-like.
Many of the articles that discuss confidence in the leadership and management
research refer to the construct as being similar to general self-efficacy or expectations of
success (Hannah et al., 2008; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Kolb, 1999; McCarty, 1986;
Mowday, 1979; Shipman & Mumford, 2011), or similar to a more specific leadership or
occupational self-efficacy (Kipnis & Lane, 1962; O'Neil, Hopkins, & Bilimoria, 2015;
Schyns & Sczesny, 2010; Tsui, 1998). Others referred to self-confidence as similar to
self-esteem (Bowman, 1999; Evans, 2010; White, de Sanctis, & Crino, 1981), or as
similar to both self-efficacy and self-esteem (Pollock, 2004; Putnam & Heinen, 1976).
Other articles also considered locus of control as being one part of self-confidence, along
with the aforementioned constructs (Popper et al., 2004; Sturdy et al., 2006). Ireland et
al. (1992) expanded the definition of self-confidence even further, saying that “self-
confidence is viewed as a manager’s commitment to trust his or her own judgment, to be
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
17
free from debilitating fears, to take calculated risks, to confront openly rather than avoid
the unpleasant aspects of work, and to judge the effectiveness of those actions” (p. 37).
However, while the definitions of self-confidence in leadership and management
research varies considerably, a considerable proportion of the literature included practice-
oriented pieces which were also unclear in how they defined the construct (Aycan, 2004;
Baack, Carr-Ruffino, & Pelletier, 1993; Berman, 2005; De Mascia, 2015; Eagly & Karau,
2002; House & Aditya, 1997; Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002; Kerfoot, 2010;
Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Knippen & Green, 1989; Koberg, Chusmir, & Carlin, 1992;
Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992; Zaccaro, Kemp, & Bader, 2004). Further, the few articles
which measured self-confidence in some way, never operationalized the construct in the
same manner. Operationalizations ranged from manipulating how confident leaders
“appear” (De Cremer & van Knippenberg, 2004; Locke & Anderson, 2015) and social
comparisons (Tsui, 1998), to ratings of skills and performance (Kipnis & Lane, 1962),
the Adjective Check List (Koberg, Chusmir, & Carlin, 1992), and measures of locus of
control, anxiety, or self-efficacy (Popper et al., 2004; Schyns & Sczesny, 2010). Trends
in the antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence within this discipline are listed in
Table 6 below.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
18
Table 6. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Leadership & Management
Antecedents Outcomes Mastering challenges & overcoming barriers
Berman, 2005; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Koberg, Chusmir, & Carlin, 1992
Decision-making & problem-solving
Barrett, 2009; Bowman, 1999; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland et al., 1992; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Shipman & Mumford, 2011
Learning and gaining KSAs
Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Sturdy et al., 2006
Leader emergence
Baack et al., 1993; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hannah et al., 2008; Judge et al., 2002; Kolb, 1999; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; Zaccaro et al. , 2004
Past experiences, successes, and practice
Bowman, 1999; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland et al., 1992; Kerfoot, 2010; Kipnis & Lane, 1962; O'Neil et al., 2015; Putnam & Heinen, 1976
Leadership effectiveness or managerial success
Aycan, 2004; De Cremer & van Knippenberg, 2004; Hannah et al., 2008; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; House & Aditya, 1997; Ireland et al., 1992; Judge et al., 2002; Kerfoot, 2010; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Knippen & Green, 1989; Pollock, 2004; Popper et al., 2004; Putnam & Heinen, 1976; Schyns & Sczesny, 2010; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; White et al., 1981; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
Mentoring or coaching
Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; O'Neil, Hopkins, & Bilimoria, 2015; White et al. 1981; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
Motivation and ambition
Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Knippen & Green, 1989
Self-talk Knippen & Green, 1989 Goal-setting Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; Shipman & Mumford, 2011
Training and education
Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; Sturdy et al., 2006
Risk-taking Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; House & Aditya, 1997; Shipman & Mumford, 2011
Performance or evaluative feedback
McCarty, 1986; Putnam & Heinen, 1976
Grit, perseverance, and persistence
House & Aditya, 1997; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; Shipman & Mumford, 2011
Support from others
Putnam & Heinen, 1976; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
Charismatic or transformational leadership
House & Aditya, 1997; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992; Zaccaro, Kemp, & Bader, 2004
Development programs or opportunities
Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; White, de Sanctis, & Crino, 1981
Promotions and advancement
Eagly & Karau, 2002; Evans, 2010; Locke & Anderson, 2015; McCarty, 1986; White et al., 1981; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
Taking action
Knippen & Green, 1989; Pollock, 2004
Influence and power
Locke & Anderson, 2015; Mowday, 1979; Popper et al., 2004; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
19
Nursing & Medicine Literature on nursing and medicine accounted for nine (or 5%) of the articles in
the database. Of the confidence articles classified under nursing and medicine, over half
were based on survey or questionnaire (56%), two were theoretical, and two were
practice-oriented. Further, 44% of the articles considered confidence more state-like, one
(11%) as both state- and trait-like, and 44% were unclear as to how confidence was
described. A majority of the articles in nursing and medicine defined self-confidence as
similar to or synonymous with general self-efficacy (Dumitrescu, Zetu, & Teslaru, 2012;
Hart, Spiva, & Mareno, 2014), or some sort of specific clinical or medical self-efficacy
(Hart, Spiva, Baio, Huff, Whitfield, Law, Wells, & Mendoza, 2014; Sergeev, Lipsky,
Ganor, Lending, Abebe-Campino, Morose, Katzenell, Ash, & Glassberg, 2012). A few
considered the construct as similar to self-esteem (Lachman, 2001; Turk & Winter, 2006)
or as similar to both self-efficacy and self-esteem (Perry, 2011). The most intriguing
definition of self-confidence found in this set of literature was the conceptualization put
forth by White in her research. White (2009), and subsequently White (2014), defined
self-confidence as being composed of three attributes: a belief in positive achievements
(similar to self-efficacy), persistence (similar to resilience), and self-awareness (similar to
self-regulating anxiety). While this seems like a broader and more comprehensive
conceptualization of self-confidence, its measurement is restricted to the nursing and
medicine discipline in White’s (2014) development of the Nursing Anxiety and Self-
Confidence with Clinical Decision Making (MASC-CDM) scale. This, as well as the
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
20
confidence scales used in Hart et al. (2014a), Hart et al. (2014b), and Sergeev et al.
(2012), operationalized self-confidence as being specific to such tasks as patient care in
acute deterioration, specific life-saving procedures, and clinical decision-making. Trends
in the antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence within this discipline are listed in
Table 7 below.
Table 7. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Nursing & Medicine
Antecedents Outcomes
Education and training Hart et al., 2014a; Hart et al., 2014b; Perry, 2011; Sergeev et al., 2012
Decision-making Hart et al., 2014b; White, 2014
Knowledge and learning Perry, 2011; White, 2009
Successful performance or achievements
Hart et al., 2014b; Lachman, 2001; Perry, 2011; Sergeev et al., 2012; White, 2014
Prior successful performance or achievements
Dumitrescu, Zetu, & Teslaru, 2012; White, 2009; White, 2014
Motivation or persistence
Dumitrescu, Zetu, & Teslaru, 2012
Related experience or practice
Perry, 2011; Sergeev et al., 2012; White, 2009; White, 2014
Effectively working and collaborating with others
Hart et al., 2014b; Perry, 2011; Turk & Winter, 2006; White, 2009
Characteristics of the situation or environment
Perry, 2011; White, 2009 Taking on challenges Perry, 2011; White, 2009
Remaining focused on your positives and self-talk
Lachman, 2001; White, 2009 Resiliency Perry, 2011
Reinforcement or encouragement from others
Perry, 2011; White, 2009 Independence and autonomy White, 2009
Personality
Literature on personality accounted for 10 (or 5%) of the articles in the database.
Of the confidence articles classified under personality, half were based on surveys or
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
21
questionnaires, one-third theoretical or propositional, one was experimental, and one was
a meta-analysis. Further, half of the articles considered self-confidence as more trait-like
(which is not surprising in personality research), one-third both trait- and state-like, one
as more state-like, and one was not clear as to their description of self-confidence. Of the
ten disciplines discussed in this paper, personality has the widest variety of
conceptualizations of self-confidence. A few of the articles used the traditional
conceptualizations—referring to self-confidence as being similar to general self-efficacy
(Andrews, 1987; Cheng & Furnham, 2002), a more specific self-efficacy—in this case
trust in the ability to cope with negative emotionality (Deeley & Love, 2012; Deeley &
Love, 2013), or as a certainty in the correctness of test answers (Wolfe & Grosch, 1990).
A few of the articles categorized under personality referred to core confidence—or a
higher-order construct of certainty or belief that one can do whatever comes their way,
manifested by hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resilience (Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et
al., 2015). Gough and Heilbrum (1965) and Pasveer (1998) “describe a self- confident
individual as one who has an action orientation, is dominant and assertive, is impatient
with others who stand in his or her way, and is forceful, determined, and opportunistic”
(Pasveer, 1998, p. 123). However, there is no more to those definitions than a string of
adjectives to operationalize the construct.
And finally, Oney and Oksuzoglu-Guven (2015) present the one of the broadest
scopes of self-confidence definitions and conceptualizations in the database. Their
research cites self-confidence being defined as judgments, convictions/certainty,
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
22
evaluations, beliefs, or as feelings, opinions, or expressions. They specifically state that
self-esteem and self-efficacy differ from self-confidence—self-esteem being broader and
unobservable, and self-efficacy being more specific and focused on abilities. However,
the authors present no specific definition nor operationalization of the construct. Besides
the more traditional confidence measures (i.e., self-rating performance expectations,
certainty of correctness, or specific skills or abilities), a few broader personality
inventories were used to measure confidence—Cheng and Furnham’s (2002) use of the
Shrauger Personal Evaluation Inventory, as well as Gough and Heilbrum’s (1965)
Adjective Check List. Trends in the antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence within
this discipline are listed in Table 8 below.
Table 8. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Personality
Antecedents Outcomes Locus of control and outcome attributions
Andrews, 1987; Deeley & Love, 2012; Stajkovic, 2006
Motivation and perseverance
Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015
Performance feedback
Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015
Career success and advancement Stajkovic, 2006
Successful experience and practice
Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Stajkovic, 2006
Happiness and well-being
Cheng & Furnham, 2002; Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015
Affect and emotions
Deeley & Love, 2012; Deeley & Love, 2013; Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Wolfe & Grosch, 1990
Successful performance
Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015; Wolfe & Grosch, 1990
Contact with others & support from friends
Cheng & Furnham, 2002 Coping and self-regulation
Deeley & Love, 2012; Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Stajkovic et al., 2015
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
23
Social Psychology
Literature on social psychology and sociology accounted for 33 (or 17%) of the
articles in the database. Of the confidence articles classified under social psychology and
sociology, over half (55%) were experimental or quasi-experimental, 27% were based on
surveys or questionnaires, 15% theoretical or propositional, and one was a meta-analysis.
Further, almost half of the articles in this field considered confidence as state-like, 15%
as trait-like, 6% as both trait-and state-like, and one-third of the articles were unclear as
to how they described self-confidence.
A vast majority of the articles in this discipline describe self-confidence as being
similar to self-efficacy or performance expectancies (Albarracín & Mitchell, 2004;
Anderson, et al., 2012; Baumeister, Hamilton, & Tice, 1985; Beyer, 1990; Beyer &
Bowden, 1997; Carr, Thomas, & Mednick, 1985; Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Chusmir,
Koberg, & Stecher, 1992; Cohen & Swim, 1995; Else-Quest, Hyde, & Linn, 2010;
Feather, 1969; Instone, Major, & Bunker, 1983; Kamas & Preston, 2012; Kennedy,
Anderson, & Moore, 2013; Kimball & Gray, 1982; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982;
Lenney, Gold, & Browning, 1983; Santos-Pinto, 2012; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995;
Sleeper & Nigro, 1987). Other articles defined confidence as being similar to self-esteem
(Day & Hamblin, 1964; Gabriel, Renaud, & Tippin, 2007; Locke, 2005; Mobius &
Rosenblat, 2006), as similar to both self-efficacy and self-esteem (Benabou & Tirole;
1999; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Erwin & Kelly, 1985; Owens, 1993), as something else
entirely (Barbalet, 1998; Manning & Ray, 1993). And finally, some of the articles
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
24
defined confidence as independence in thoughts, beliefs, or actions (Petty, Brinol, &
Tormala, 2002; Slaughter, Cable, & Turban, 2014). The description of self-confidence
provided by Barbalet (1998) is particularly focused on its relationship with taking action
and a willingness to act, saying that it is “a feeling state of self-projection” (p. 86) and
that it “underlies all action as its affective basis” (p. 90).
While, like in many of the other disciplines, a good number of the articles
operationalized confidence using a measure of performance expectations or perceived
level of knowledge, skills, or abilities (Anderson, et al., 2012; Baumeister, Hamilton, &
Tice, 1985; Beyer, 1990; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Carr, Thomas, & Mednick, 1985;
Feather, 1969; Instone, Major, & Bunker, 1983; Kamas & Preston, 2012; Kennedy,
Anderson, & Moore, 2013; Kimball & Gray, 1982; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Lenney, Gold,
& Browning, 1983; Mobius & Rosenblat, 2006; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987), others used a
self-esteem scale or list of self-esteem items (Day & Hamblin, 1964; Gabriel, Renaud, &
Tippin, 2007; Locke, 2005; Owens, 1993), or a measure of confidence in particular
thoughts or beliefs (Petty, Brinol, & Tormala, 2002; Slaughter, Cable, & Turban, 2014).
Other measured used include the Adjective Checklist (Chusmir & Koberg, 1991;
Chusmir, Koberg, & Stecher, 1992; Pasveer, 1998), Shrauger's Personal Evaluation
Inventory (Shrauger & Schohn, 1995), Erwin Identity Scale's confidence subscale (Erwin
& Kelly, 1985), McCroskey's (1982) Personal Report of Communication Apprehension
(PRCA) (Manning & Ray, 1993), and the Defensive Confidence Scale (Albarracín &
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
25
Mitchell, 2004). Trends in the antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence within this
discipline are listed in Table 9 below.
Table 9. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Social Psychology
Antecedents Outcomes
Sex role identity or sex congruity
Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Carr, Thomas, & Mednick, 1985; Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Chusmir et al., 1992
Taking action, risk-taking, & avoidance/ approach tendencies
Barbalet, 1998; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Kamas & Preston, 2012; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995
Physical appearance
Mobius & Rosenblat, 2006; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995
Persuasability or impressionability
Albarracín & Mitchell, 2004; Petty, Brinol, & Tormala, 2002; Slaughter et al., 2014
Performance feedback
Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Instone et al., 1983; Kimball & Gray, 1982; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987
Successful performance and achievements
Baumeister et al., 1985; Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Beyer, 1990; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Chusmir et al., 1992; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Feather, 1969; Kimball & Gray, 1982; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Lenney et al., 1983; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987
Prior successes and accomplishments
Albarracín & Mitchell, 2004; Baumeister et al., 1985; Beyer, 1990; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995
Skill or success interacting with others
Kennedy, Anderson, & Moore, 2013; Manning & Ray, 1993
Previous experience and practice
Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Carr, Thomas, & Mednick, 1985; Instone, Major, & Bunker, 1983
Well-being and mental health
Anderson, et al., 2012; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Kennedy et al., 2013; Owens, 1993
Task difficulty
Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Carr, Thomas, & Mednick, 1985; Lenney, Gold, & Browning, 1983
Self-esteem
Anderson, et al., 2012; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Day & Hamblin, 1964; Kennedy, Anderson, & Moore, 2013
Social or peer comparisons
Instone et al., 1983; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Lenney et al., 1983; Kennedy et al., 2013; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987
Motivation, persistence, and perseverance
Anderson, et al., 2012; Baumeister et al., 1985; Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Kennedy et al., 2013
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
26
Sports Literature on sports accounted for 24 (or 12%) of the articles in the database. Of
the confidence articles classified under sports, over half (54%) were based on surveys or
questionnaires, 17% were experimental, 8% were theoretical or propositional, 8% were
practice-oriented, 8% were based on interviews, and one was a meta-analysis. Further,
25% of the articles considered self-confidence to be more state-like, one (4%) considered
it more trait-like, 29% as both trait and state-like, and 42% of the articles were unclear in
their description.
A vast majority of articles in the sports psychology discipline define self-
confidence as being similar to either a general or sports-specific self-efficacy or
performance expectations (Beattie et al., 2011; Comeig et al., 2016; Coudevylle,
Gernigon, & Ginis, 2011; Cox, Martens, & Russell, 2003; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Freeman
& Rees, 2010; Grove & Heard, 1997; Hays et al., 2007; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014;
Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida, Ward, & Vealey, 2012; Mills, 1996; Rees &
Freeman, 2007; Ryska, 2002; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey, 1986; Vealey et al., 1998;
Vealey & Chase, 2008). Other articles were either unclear in their definition, or alluded
to the construct being similar to a lack of anxiety or nervousness (Hanton &
Connaughton, 2002; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Jones, Swain, & Cale, 1991; Koivula,
Hassmen, & Fallby, 2002; Vosloo, Ostrow, & Watson, 2009).
The two most frequent measures of self-confidence in this discipline are Martens’
CSAI-2 or Cox’ CSAI-2R (Coudevylle et al., 2011; Cox, Martens, & Russell, 2003;
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
27
Freeman & Rees, 2010; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Jones, Swain, & Cale, 1991;
Koivula, Hassmen, & Fallby, 2002; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Vosloo, Ostrow, & Watson,
2009) and Vealey's Sport Confidence Inventory—State or Trait (Grove & Heard, 1997;
Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Machida, Ward, & Vealey, 2012; Mills, 1996; Ryska, 2002;
Vealey, 1986). Other measures used include the Sources of Sport-Confidence
Questionnaire (SSCQ) (Vealey et al., 1998), and Beattie's Trait Robustness of Self-
Confidence Inventory (Beattie et al., 2011). Trends in the antecedents and outcomes of
self-confidence within this discipline are listed in Table 10 below.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
28
Table 10. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Sports
Antecedents Outcomes
Practice, preparation, and prior experience
Freeman & Rees, 2010; Hays et al., 2007; Jones et al., 1991; Machida et al., 2012; Ryska, 2002; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Athletic performance or success in sports
Beattie et al., 2011; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Grove & Heard, 1997; Hanton & Connaughton, 2002; Hays et al., 2007; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Koivula et al., 2002; Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida et al., 2012; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Ryska, 2002; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey, 1986; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Past sports successes, accomplishments, and mastery
Beattie et al., 2011; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Grove & Heard, 1997; Hays et al., 2007; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida et al., 2012; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Satisfaction with performance
Vealey, 1986; Vealey et al., 1998
Staying positive and self-talk
Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Hanton & Connaughton, 2002; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Motivation, persistence, & perseverance
Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Ryska, 2002; Vealey, 1986; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Social support and encouragement from others
Freeman & Rees, 2010; Hays et al., 2007; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Anxiety, nervousness, and tension
Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Coaching and coach’s leadership
Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Hays et al., 2007; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida et al., 2012; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008; Vosloo, Ostrow, & Watson, 2009
Causal attributions
Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Vealey, 1986
Performance feedback
Beattie et al., 2011; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Goal intentions & commitment
Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Social or peer comparisons
Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Jones et al., 1991; Koivula et al., 2002; Machida et al., 2012; Vealey et al., 1998
Coping and buffering stress
Grove & Heard, 1997; Vealey & Chase, 2008
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
29
Trials & Law
Literature on trials and law accounted for four (or 2%) of the articles in the
database. Of these articles, two (50%) were meta-analyses, one was experimental, and
one was theoretical. Half of the articles considered confidence to be both state- and trait-
like, and half were unclear as to how they described self-confidence. Confidence was
often conceptualized as being the degree of certainty in expert testimony (Cramer,
Brodsky, & DeCoster, 2009), eyewitness testimony (Cramer, Neal, & Brodsky, 2009),
detecting deceptive testimony (DePaulo et al., 1997), or in judgments in general (Sporer,
Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995). There were no instances of self-confidence being
measured or operationalized in any scale. Trends in the antecedents and outcomes of
self-confidence within this discipline are listed in Table 11 below.
Table 11. Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence in Trials & Law
Antecedents Outcomes
Witness preparation
Cramer, Brodsky, & DeCoster, 2009; Cramer, Neal, & Brodsky, 2009
Judge’s beliefs and judgments
DePaulo et al., 1997; Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995
Past experience with case or with person being judged
Cramer, Neal, & Brodsky, 2009; DePaulo et al., 1997
Perceived witness credibility and likeability/trustworthiness
Cramer, Brodsky, & DeCoster, 2009
Feedback training Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995 Persuasability Cramer, Brodsky, &
DeCoster, 2009
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
30
Summary Despite the vast conceptualizations of self-confidence in the literature, some
trends do emerge. The most common trends in how confidence is defined include it
being similar to or synonymous with (1) general or specific self-efficacy or expectations
of success, (2) certainty in decisions or judgments, (3) both self-esteem and self-efficacy,
(4) self-esteem, (5) emotional stability or lack of anxiety, and (6) confidence or
independence in thoughts, attitudes, or opinions. A handful of other definitions were
classified as “other” or “unclear”. Table 12 below cites the common trends in self-
confidence conceptualizations. The distribution of definitions across disciplines is
displayed in Appendix A. A table of trends on the scales used to measure self-confidence
can be found in Appendix B. Over one-third (77, or 38.5%) of the articles in the database
did not measure self-confidence or operationalize the construct in any fashion—this was
a particularly common trend in more practice-oriented literature. Fewer articles (61, or
30.5%) used some sort of identifiable scale or measure of “self-confidence”. These
measures are listed in Appendix B. Certainty in the correctness or accuracy of responses
or predictions of test or task performance was also a common operationalization of self-
confidence—with 26 articles (or 13%) measuring the construct in this way. Measuring
the confidence of specific skills, abilities, thoughts, or decisions was also a common
operationalization, being found in 21 (or 10.5%) of the articles in the database. Fewer
articles measured how subjects compared themselves to others (9 articles, or 4.5%), or
used self-confidence as some sort of priming manipulation (6 articles, or 3%).
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
31
Table 12. Trends in Conceptualizations of Self-Confidence
Conceptualization % Citations
(1) Self-efficacy (evaluation of abilities & expectations of successful performance)
43%
Addis, 2008; Albarracín & Mitchell, 2004; Anderson, et al., 2012; Andrews, 1987; Baldoni, 2009; Baumeister et al., 1985; Beattie et al., 2011; Beyer, 1990; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Brabender & Boardman, 1977; Carr et al., 1985; Cheng & Furnham, 2002; Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Chusmir et al., 1992; Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Clarke, 2011; Cohen & Swim, 1995; Comeig et al., 2016; Coudevylle et al., 2011; Cox et al., 2003; Deeley & Love, 2012; Deeley & Love, 2013; DePaulo et al., 1997; Dumitrescu et al., 2012; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Emerson, 1998; Feather, 1969; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Freeman & Rees, 2010; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Grove & Heard, 1997; Guerin et al., 2010; Hannah et al., 2008; Hart et al., 2014a; Hart et al., 2014b; Hays et al., 2007; Heppner & Petersen, 1982; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Instone et al., 1983; Johnson & McCoy, 2000; Johnson et al., 2000; Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Kamas & Preston, 2012; Kanter, 2014; Kennedy et al., 2013; Kimball & Gray, 1982; Kipnis & Lane, 1962; Kirkwood, 2009; Kleitman & Stankov, 2007; Koellinger et al., 2007; Kolb, 1999; Larrick et al., 2007; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Lenney et al., 1983; Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Luthans & Youssef, 2004; Luthans et al., 2004; Machida et al., 2012; McCarty, 1986; Mills, 1996; Moore & Healy, 2008; Mowday, 1979; O'Neil et al., 2015; Preckel & Freund, 2005; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Ryska, 2002; Sadler, 2013; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Santos-Pinto, 2012; Schyns & Sczesny, 2010; Sergeev et al., 2012; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Sleeper & Nigro, 19897; Subramanyam, 2013; Tavani & Losh, 2003; Tsui, 1998; Vealey, 1986; Vealey & Chase, 2008; Vealey et al., 1998; Wright, 1975; Yorke, 2016
(2) Certainty in decisions or judgments (including certainty in correctness of test answers)
17%
Balakrishnan & Ratcliff, 1996; Bearden et al. , 2001; Brewer et al., 2005; Bukszar, 2003; Buratti & Allwood, 2012; Chernev, 2009; Cramer et al., 2009a; Cramer et al., 2009b; Crawford & Stankov, 1996; Foote, 2000; Ghosh & Ray, 1997; Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Ireland et al., 1992; Jackson & Kleitman, 2014; Jones & Jones, 1989; Kleitman &Moscrop, 2010; Koriat, 2012; Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Lundeberg et al., 2000; Lundeberg et al., 1994; Mayseless & Kruglanski, 1987; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller et al., 2015; Nygren & Ransom-Flint, 1997; Oskamp, 1967; Pallier, 2003; Patalano & LeClair, 2011; Puncochar & Fox, 2004; Sporer et al., 1995; Stankov & Crawford, 1997; Stankov & Lee, 2008; Stankov et al., 2012; Tormala et al., 2008; Wolfe & Grosch, 1990
(3) Both self-efficacy and self-esteem 10%
Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Chelminski & Coulter, 2007; Cox & Bauer, 1964; Erwin & Kelly, 1985; Flynn et al., 2011; Garant et al., 1995; Greenacre et al., 2014; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Locander & Hermann, 1979; Maclellan, 2014; Malkin & Stake, 2004; Owens, 1993; Perry, 2011; Pollock, 2004; Putnam & Heinen, 1976; Srivastava, 2013; Sturdy et al., 2006
(4) Self-esteem 8% Bell, 1967; Bierema, 1994; Bowman, 1999; Chuang et al., 2013; Day & Hamblin, 1964; Evans, 2010; Gabriel, Renaud, & Tippin, 2007; Goldsmith,
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
32
2009; Lachman, 2001; Locke, 2005; Mobius & Rosenblat, 2006; Pratch, 2011; Taylor, 1974; Turk & Winter, 2006; White et al., 1981; Zuckerman, 1985
(5) Emotional stability, lack of anxiety, or optimism
5% Borno, 2000; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Jones et al., 1991; Judge et al., 2002; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Koivula et al., 2002; Melamed, 1996; Siegrist et al., 2005; White, 2014
(6) Confidence in thoughts, attitudes, or opinions
3% Barrett, 2009; Briñol et al., 2010; Briñol et al., 2007; Fazio & Zanna, 1978; Petty et al., 2002; Slaughter et al., 2014
(7) Unclear 9%
Aycan, 2004; Baack et al., 1993; Berman, 2005; De Mascia, 2015; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Fielden et al., 2003; Goldsmith, 2008; Hanton & Connaughton, 2002; House & Aditya, 1997; Ibarra et al., 2013; Kerfoot, 2010; Knippen & Green, 1989; Koberg et al., 1992; Mohr, 2014; Tichy & Charan, 1989; Vosloo et al., 2009; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992; Zaccaro et al., 2004
(8) Other 6%
Barbalet, 1998; De Cremer & van Knippenberg, 2004; Gough & Heilbrum, 1965; Locke & Anderson, 2015; Manning & Ray, 1993; Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Pasveer, 1998; Popper et al., 2004; Price & Stone, 2004; Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015; White, 2009
Most of the articles in the confidence database (78%) discussed the construct in
roughly the same manner – as some form of self-efficacy or expectations for success,
certainty in judgments or decisions, self-esteem, or some combination of self-efficacy
and self-esteem. However, there were some pieces of literature that are worth further
discussion because of their comprehensive review or unique contribution to the study of
self-confidence as a construct. The top pieces of literature in the self-confidence field
include Maclellan (2014), Oney and Oksuzoglu-Guven (2015), and White (2009).
Maclellan (2014). In her review of the self-confidence literature, Maclellan
(2014) uses concept analysis to explore education and psychology research for a “take
home message” for professional teachers wishing to increase the self-confidence of their
pupils. She notes articles that define self-confidence as self-efficacy, self-esteem, as well
as metacognitive confidence (or certainty in self-judgments)—which is well in line with
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
33
this much more expansive literature review. Maclellan (2014) concludes by saying self-
confidence—or “a belief or view that each person has of self” (p. 62)—can be promoted
if teachers focus on developing both the knowledge and social engagements of their
students.
Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven (2015). In their review of the self-confidence
literature, Oney and Oksuzoglu-Guven (2015) present the broadest scope of self-
confidence definitions and conceptualizations of any of the articles in the database. Their
research categorized self-confidence definitions as being either based on cognitions (i.e.,
confidence is certainty and conviction of judgments or opinions, an evaluation based on
cues and evidence, or a belief or expectation based on experience—similar to self-
efficacy), or based on affect (i.e., confidence is a feeling, opinion, or a lack of anxiety—
similar to self-esteem). They specifically explain how self-esteem and self-efficacy differ
from the broader construct of self-confidence, however present no specific definition nor
operationalization of the construct.
White (2009). In her review of self-confidence, White (2009) also uses a concept
analysis to explore 31 articles in the nursing, education, business, and psychology
literature. The purpose was to assess the construct in how it related to nursing students.
Differing from similar concepts such as self-concept, self-esteem, and self-certainty,
White (2009), defined self-confidence as a belief in positive achievements (similar to
self-efficacy or optimism), persistence in the face of obstacles (similar to resilience), and
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
34
self-awareness (similar to self-regulating anxiety). She concludes by reviewing common
antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence in the nursing education discipline.
One other trend that was noteworthy in the self-confidence literature is that men
are generally considered as more self-confident than women—whether confidence is
defined as self-esteem (Bierema, 1994; White et al., 1981), as self-efficacy (Andrews,
1987; Beyer, 1990; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Cohen & Swim, 1995; DePaulo et al., 1997;
Feather, 1969; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Instone et al., 1983; Johnson & McCoy, 2000;
Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Kamas & Preston, 2012; Kirkwood, 2009;; McCarty, 1986;
O’Neil et al., 2015; Preckel & Freund, 2005; Santos-Pinto, 2012; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987;
Tavani & Losh, 2003; Tsui, 1998; Yorke, 2016), as both self-efficacy and self-esteem
(Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Flynn, Heath, & Holt, 2011; Putnam & Heinen,
1976), as certainty in decisions or judgments (Ireland et al., 1992; Lundeberg et al., 1994;
Pallier, 2003; Stankov & Lee, 2008), or as unclear or something else entirely (Aycan,
2004; Jones et al., 1991; Melamed, 1996; Vosloo et al., 2009).
Other research has found that women may not have lower self-confidence than
men, but do have greater variability in self-confidence levels (Carr, Thomas, Mednick,
1985; Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Lenney, Gold, & Browning, 1983; Pratch, 2011). In
fact, using Gough and Heilbrum’s (1965) Adjective Check List, Chusmir and Koberg
(1991, 1992) found that male and female managers did not significantly differ in self-
confidence, when sex role identity was held constant. In other words, female managers
were more confident in feminine roles. This holds true with other research that states that
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
35
women are less confident in masculine-type or neutral roles or tasks—such as math or
leadership (Beyer, 1990; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Carr, Thomas, & Mednick, 1985; Else-
Quest, Hyde & Lynn, 2010; Lirgg, 1991) or in situations that are highly ambiguous or
that emphasize social comparison or evaluation (Lenney, 1977; Lenney, Gold, &
Browning, 1983; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989). However, if women are only as confident as men
in feminine tasks or roles, and men are confident regardless of the task or role, it would
explain the greater variability in the self-confidence of women when compared to men.
There has also been some debate as to whether self-confidence is more state- or
trait-like. As previously stated, 30% of the articles referred to the construct as more a
situational state (context-specific), 19% as more an enduring dispositional trait (context-
free), and 14% as both a trait and a state. Conceptually, the articles which conceptualized
self-confidence as both trait- and state-like make a lot of sense. For example, Shrauger
and Schohn (1995) suggest that general (or trait-like) self-confidence is additive—or that
more domain- or task-specific self-confidence levels aggregate to determine one’s level
of general self-confidence. However, this presupposes that self-confidence is
synonymous with self-efficacy. Feltz and Oncu (2014) also describe both trait and state
views of self-confidence—with trait self-confidence considered as a more enduring set of
beliefs (i.e., performance optimism), and state self-confidence considered as perceived
ability to reach a certain level of performance in sports (i.e., self-efficacy).
Further, Beattie, Hardy, Savage, Woodman, and Callow (2011) found that trait
self-confidence beliefs (i.e., sports self-efficacy) protected one’s state self-confidence
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
36
from mistakes or failure—being related to some sort of mental toughness. And lastly,
based on Evolutionary Theory (Kanazawa, 2004), Oney and Oksuzoglu-Guven (2015)
propose that specific self-confidence is more relevant when dealing with recurrent and
familiar situations, while general self-confidence is more relevant when dealing with
novel, non-recurrent, and unfamiliar situations. Therefore, in developing an
operationalization of self-confidence that is the most relevant to the workplace, it would
stand to reason that it is important to develop a general measure of self-confidence to be
used in the increasingly unpredictable and volatile business world (Risky Business:
Managing Risk in a Volatile World, 2012).
There are also trends in terms of the antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence
across disciplines. Across fields, the ten most frequently cited antecedents of self-
confidence were training and learning interventions; support, encouragement, and
interaction with others; focusing on positives and self-compassion; previous success,
achievement, and accomplishment; previous mastery, preparation, and practice; coaching,
counseling, and mentoring; difficulty of work or task; social or peer comparisons;
performance feedback; and locus of control and causal attributions. The ten most
frequently cited outcomes of the construct were leadership effectiveness or managerial
success; career success, progression, and promotions; persuasibility or impressionability;
risk-taking and taking action/ initiative; successful performance or achievements;
decision-making and decisiveness; goals, goal setting, and goal commitment; motivation,
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
37
perseverance, and ambition; athletic performance or success in sports; and happiness,
satisfaction, and well-being. Citations for these trends can be found in Table 13 below.
Table 13. General Trends in the Antecedents and Outcomes of Self-Confidence
Antecedents Outcomes
Training, education, and learning interventions
Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Clarke, 2011; Hart et al., 2014a; Hart et al., 2014b; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; Jones, Swain, & Cale, 1991; Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Luthans et al., 2004; Maclellan, 2014; Perry, 2011; Sadler, 2013; Sergeev et al., 2012; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Sturdy et al., 2006; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Leadership effectiveness or managerial success
Aycan, 2004; De Cremer & van Knippenberg, 2004; Hannah et al., 2008; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; House & Aditya, 1997; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002; Kerfoot, 2010; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Knippen & Green, 1989; Pollock, 2004; Popper et al., 2004; Putnam & Heinen, 1976; Schyns & Sczesny, 2010; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; White, de Sanctis, & Crino, 1981; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
Support, encouragement, and interaction with others
Cheng & Furnham, 2002; Clarke, 2011; Freeman & Rees, 2010; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Hays et al., 2007; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Ibara et al., 2013; Jones & Jones, 1989; Kanter, 2014; Kirkwood, 2009; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Maclellan, 2014; Malkin & Stake, 2004; Perry, 2011; Putnam & Heinen, 1976; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Sadler, 2013; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008; White, 2009; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
Career success, progression, and promotions
Addis, 2008; Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Bierema, 1994; Borno, 2000; Clarke, 2011; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Emerson, 1998; Evans, 2010; Flynn et al., 2011; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Goldsmith, 2009; Kanter, 2014; Locke & Anderson, 2015; McCarty, 1986; Mohr, 2014; Pratch, 2011; Stajkovic, 2006; White et al., 1981; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992; Zuckerman, 1985
Focusing on positives, self-talk, & self-compassion
Addis, 2008; Baldoni, 2009; Borno, 2000; Briñol et al., 2010; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Guerin, Arcand, & Durand-Bush, 2010; Hanton & Connaughton, 2002; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Kanter, 2014; Knippen & Green, 1989; Lachman, 2001; Luthans et al., 2004; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey & Chase, 2008; White, 2009
Persuasibility or impression-ability
Albarracín & Mitchell, 2004; Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001; Bell, 1967; Briñol, Petty, & Barden, 2007; Cox & Bauer, 1964; Cramer Brodsky, & DeCoster, 2009; Greenacre, Tung & Chapman, 2014; Petty, Brinol, & Tormala, 2002; Slaughter, Cable, & Turban, 2014; Wright, 1975
Previous successes, achievements, and accomplishments
Addis, 2008; Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Albarracín & Mitchell, 2004; Baldoni, 2009; Baumeister, Hamilton, & Tice, 1985; Beattie et al., 2011; Beyer, 1990; Bierema, 1994; Dumitrescu, Zetu, &
Risk-taking and taking action/ initiative
Addis, 2008; Barbalet, 1998; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Bearden et al., 2001; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Bierema, 1994; Bukszar, 2003; Chuang et al., 2013; Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Ghosh
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
38
Teslaru, 2012; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Grove & Heard, 1997; Hays et al., 2007; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida, Ward, & Vealey, 2012; Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Srivastava, 2013; Stajkovic, 2006; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008; White, 2009; White, 2014
& Ray, 1997; House & Aditya, 1997; Ireland et al., 1992; Kamas & Preston, 2012; Kirkwood, 2009; Koellinger et al., 2007; Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Locander & Hermann, 1979; Perry, 2011; Pratch, 2011; Sadler, 2013; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Siegrist,et al., 2005; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; Taylor, 1974; White, 2009
Previous mastery experiences, preparation, and practice
Bearden et al. , 2001; Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Bierema, 1994; Bowman, 1999; Carr, et al., 1985; Chelminski & Coulter, 2007; Freeman & Rees, 2010; Greenacre, et al., 2014; Hays et al., 2007; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Instone, et al., 1983; Ireland et al., 1992; Jones, et al., 1991; Kerfoot, 2010; Kipnis & Lane, 1962; Kirkwood, 2009; Kleitman & Moscrop, 2010; Koellinger et al., 2007; Luthans et al., 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2004; Machida, et al., 2012; Moore & Healy, 2008; Mowday, 1979; O'Neil et al. 2015; Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Oskamp, 1967; Perry, 2011; Preckel & Freund, 2005; Price & Stone, 2004; Putnam & Heinen, 1976; Ryska, 2002; Sadler, 2013; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Sergeev et al., 2012; Siegrist, Gutscher, & Earle, 2005; Stajkovic, 2006; Stankov & Lee, 2008; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008; White, 2009; White, 2014
Successful performance or achievements
Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Baldoni, 2009; Baumeister et al., 1985; Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Beyer, 1990; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Chusmir et al., 1992; Clark & Gakuru, 2014; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Feather, 1969; Goldsmith, 2009; Guerin et al., 2010; Hart et al., 2014b; Johnson et al., 2000; Jones & Jones, 1989; Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Kimball & Gray, 1982; Kleitman & Moscrop, 2010; Koriat, 2012; Lachman, 2001; Larrick et al., 2007; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Lenney et al., 1983; Luthans et al., 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2004; Maclellan, 2014; Malkin & Stake, 2004; Melamed, 1996; Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015; Perry, 2011; Pratch, 2011; Sergeev et al., 2012; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987; Srivastava, 2013; Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015; Stankov & Crawford, 1997; Stankov & Lee, 2008; Stankov et al., 2012; Tavani & Losh, 2003; White, 2014; Wolfe & Grosch, 1990
Coaching, counseling, and mentoring
Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Hays et al., 2007; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Kirkwood, 2009; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida, Ward, & Vealey, 2012; O'Neil, Hopkins, & Bilimoria, 2015; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008; Vosloo, Ostrow, & Watson, 2009; White, de Sanctis, & Crino, 1981; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992
Decision-making and decisiveness
Barrett, 2009; Bowman, 1999; Hart et al., 2014b; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland et al., 1992; Jackson & Kleitman, 2014; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Koriat, 2012; Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Larrick, Burson, & Soll, 2007; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller, Spengler, & Spengler, 2015; Nygren & Ransom-Flint, 1997; Patalano & LeClair, 2011; Pallier, 2003; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; Vealey & Chase, 2008; White, 2014
Difficulty of work or task
Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Carr, Thomas, & Mednick, 1985; Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Koriat,
Goals, goal setting, and
Chernev, 2009; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams, 1992; Malkin & Stake, 2004;
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
39
2012; Larrick, Burson, & Soll, 2007; Lenney, Gold, & Browning, 1983; Lundeberg, Fox, & Puncochar, 1994; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller, Spengler, & Spengler, 2015; Moore & Healy, 2008; Stankov & Lee, 2008; Stankov, Lee, Luo, & Hogan, 2012
goal commitment
Patalano & LeClair, 2011; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; Srivastava, 2013; Stajkovic, 2006; Vealey & Chase, 2008; Zuckerman, 1985
Social or peer comparisons
Fazio & Zanna, 1978; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Instone et al., 1983; Johnson et al., 2000; Jones, Swain, & Cale, 1991; Kennedy, et al., 2013; Koivula, et al., 2002; Larrick, Burson, & Soll, 2007; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Lenney, Gold, & Browning, 1983; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida, Ward, & Vealey, 2012; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987; Stajkovic et al., 2015; Turk & Winter, 2006; Vealey et al., 1998
Athletic performance or success in sports
Beattie et al., 2011; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Grove & Heard, 1997; Hanton & Connaughton, 2002; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Hays et al., 2007; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Koivula, Hassmen, & Fallby, 2002; Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Machida, Ward, & Vealey, 2012; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Ryska, 2002; Subramanyam, 2013; Vealey, 1986; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Performance feedback
Beattie et al., 2011; Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Buratti & Allwood, 2012; Brabender & Boardman, 1977; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Gigerenzer et al., 1991; Instone et al., 1983; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Kimball & Gray, 1982; Krueger & Dickson, 1994; Lenney, 1977; Lenney & Gold, 1982; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; McCarty, 1986; Merkle & Van Zandt, 2006; Miller et al., 2015; Price & Stone, 2004; Puncochar & Fox, 2004; Putnam & Heinen, 1976; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995; Sleeper & Nigro, 1987; Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015; Stankov & Crawford, 1997; Tung & Chapman, 2014; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
Motivation, perseverance, and ambition
Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Anderson, et al., 2012; Baumeister et al., 1985; Benabou & Tirole, 1999; Benabou & Tirole, 2002; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Dumitrescu et al., 2012; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Emerson, 1998; Feltz & Oncu, 2014; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; House & Aditya, 1997; Ireland et al.1992; Kanter, 2014; Karimi & Saadatmand, 2014; Kennedy et al., 2013; Knippen & Green, 1989; Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg & Feltz, 1989; Luthans & Youssef, 2004; Puncochar & Fox, 2004; Ryska, 2002; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Shipman & Mumford, 2011; Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015; Tavani & Losh, 2003; Vealey, 1986; Vealey et al., 1998; Vealey & Chase, 2008
LOC and causal attributions
Addis, 2008; Albarracín & Mitchell, 2004; Andrews, 1987; Baldoni, 2009; Deeley & Love, 2012; Flynn, Heath, & Holt, 2011; Kanter, 2014; Maclellan, 2014; Perry, 2011; Stajkovic, 2006
Satisfaction and well-being
Addis, 2008; Anderson, et al., 2012; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Cheng & Furnham, 2002; Kennedy, Anderson, & Moore, 2013; Maclellan, 2014; Owens, 1993; Stajkovic, 2006; Stajkovic et al., 2015; Turk & Winter, 2006
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
40
While some of the trends in the antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence
seem self-evident—such as the assertion that high levels of self-confidence result in
greater satisfaction, motivation, or success—these findings do need to be taken with a
grain of salt. The vast definitions and conceptualizations of self-confidence across fields
make it difficult to consolidate findings with precision and clarity. For example, several
articles which define self-confidence as similar to some sort of self-efficacy state that it is
positively related to career success, progression, and promotions (Addis, 2008; Clarke,
2011; Emerson, 1998; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Kanter, 2014; McCarty, 1986). If a
researcher defines self-confidence as anything else besides self-efficacy, and they use any
of those citations as evidence that self-confidence increases career success or promotions
without stating the caveat that the citation operationalizes self-confidence as a different
construct, they may be irresponsibly citing that evidence and conceptually muddying the
waters in the self-confidence literature. What both the scientific and practical literature is
missing is a clear, concrete definition and operationalization of self-confidence. Because
of this considerable gap in the literature, the scientific and practical communities are
particularly limited in understanding self-confidence as a construct.
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41
Theory Development
The purpose of this research is to not only summarize and consolidate the current
state of literature on self-confidence, but also to use that information to provide a
coherent and theoretically-derived definition of self-confidence, so that it can be
operationalized and studied in various contexts. As previously stated, the Oxford
Dictionary defines self-confidence as “a feeling of trust in one’s abilities, qualities, and
judgment.” Therefore, it would seem reasonable to conceptualize internally-perceived
self-confidence as a form of self-trust. Mayer, Davis, and Schoorman (1995) provide a
model of trust which describes the process by which an individual chooses to trust
another and is particularly relevant to organizational settings. Applied to trusting
oneself, Mayer et al.’s (1995) Integrated Model of Organizational Trust can be used to
explain the process by which individuals choose to trust themselves and take risks in
themselves—i.e., to explain the process of internally-perceived self-confidence.
Integrated Model of Organizational Trust
Mayer et al. (1995) define trust as “the willingness of a party to be vulnerable to
the actions of another party based on the expectation that the other will perform a
particular action important to the trustor” (p. 712). It is a willingness to take a risk that
depends on both the trustor (i.e., trustor’s propensity to trust) and the trustee (i.e., their
perceived trustworthiness). The trustor must not only perceive the trustee as having the
ability (the right skills/competencies), benevolence (the will to do good), and integrity (a
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
42
set of moral principles) necessary to elicit that willingness to be vulnerable (i.e., be
perceived as trustworthy), but also have the propensity, or disposition, necessary to make
that leap of faith and take that risk in the other party.
If a given party both perceives the other to be trustworthy and has the propensity
to trust in general, they will be more likely to trust the other party, or be more willing to
be vulnerable or take a risk with them. However, this willingness does not always
translate into action—it depends on the perceived risk of the situation. If an individual is
willing to trust another party, and the perceived risk is somewhat low, they will be more
likely to act and take that risk in their relationship. If they perceive the risk as high, they
may be unwilling to take that risk. However, if they do decide to take that risk, the
outcome of that decision will inform how trustworthy the other party is perceived to be in
the future—providing a feedback loop, as seen in Mayer et al.’s (1995) Integrated Model
of Organizational Trust, as depicted in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1. Integrated Model of Organizational Trust Diagram (Mayer et al., 1995)
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
43
The Model of Self-Trust
But how does this operate when the person whom you are trusting is yourself?
What does it mean to believe that you have the ability, integrity, and benevolence
necessary to consider yourself trustworthy? What does it mean to trust yourself—or to
have internally-perceived self-confidence? When the individual with whom you are
taking risks is yourself, the Meyer at al. (1995) model may be used to explore the concept
of self-trust, in other words, internally-perceived self-confidence, which will be called
Internal Self-Confidence from this point forward. In this case, self-trust (i.e., Internal
Self-Confidence) can be defined as the willingness of an individual to be vulnerable
towards themselves – to take an action that benefits themselves despite the risk in doing
so. Internal Self-Confidence, like trust, is an evaluative attitude with affective,
behavioral, and cognitive components that targets the self. It is a willingness to take a
risk that depends both your propensity to trust, as well as how trustworthy you perceive
yourself to be (in terms of ability, benevolence, and integrity). But, what do these
constructs look like when the trustor and the trustee are one and the same?
When the trustor and the trustee are the same individual, trustor’s propensity to
trust can be conceptualized as an individual’s dispositional tendency to expect positive
outcomes from themselves—something that sounds similar to trait optimism. Further, an
individual’s perceived trustworthiness can be conceptualized as perceiving oneself to
have the ability (having the right skills/competencies), benevolence (wanting to be
good/kind to yourself), and integrity (believing in yourself and your moral principles)
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
44
necessary to elicit that willingness to be vulnerable—concepts that sound very similar to
self-efficacy (the behavioral component), self-esteem (the affective component), and self-
compassion (the cognitive component). When you believe in your competence, skills,
and abilities (general self-efficacy), you believe in your principles and values (self-
esteem), and you are caring and supportive towards yourself (self-compassion), you are
more likely to believe yourself to be trustworthy, and are therefore more likely to trust
yourself and accept vulnerability from yourself (i.e., have high Internal Self-Confidence).
If an individual both perceives themselves to be trustworthy and has the
propensity to trust in general (i.e., exhibits high levels of optimism), they will be more
likely to trust themselves, or be more willing to be vulnerable or take a risk with
themselves. However, this willingness does not always translate into action—it depends
on the perceived risk of the situation. If an individual is willing to trust, and the
perceived risk is somewhat low, they will be more likely to act and take that risk. If they
perceive the risk as high, they may be unwilling to take that risk. However, if they do
decide to take that risk, the outcome of that decision will inform how trustworthy they
consider themselves to be in the future—providing a feedback loop, which is moderated
by that individual’s levels of self-compassion. If one is able to have a self-compassionate
attitude towards themselves and their mistakes, it acts as a buffer to the feedback loop in
the case of negative or undesirable outcomes—they will be more capable of bouncing
back or forgiving their own failures or mistakes.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
45
The proposition that self-confidence encourages individuals to take risks in
themselves supports one of the major premises in Kay and Shipman’s (2014) book—The
Confidence Code—that confident people take action and gain experiences, which is the
mechanism that drives the further building of self-confidence. This feedback loop is one
of the most essential components of the Self-Trust Model, as well as the later discussed
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence. When an individual takes a risk in themselves, this
will result in either a favorable outcome (i.e., success), or an unfavorable outcome (i.e.,
failure). Whatever the case, that individual’s response to that particular outcome will
influence how trustworthy they consider themselves to be in future situations—the
feedback loop of which is moderated by self-compassion.
In summary, according to the Model of Self-Trust, Internal Self-Confidence, as a
broad, overarching construct, is influenced by three indicator factors: general self-
efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion. The effect of each of these indicators is also
influenced by one’s level of optimism—or the belief or expectation of positive outcomes.
Each of these factors is necessary for understanding and achieving Internal Self-
Confidence, which is a prerequisite for realizing the behavioral manifestation of self-
confidence, which includes taking action and taking risks with yourself.
Taking risks in yourself (whether you succeed or fail) is what is required to build
Internal Self-Confidence. When you expect that taking risks in yourself leads to success,
and that you can generate positive outcomes based on that success, you are more likely to
trust yourself, or have high Internal Self-Confidence. And having high levels of Internal
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
46
Self-Confidence motivates you to make the choice to take risks in yourself, and to exert
effort and persistence in those risks. This is what builds Internal Self-Confidence in the
long run, as displayed in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2. The Model of Self-Trust
Indicators of Self-Confidence
As stated in the summary of the Model of Self-Trust, Internal Self-Confidence, as
a broad, overarching construct, is mainly influenced by three indicator factors: self-
efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion. Together, these constructs determine how
trustworthy an individual considers themselves to be, and therefore how much they trust
themselves (i.e., Internal Self-Confidence), and subsequently impact risk taking, action,
and initiative in the pursuit of goals (the behavioral manifestation of self-confidence).
These constructs are essential components of Internal Self-Confidence when
conceptualized as an attitude with affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
47
Self-Efficacy (Behavioral Component). Self-efficacy is often defined in terms
of Bandura’s (1977) Self-Efficacy Theory. The theory states that behavior (i.e.,
motivation and performance) is primarily influenced by both outcome and personal
expectations. Outcome expectations refer to beliefs regarding whether or not succeeding
at a given behavior will result in a given outcome, while personal expectations refer to
beliefs regarding whether or not effort and persistence will lead to success. These
personal expectations can be strengthened using four different sources of information:
enactive (i.e., mastery experiences and performance accomplishments), vicarious (i.e.,
social comparisons and social modeling), exhortative (i.e., encouragement and support
from others), and emotive (i.e., physical arousal or anxiety) information. Efficacy and
outcomes expectations (i.e., self-efficacy) determine how much effort an individual will
exert, and how long they will sustain these efforts in the face of obstacles or adversity,
which is why the construct can be conceptualized as the behavioral component of Internal
Self-Confidence.
Self-Esteem (Affective Component). Self-esteem is defined as an affective
evaluation or judgment of oneself—it captures the feelings one has regarding how much
they “like” themselves, or how significant, worthy, and good they consider themselves to
be. While there seems to be consensus on the definition of self-esteem in the literature,
there is one conceptualization of the construct which deserve attention. Deci and Ryan
(1995) use their Self-Determination Theory to differentiate between contingent and true
self-esteem. Contingent self-esteem refers to contingent, instable, relative feelings of
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
48
self-worth which depend on comparisons with others or some externally-set standard.
True self-esteem, on the other hand, refers to more absolute, stable, and secure feelings of
self-worth, which are not contextual or based on comparisons. True self-esteem captures
the more dispositional feelings that one has towards oneself, and that works as the
affective component of Internal Self-Confidence.
Self-Compassion (Cognitive Component). Self-compassion is defined as a
healthy self-attitude of kindness, understanding, and awareness, which protects against
self-judgments and rumination (Neff, 2003; Neff & Vonk, 2009). Neff (2003) describes
the three main components of self-compassion: self-kindness (being kind towards oneself
in the face of failure or mistakes instead of harshly self-critical), common humanity
(perceiving oneself as a part of a larger human experience instead of isolated from it), and
mindfulness (keeping painful feelings and thoughts in a balanced awareness instead of
over-identifying with them). Self-compassion refers to seeing oneself clearly as equal
and interconnected with others, rather than focusing on faults or inadequacies in
comparison to others. Self-compassion also refers to seeing oneself accurately and
realistically, and being kind, understanding, and loving towards what you see—because
after all, being human means being flawed and imperfect. This knowledge and clarity
about one’s strengths and limitations, and mental strength to avoid harsh self-judgment
and elaborative cognitive processing is why self-compassion is the cognitive component
of Internal Self-Confidence.
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49
The Self
There is certainly an abundance of constructs which are headed with the “self”—
self-confidence, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-compassion, self-knowledge, self-
concept, self-actualization, self-evaluations, self-awareness, self-control, self-deception,
self-handicapping, self-monitoring, self-regulation, and the list goes on. But what exactly
is the “self”—and how is it defined? Snyder and Williams (1982) in their discussion of
self-theory state that the “self” can be defined as “the entire individuality of the person:
that composite of things and attributes that we use to describe a single being”—one’s
own theory of what it means to be themselves and who they are (p. 258). But let’s take a
step back.
In discussion of the “self”, the literature often begins by referring back to William
James’ (1892) differentiation of (1) “the self as known, or the me,”—which is divided
into three classes—the material me (or one’s body, clothes, family, home, wealth,
possessions, etc.), the social me (or social recognition from others, fame, honor, etc.), and
the spiritual me (or one’s sensations, emotions, and desires); and (2) “the self as knower,
or the I”—or the inner train of consciousness which defines our deepest thoughts, parallel
to one’s spirit, soul, or ego—similar to Epstein’s (1973) self-concept (p. 176). James
(1892) argues that it is the former, or the self as a known (the empirical self), which
arouses different feelings and emotions, based on the value that one places on the
different classes of the “self”. Failures or successes in these different classes (such as
one’s wealth vs. social recognition from others), can determine how one feels about
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
50
themselves—or their self-esteem. Individuals will feel bad about themselves if they do
not succeed in the classes of their “self” in which they place the most value. Conversely,
they will feel good about themselves if they do live up to their own pretentions in these
most valued classes.
Higgins’ (1987) Self-Discrepancy Theory asserts a comparable notion—that
discrepancies between the different domains of the self can elicit different emotional
reactions. The theory proposes three basic domains of the self: (1) the actual self, or the
attributes that you believe you possess (i.e., your own self-concept), (2) the ideal self, or
the attributes that you wish or aspire to possess (i.e., your hopes or wishes), and (3) the
ought self, or the attributes you believe you should or ought to possess (i.e., your duties
or obligations). Similar to James (1982), Higgins (1987) claims that discrepancies
between the actual self and the ideal or ought self—or the perception that one is not
living up the aspirations or obligations of themselves or of others—can also elicit
decrements in self-esteem. He further asserts that individuals are motivated to reach a
state to where their self-concept (or actual self) matches their ideal or ought selves
(whichever is more personally relevant to that individual), and that it is this goal of
discrepancy reduction which motivates one’s performance. In other words, one’s
performance is motivated by the significance of obtaining different personally relevant
ideal or ought attributes.
Higgins (1996) furthers Self-Discrepancy Theory by using a theory of self-digest,
or self-regulation. He states that “the self digest contains information about three kinds
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
51
of actual selves that differ in self-regulatory function”: (1) an instrumental self—which
functions to provide information on the consequences of particular actions or becoming a
particular kind of person, (2) an expectant self—which functions to provide information
on what can be experienced or expected in relation to some activity or object, and (3) a
monitored self—which functions to provide feedback information concerning how well a
person is doing in reaching some desired, or undesired, end-state (p. 1062). Because
there are three kinds of actual selves according to this self-digest theory, Higgins (1996)
argues that it makes sense to differentiate between three different types of self-esteem:
(1) instrumental self-esteem—or an appraisal of attributes leading to negative or positive
consequences, (2) expectant self-esteem—or an appraisal of expectancies for the self in
relation to certain activities, and (3) monitored self-esteem—or an appraisal of the
discrepancy between current and desired end states.
Furthering Higgins (1987, 1996) theories to address Internal Self-Confidence as
defined in this research, not only can discrepancies between different domains of the self
have a negative effect on self-esteem, but also have implications concerning self-efficacy
and self-compassion. The theories state that discrepancies between the actual self
(including instrumental, expectant, and monitored selves) and the ideal or ought self
(based on one’s own standards, or the standards of important others) can elicit
decrements in self-esteem. If one does not feel that they are meeting the wishes or
expectations of themselves or others, it can have an effect on the value that they place on
themselves. However, one can also harbor beliefs concerning their ability to reduce
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
52
these self-discrepancies, or to meet their goals in obtaining the attributes representing
their ideal or ought selves (i.e., discrepancy reduction self-efficacy). If an individual
believes in their ability to reduce these discrepancies, they will be more motivated to put
forth the effort and persistence in doing so. Further, if an individual recognizes
discrepancies between their actual and ideal or ought selves, high levels of self-
compassion can buffer the effect of these discrepancies on their self-esteem and self-
efficacy. If one is able to forgive discrepancies, and be okay with not perfectly living up
to the ideals or expectations of themselves, others, or even of society in general, these
discrepancies will be unlikely to take a large toll on their levels of self-esteem, or on their
belief in their ability to reduce these discrepancies (i.e., self-efficacy).
The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence
While one’s attitudes towards oneself in terms of abilities, qualities, and
compassion are undoubtedly important in such outcomes as career success, progression,
and promotions, internal perceptions of self-confidence are only part of the story. Subtle
signals and behaviors are often thought to be indicative of an individual’s level of self-
confidence—and therefore their competence (Anderson, et al., 2012; Locke & Anderson,
2015). The literature discusses many confidence cues, some of which include: enduring
and direct eye contact, strong and steady tone of voice, clear and articulate speech, lack
of anxiety or nervousness, good posture and poise, assertiveness in speech and
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
53
mannerisms, and expression of opinions, ideas, or viewpoints (Anderson, et al., 2012;
Borno, 2000; Cramer et al., 2009b; Kennedy, Anderson & Moore, 2013; Locke &
Anderson, 2015).
These “confidence cues” are often used by others to inform how competent or
able they believe another individual to be—especially in situations in which the
competence of said individual is unknown (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Locke &
Anderson, 2015). Figure 3 below delineates this process—one’s level of internally-
perceived self-confidence (i.e., Internal Self-Confidence) is often reflected in verbal,
nonverbal, and behavioral confidence cues (further referred to as External Self-
Confidence). These confidence cues inform other’s perceptions of that individual’s
competence, which affords that individual increased access to influence and power, and
therefore heightened career success. In turn, this career success is likely to further
increase the self-confidence (both internal and external) of said individual.
Figure 3. The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
54
In support of this, Locke and Anderson (2015) found that people often defer to
others who appear more self-confident—they participate less in discussions and defer to
their opinions and decisions, helping the more confident other ascend in social
hierarchies. Once individuals are deemed as more competent based on these cues, they
are afforded more influence and power in their social or organizational groups—even
when such assumptions of competence are not deserved. For example, Anderson, Brion,
Moore, and Kennedy (2012) found that in a dyadic task, individuals who exhibited more
confidence cues (regardless of their level of competence) were perceived as more
competent and afforded more influence by their partners. Kennedy, Anderson, and
Moore (2013) furthered these results—finding that those exhibiting more confidence cues
and more relative overconfidence at the task at hand were still awarded more status and
influence in the group, even when it was revealed that the individual did not have the
highest task performance in comparison to others in their group. Clearly, External Self-
Confidence plays a substantial role in the outcomes of Internal Self-Confidence and
whether or not such an attitude can influence one’s career success.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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Present Study
The purpose of this study is to provide a clear, coherent, and theoretically-derived
definition and validated measure of both Internal and External Self-Confidence based on
the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence. This will allow the construct to be correctly
operationalized and studied in organizational contexts. What makes the Integrated Model
of Self-Confidence unique is that it (a) operationalizes Internal Self-Confidence as self-
trust, not just as self-efficacy or self-esteem, (b) operationalizes Internal Self-Confidence
as an attitude, like trust, that can be changed with proper interventions, (c) includes
affective, behavioral, and cognitive components in the discussion of self-confidence, and
(d) includes a multiple-perception perspective of the construct by differentiating between
internally- and externally-perceived self-confidence. Therefore, the Integrated Model of
Self-Confidence will finally provide a clear, concrete, and unique definition and
operationalization of self-confidence so that the construct can be both studied empirically
and used in practical organizational settings.
The definition and operationalization of self-confidence as provided by the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence has critical scientific, practical, and theoretical
implications. To begin with, the development of the Integrated Model of Self-
Confidence will assist in unifying research behind one clear and cogent conceptualization
of self-confidence (both internally- and externally-perceived). The scattered and
inordinate definitions of self-confidence that exist in the research today will be a thing of
the past, and theoretical research will be capable of uniting and integrating theory behind
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
56
one overall conceptualization of self-confidence. Therefore, the literature should be able
to use correctly-operationalized measures of self-confidence (i.e., the Internal and
External Self-Confidence Scales) to help drive scientific knowledge forward.
This study will provide a theoretically-derived definition and validated measure of
both Internal and External Self-Confidence based on the Integrated Model of Self-
Confidence. Six studies will contribute to the development and validation of the Internal
and External Self-Confidence Scales, as well as the validation of the Integrated Model of
Self-Confidence:
- Study 1: Qualitative Assessment—What does self-confidence mean to people?
- Study 2: Exploration of Initial Items—What are the factors of self-confidence?
- Study 3: Internal Self-Confidence Scale—Development & Exploratory Factor Analysis
- Study 4: External Self-Confidence Scale—Development & Exploratory Factor Analysis
- Study 5: Construct Validation—Confirmatory Factor Analysis & Construct Validation
- Study 6: Criterion Validation—Predictive & Criterion Validation for Career Success
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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Study 1: Qualitative Assessment What does self-confidence mean to people?
Before the writing of any items, or the development of any measures, one
question needed to be answered: What does self-confidence really mean to people? As
qualitative research is often recommended during initial construct development (Spector,
1992), the first study was a qualitative assessment meant to better understand how people
colloquially define self-confidence, and how people identify whether another person is,
or appears to be, self-confident. Qualitatively assessing the construct in this manner
should increase the content validity of the scale. As “thematic analysis should be seen as
a foundational method for qualitative analysis” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 78), a thematic,
or qualitative content, analysis (using both inductive and deductive approaches) was used
to code and analyze the responses.
Hsieh and Shannon (2005) refer to qualitative content analysis as “a research
method for subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic
classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (p. 1278). In these
types of analyses, data is coded and recoded into content-related categories based on
similar meaning. These categories are then used to establish themes which link
categories together based on underlying meanings or latent content (Cho & Lee, 2014).
Coding the data and assessing frequencies of themes or categories across cases in this
manner can allow for the quantitative analysis of initially qualitative data.
One of the benefits of qualitative content analysis is the potential for researchers
to use both inductive and deductive methods in developing themes and coding categories
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
58
(Cho & Lee, 2014; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Potter & Levine-Donnerstein, 1999). The
inductive approach is often used when there are no prior theories or knowledge from
which to base themes and coding categories, therefore they are drawn directly from the
data. The deductive approach, on the other hand, is used in conjunction with theory or
prior research—themes and coding categories are preconceived and drawn from that
knowledge. The analysis of this data involved both inductive and deductive approaches.
Methods
All participants completed an online open-ended survey, asking how they define
self-confidence (question one), and how they know if someone does or does not have
self-confidence (questions two and three). Actual items can be found below. Participants
were also asked to identify their gender, age, racial/ethnic identity, country of citizenship,
and native language.
1. Self-confidence can mean different things to different people. What does self-confidence mean to you?
2. How do you know if someone has self-confidence? 3. What are some signs that someone lacks self-confidence?
Sample. There were 234 responses in total, with 118 (50%) participants from the
Women’s Business Center located at a southeastern university (now weVENTURE), 65
(28%) undergraduate participants from the same southeastern university received extra
credit for participation, and 51 (22%) participants from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk, or
mTurk (limited to the United States). Of note, the sample from the Women’s Business
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
59
Center was mostly women (94%), White (91%), and over the age of 50 years (75%). The
student sample was entirely under the age of 30 years, and were the least likely to not be
U.S. citizens (only 63% were), nor speak English as their native language (only 68% did).
The mTurk sample was more even in age and sex demographics, and being limited to
workers from the United States, 100% of the respondents were U.S. citizens, and 94%
spoke English as their first language. These differences between samples should be
considered in any interpretation of the analyses.
Overall, the sample consisted of 69% women and 29% men. Racial
demographics were as follows: 74% White, 9% Black or African American, 8% Asian,
5% Hispanic or Latino, 1% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and 0.4%
American Indian or Alaskan Native. There was a wide variety of ages. Eighty-one
participants (35%) indicated that they were between 18-29 years old, 56 (24%) between
30-49 years, and 97 (42%) between 50-79 years old. A clear majority of the participants
indicated that their country of citizenship was the United States (89%), and that English
was their native language (89%). This fact is important considering that self-confidence
may be a particularly culture-specific (or emic) concept (Heine, Lehman, Markus, &
Kitayama, 1999; Tafarodi & Swann, 1996). A breakdown of the demographics by sample
can be found in Table 14 below.
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Table 14. Sample Demographics for Qualitative Study
Analysis. Once the qualitative responses were collected from all three samples, a
group of four subject matter experts (SMEs), graduate-level Industrial/Organizational
Psychology students, analyzed each of the qualitative responses. The analysis of this data
involved both inductive and deductive approaches in qualitative content analysis. While,
as indicated by the review of the literature, there is a wide degree of literature on self-
confidence, there is no cohesive agreement on a definition nor theoretical underpinnings
of the construct. Therefore, initial coding categories were developed based on both
deductive and inductive procedures.
Using the deductive approach, categories hypothesized to be part of the
theoretical underpinnings of self-confidence, such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-
compassion, were coded. Constructs that made a frequent appearance in the self-
confidence literature were also included as coding categories, such as optimism, locus of
control, and affectivity. Using the inductive approach, categories were developed based
on open coding and discussion among the team of SMEs. Categories such as
avoiding/approaching goals, speaking up, persistence, demeanor, verbal/nonverbal
communication, appearance, apologizing, shyness, independence, expertise, trust in
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decisions/judgments, supportiveness, and egocentricity were developed based on frequent
mention in the qualitative responses.
From these responses, the SMEs agreed on twelve overall categories (some with
up to five sub-categories). These categories consisted of: (1) Self-efficacy; (2) Self-
esteem; (3) Self-compassion/ resiliency; (4) Optimism; (5) Locus of control; (6)
Affectivity; (7a) Avoid/approach goals; (7b) Speaking up; (7c) Persistence; (8)
Demeanor; (8a) Nonverbal communication/ body language; (8b) Verbal communication;
(8c) Appearance; (8d) Apologizing; (8e) Shyness/ timidity; (9) Independence; (10a)
Expertise/ knowing strengths; (10b) Trust in decisions and judgments; (11)
Supportiveness, warmth, empathy; and (12) Ego-centricity. Common themes found in
the responses for each category are described in Table 15 below.
After the research team agreed on the coding categories, SMEs individually coded
each response. Coder’s individual responses were compared and discrepancies were
discussed until an agreement was reached. Each response received between 1-8 codes
(including “Uncategorized”). For example, one response read that self-confidence means
“believing in one’s self and one’s capabilities.” Believing in yourself is representative of
having high self-esteem, while believing in your capabilities is more representative of
self-efficacy. Therefore, that response was coded with 1 and 2—self-efficacy and self-
esteem. The frequencies for each coding category can be found in Table 16 (Q1) and
Table 17 (Q2/Q3) below—the totals as well as the demographic and sample differences.
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Table 15. Category Response Themes
(1) Self-efficacy
Believing in one’s ability to accomplish tasks or goals; Not doubting one’s effectiveness or ability to succeed; Believing one can do anything they set their mind to; Having a “can-do attitude”; Feeling competent and capable; Feeling like you have the potential succeed
(2) Self-esteem
Believing in yourself; Taking pride in yourself; Being comfortable with who you are and in your own skin; Not feeling unvalued or unworthy; Having a positive self-image or self-regard—self-assured; Believing in one’s qualities and value; Accepting and loving oneself
(3) Self-compassion/ resiliency
Not needing to be 100% perfect; Accepting of mistakes and failures—willing to learn from them; Ability to bounce back and cope after setbacks; Not focusing on inadequacies or imperfections—not putting oneself down; Avoiding negative self-talk and ruminative loops
(4) Optimism Having a positive, optimistic outlook; Not expecting the worst out of everyone & everything; Having faith everything will turn out okay; Believing all will go as well as can be expected
(5) Locus of control
Taking responsibility for one’s own actions; Not blaming others for one’s own mistakes or failures; Attributing success to hard-work and dedication instead of luck; Taking credit for success and blame for failure; Believing you are in control of the situation
(6) Affectivity Having a positive attitude, generally happy—not depressed; Lacking anxiety/nervousness; Not being overcome by fear; having a calm & stable disposition—comfort in most situations
(7a) Avoid/ approach goals
Being able to take chances or risks without hesitation; Not fearing new challenges; Acting despite fear, doubts, or possibility of failure; Approaching instead of avoiding; Taking action or initiative; Not limiting oneself to one’s comfort zone
(7b) Speaking up
Speaking up during meetings; Not afraid to contribute to a conversation; Raising one’s hand or speaking in public; Willing to voice opinions and defend them; Sharing ideas and beliefs; Not being afraid to speak one’s mind; Standing up for yourself and what you believe in
(7c) Persistence Never giving up or backing down; Sticking with decisions; Persisting in meeting goals; Refusing to take no for an answer; Having the perseverance necessary to accomplish a goal
(8) Demeanor Their “presence” or demeanor—how someone presents themselves; Having charismatic or confident “vibe”; How one represents themselves
(8a) Nonverbal communication
Body language; Head held high, good posture, poised, smiling; The way one carries or holds oneself—“air” or “aura” of confidence;
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Firm and friendly handshake; Eye contact; No nervous gestures or fidgeting; They sit up, pay attention, and are alert
(8b) Verbal communication
Strong, firm tone of voice; Speaks clearly and decisively—with conviction; Does not mumble or stutter; Ability to speak with authority and command; Not soft-spoken or overly quiet; Speaks with articulation and ease; No up-speaking; Absolute (not wish-washy) use of words
(8c) Appearance
Dressing nice—appropriate for the situation; Taking pride in personal appearance; Grooming well; Good looks; Comfort with appearance; Being happy with what one sees in the mirror
(8d) Apologizing
Not always apologizing for everything, not being overly-apologetic
(8e) Shyness Not being shy or timid
(9) Independence
Not needing constant reassurance or external validation; Not easily influenced or persuaded to change decisions or opinions; Doesn’t let others walk all over them; Doesn’t let the fear of being judged by others hold them back; Independent in thought and action
(10a) Expertise/ knowing strengths
Recognizing one’s own strengths, talents, and abilities; Being educated or knowledgeable on a topic or subject; Believing in one’s credibility or expertise; Having an accurate assessment of one’s strengths and weaknesses; Recognizing what you know and what you don’t know
(10b) Trust in decisions
Being certain, decisive, or sure-footed; Ability to make appropriate decisions quickly; Not second-guessing oneself or one’s decisions; Not being overly hesitant or cautious when making decisions; Feeling comfortable making decisions for themselves and others
(11) Supportiveness, warmth, empathy
Treating others with respect and kindness; Being inclusive, supportive, and encouraging towards others and their ideas; Not criticizing or complaining about others; Not being hyper-critical of other people’s thoughts or ideas; Does not constantly try to find others’ faults
(12) Ego-centricity
Not needing to be the center of attention; Comfortable giving the spotlight to others instead of themselves; Not constantly showing off or bragging; Not taking credit for others’ accomplishments—letting others shine; Not being self-absorbed or ego-centric
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Table 16. Coding Percentages for Q1 (What does self-confidence mean to you?)
Table 17. Coding Percentages for Q2/Q3 (Signs someone has/lacks self-confidence)
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Results & Discussion
When respondents were asked what self-confidence means to them, self-esteem
(44%) and self-efficacy (35%) were by far the most frequent definition themes to arise,
highly supporting the assertion that both are essential to the construct definition of self-
confidence. Individuals’ tendencies to avoid or approach risks, goals, or challenges
(18%), independence of opinions, decisions, and actions (16%), self-compassion and
resiliency (13%), one’s trust in their decisions and judgments (13%), and one’s
knowledge of their own strengths, expertise, and competence (9%) were also common in
defining the colloquial use of self-confidence, and should be considered in its
nomological network.
When respondents were asked how they would know if someone does or does not
have self-confidence, some different patterns emerged. Approximately 74% of
respondents mentioned the individual’s demeanor—51% mentioning nonverbal
communication or body language, 43% mentioning verbal communication, and 17%
mentioning shyness or timidity. Individuals’ tendencies to avoid or approach risks, goals,
or challenges (31%) and independence of opinions, decisions, and actions (25%) emerged
again as an important indicator of self-confidence, as well as affectivity (24%), and self-
esteem (19%). One’s trust in their decisions and judgments (15%), self-compassion and
resiliency (12%), supportiveness, warmth, and empathy (9%), and ego-centricity (9%)
also emerged as common themes.
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While the overall findings paint a good picture of how self-confidence is defined
colloquially, there are some interesting patterns to consider when breaking down the
coding frequencies by gender, sample, and age, as can be seen in the tables below. What
is found by the demographic breakdown can be thought to explain how different
demographic subgroups view and conceptualize the construct of self-confidence. For
example, women, as well as the Women’s Business Center sample, were more likely to
mention self-compassion, optimism, locus of control, approaching risks, goals, and
challenges, speaking up, nonverbal communication and body language, apologizing, trust
in decisions and judgments, and supportiveness, warmth, and empathy, than men, or the
other two samples. There were also some trends of interest when analyzing age. For
example, younger participants were more likely to mention self-esteem, appearance, and
shyness, while older participants were more likely to mention self-compassion, optimism,
locus of control, speaking up, trust in decisions and judgments, being supportive, warm,
and empathic, and ego-centricity. The full list of trends can be seen in Table 18 below.
Equipped with a qualitative understanding of how people define self-confidence,
a quantitative approach was needed to better understand which categories were really a
part of self-confidence as a construct, and which qualified more as the antecedents or
outcomes of self-confidence—often mistaken for the construct itself. Study 2 was
conducted with such a purpose.
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Table 18. General Trends in Coding Frequencies
(01) Self-efficacy Men and U.S. citizens mentioned self-efficacy at a higher frequency than women
(02) Self-esteem The WBC sample mentioned self-esteem less frequently than the other two samples. There is also an overall trend of the frequency decreasing with age—self-esteem is mentioned more often by younger respondents.
(03) Self-comp Self-compassion was mentioned slightly more by women, as well as the WBC sample. Younger participants mentioned self-compassion less than their older counterparts.
(04) Optimism Optimism was not mentioned by any men—all mention of the category was by women. Optimism was also mentioned more often by the WBC sample, and mention appears to increase with age.
(05) LOC Locus of control was more often mentioned by women and the WBC sample. LOC also appears to be mentioned more frequently with age.
(06) Affectivity Affectivity is found slightly more frequently amongst men and non-US citizens.
(07a) Risk-taking Risk-taking is found slightly more prevalently among women and WBC sample. It is mentioned less frequently among 18-29 year olds compared to older counterparts.
(07b) Speak up Speaking up is mentioned more frequently among women, the WBC sample, and respondents over the age of 50.
(07c) Persistence Persistence is mentioned most frequently in the WBC sample,
(08) Demeanor General demeanor is mentioned most frequently among US citizens, and those over 50 years.
(08a) Nonverbal Nonverbal communication was mentioned slightly more by women, the WBC sample, US citizens, and participants over the age of 50.
(08b) Verbal com Verbal communication was mentioned slightly more by US citizens.
(08c) Appearance Appearance was mentioned the least by the WBC sample, and the most by the 18-29 age group
(08d) Apologize Apologizing was mentioned slightly more by women, the WBC sample, and US citizens.
(08e) Shy/ timid Shyness/timidity was mentioned least by women and the WBC sample. Mentioned of shyness also decreased with age—with thoe over 50 mentioning it least.
(09)Independence Independence was mentioned the least by respondents over the age of 50. (10a) Expertise No important trends or patterns
(10b) Decisions Trust in decisions and judgment was mentioned more by women and the WBC sample; it was mentioned the least in the 18-29 age group
(11) Supportive Being supportive, warm, and empathetic was mentioned more by women, the WBC sample, and by participants over the age of 50.
(12) Ego-centric Ego-centricity was mentioned the least by the student sample, and its mention appeared to increase with age, with 18-29 year olds mentioning the construct least.
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Study 2: Exploration of Initial Items What are the factors and outcomes of self-confidence?
The purpose of Study 2 was to develop self-confidence items based on the
qualitative responses collected in Study 1—therefore using both inductive and deductive
item generation processes. Such a pool of items would help identify which of the
qualitative response categories are really part of self-confidence as a construct, and which
qualify more as the antecedents or outcomes of self-confidence—mistaken for the
construct itself. Once the factors of self-confidence (both internal and external) are better
understood, measures of the constructs can be developed.
Methods
Each qualitative response from Study 1 was used to generate items that could
potentially be used in the item pool tapping each of the self-confidence categories. Each
code that the response received generated at least one potential item, with items having
no more than one code. For example, one response read as follows: “Self-confidence to
me means, I believe in myself and my ability, I don't need others’ approval.” This was
coded by the team of SMEs in Study 1 as consisting of self-efficacy, self-esteem, and
independence, and therefore the response generated three potential items: “I believe in
my abilities to succeed” (self-efficacy); “I believe in myself as a person” (self-esteem);
and “I do not need approval from others” (independence).
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This process resulted in a total of 470 items generated from 234 responses. Items
were then organized based on their code, and were selected or deleted from the item pool
based on repetitiveness, quality of item wording, and an assessment of content validity
(as recommended by Hinkin, 1998). For example, 29 of the items were some variation of
“I believe in myself.” Therefore, 28 of those items were deleted, and one remained.
Only coding categories with response rates of over 10% in Question 1 were included in
the scale. Items for codes such as affectivity, locus of control, optimism, and demeanor
were not included due to their low frequency as response categories. The selection and
deletion process resulted in a total of 130 items—36 reversed-coded. All reverse-coded
items were corrected prior to analyses. The coding categories for each of the 130 items
can be found in Table 19 below.
Table 19. Coding Categories for Self-Confidence Item Pool
Coding Category Category Response Rate for Q1 of Study 1 Item #
(1) Self-efficacy 35% 1-20 (2) Self-esteem 44% 21-40 (3) Self-compassion/ resiliency 13% 41-60 (7) Avoid/ approach 18% 61-88 (9) Independence 16% 89-108 (10) Trust in judgments/decisions 13% 109-130
Sample & Procedures. This pool of 130 items was distributed to a total of 678
participants—asking them to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with
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each item on a 5-point scale. The sample included 145 students from Utah Valley
University (21%), 194 students from the Florida Institute of Technology (29%), and 339
workers from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (50%). Most of the participants were female
(60%), White (75%), citizens of the United States (89%), and native English-speakers
(89%). The two student samples were also asked to indicate the number of semesters
completed, as well as their current grade point average (GPA). Items were randomized,
and any participants who either failed attention checks or completed the item pool in less
than five minutes were not included in the dataset.
Analysis. Several factor analyses and structural equation models were ran using
statistical programs. Further discussion can be found in the next sections.
Exploratory Factor Analysis & Results
The pool of 130 items was refined to 30 items (with five items in each category)
through several rounds of Exploratory Factor Analyses (EFAs) using SPSS—all using
Principal axis factoring for extraction, with a Promax rotation. This process began with
the full pool of 40 items for self-efficacy and self-esteem. Several EFAs were ran with
the goal of retaining the 10 self-efficacy and 10 self-esteem items which loaded the
cleanest onto two factors (in terms of having communalities and factor loadings larger
than .35). The same process was used for the 20 self-compassion items—refining it to 10
items based on communalities and factor loadings over several rounds of EFAs, then
adding it to the overall item pool. The same process was then repeated for the 20
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avoid/approach items, then the 21 trust in decisions/judgments items, and then finally the
19 independence items. The pool was further refined based on communalities and factor
loadings at each step along the way—eventually resulting in an item pool consisting of
five items for each of the six categories, for a total of 30 items.
Based on Eigenvalues, the statistical program naturally extracted four factors
(with self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion items all intermingling within the
same two factors); however, when commanded to extract six factors, the items loaded
neatly into each of their expected categories, or constructs (as seen in Table 20 below).
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Table 20. Study 2 Exploratory Factor Analysis of the 6-Factor Solution
Note. This table suppresses factor loadings of less than .35.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis & Results
The EFA procedures conducted in the last section refined the large number of
items used in this study to the five items which were most representative of each
category—self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion, avoid/approach, independence,
and trust in decisions/judgments. The EFA also confirmed the distinctness of each of the
six categories. But which combination of the categories is the most representative of
self-confidence? In other words, which of these categories act as the indicators of the
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broader construct of self-confidence? To answer these questions, several CFAs were also
ran to both confirm the factor structure of the items in each of their prospective
categories, as well as to compare alternative structures.
This process began with testing the 6-factor structure (as delineated in the EFA
table above) against the 3-factor structure represented in the Integrated Model of Self-
Confidence (i.e., self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion). Several alternative 4-
and 5-factor models were also assessed. Previous EFA analyses had revealed that no
matter the number of factors the program had been commanded to extract, the
independence items always loaded onto their own factor. Therefore, the alternative
models tested in Table 21 did not include independence—they are combinations of the
other two categories not represented in the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence—i.e.,
avoid/approach, and trust in decisions. As seen in the CFA table below, the model with
the lowest Chi-squared (X2 = 199, p = .000), largest Comparative Fit (CFI = .986) and
Tucker-Lewis (TLI = .983) Indices, and lowest Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA = .044) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR
= .025), was the three-factor model using only self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-
compassion—in support of the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence. This indicates that
the three-factor solution to Internal Self-Confidence may indeed have the best fit,
compared to when the other categories are included in the model. Perhaps it is
reasonable to assume that they represent something else—perhaps outcomes (i.e., ESC),
rather than indicators (i.e., ISC) of the construct.
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Table 21. Study 2 Confirmatory Factor Analyses
Model Structure X2 Sig. CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR 3 factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion 199 .000 .986 .983 .044 .025
4 factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion, trust in decisions 413 .000 .975 .971 .047 .030
4 factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion, avoid/approach 423 .000 .974 .970 .048 .034
5 factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion, avoid/approach, trust in decision
713 .000 .963 .958 .050 .035
6 factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion, avoid/approach, trust in decisions, independence
956 .000 .960 .955 .046 .043
Structural Equation Modeling & Results
The CFAs ran in the previous section revealed that out of alternative
combinations of factors confirmed in the EFA, the 3-factor structure of self-efficacy, self-
esteem, and self-compassion appeared to have the best fit. So what about the other
categories—i.e., avoid/approach, independence, and trust in decisions/judgments?
Maybe instead of being part of Internal Self-Confidence, they are more representative of
outcomes of the construct, or how much self-confidence others perceive (External Self-
Confidence). To test whether these factors serve better as factors or outcomes of self-
confidence, several SEMs were tested—as seen in Table 22 below.
Based on the SEM’s fit matrix, it does appear that avoid/approach, trust in
decisions/judgments, and independence fit better as outcomes than as factors of the
broader latent construct of self-confidence. The first three models tested, in which only
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self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion serve as factors, and avoid/approach, trust
in decisions/judgments, and independence serve as outcomes, have better fit than the
models in which the later categories are tested as factors—in terms of Chi-square values
(X2 = 392-423, p = .000), Comparative Fit (CFIs = .974-.976), Tucker-Lewis (TLIs =
.970-.973) Indices, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEAs = .045-.048),
and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMRs = .030-.039). Therefore, it seems
reasonable to assume that self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion represent an
overarching, latent construct of Internal Self-Confidence, and that avoid/approach
behaviors, trust in decisions/judgments, and independence in thought and action represent
outcomes of that self-confidence (or are more factors of External Self-Confidence).
Table 22. Study 2 Structural Equation Modeling Analyses
Structure X2 Sig. CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Y=Independence X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp 392 .000 .976 .973 .045 .039
Y=Trust in decisions X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp 413 .000 .975 .971 .047 .030
Y=Avoid/approach X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp 423 .000 .974 .970 .048 .034
Y=Independence X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp+Decisions 636 .000 .969 .965 .045 .040
Y=Avoid/approach X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp+Decisions 713 .000 .963 .958 .050 .035
Y=Independence X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp+Avd/App 641 .000 .968 .964 .046 .043
Y=Trust in judgments X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp+Avd/App 713 .000 .963 .958 .050 .035
Y=Independence X=Efficacy+Esteem+Comp+Avd/App+Decisions 956 .000 .960 .955 .046 .043
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Discussion
In summary, this study developed items based on the qualitative responses
collected in Study 1 and the coding categories developed by the team of SMEs.
Exploratory Factor Analyses refined these items to be most representative of their
prospective categories, and confirmed the distinctness of each of the six categories.
Confirmatory Factor Analyses further established the factor structure of each of the items
and compared alternative models, finding that the combination of self-efficacy, self-
esteem, and self-compassion best served as factors of the broader construct of Internal
Self-Confidence—supporting the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence. And finally,
Structural Equation Modeling further confirmed that self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-
compassion serve best as factors of Internal Self-Confidence, and also indicated that the
items representative of avoid/approach behaviors, trust in decisions/judgments, and
independence in thoughts and behaviors serve best as outcomes of self-confidence (i.e.,
as factors of External Self-Confidence).
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Study 3: Internal Self-Confidence Scale Development & Exploratory Factor Analysis
The purpose of Study 3 was to refine and partially validate the Internal Self-
Confidence Scale using the three-factor solution of self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-
compassion, as determined by the factor analyses in the previous study. For Study 3,
some of the items comprising the three factors of self-confidence were rewritten, revised,
and refined based on further factor analyses. The revised instrument was administered
along with other measures of similar constructs. It is hypothesized that the final items
representing “self-esteem” as an indicator of self-confidence will positively correlate with
a known measure of self-esteem, the final items representing “self-efficacy” will correlate
with a known measure of self-efficacy, and the final items representing “self-
compassion” will correlate with known measures of self-compassion and resiliency. It is
also hypothesized that all of the final items as a whole (i.e., the Internal Self-Confidence
Scale, ISCS) will also highly correlate with the previously validated measures of self-
efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion, and resiliency.
Methods
A pool of 53 Internal Self-Confidence items were validated against known
measures of the constructs within the three-factor solution (i.e., self-efficacy, self-esteem,
and self-compassion), asking participants to indicate the extent to which they agree or
disagree with each item on a 7-point scale in an online survey.
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Measures. The known measures which the Internal Self-Confidence Scale were
validated include Sherer et al.’s (1982) General Self-Efficacy Scale; Rosenberg’s (1965)
Self-Esteem Scale; Raes, Pommier, Neff, and Van Gucht’s (2011) short-version of the
Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003); as well as Paul and Garg’s (2014) short-form of the
Resiliency Scale (Wagnild & Young, 1993).
Internal self-confidence. As a first step in developing and refining the Internal
Self-Confidence Scale, the original 20 items for each of the self-efficacy and self-esteem
categories from Study 2 were retained, however five items were deleted from both the
self-efficacy and self-esteem categories based on theory and quality of wording—
resulting in 15 items per construct. For the self-compassion category, some of the items
from the previous study were retained, and some were developed to better align with
Neff’s (2003) three-factor solution of self-compassion. This resulted in eight items
representing self-kindness, eight items representing common humanity, and seven items
representing mindfulness—for a total of 23 self-compassion items. Therefore, the full
initial scale for this study had a total of 53 items.
Self-efficacy. Sherer, Maddux, Mercandante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs, and Rogers’
(1982) General Self-Efficacy Scale was used to measure self-efficacy. The scale consists
of 17 items, asking participants to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with
each statement. The original measure used a 14-point Likert scale, however, a 7-point
scale was used in this survey to make it easier to read for the participants. The scale was
considered reliable with a Cronbach’s alpha of .86 (Sherer et al., 1982). Sample items
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include: “When I make plans, I am certain I can make them work” and “I feel unsecure
about my ability to do things.”
Self-esteem. Rosenberg’s (1965) Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure self-
esteem. The scale consists of 10 items, asking participants to indicate the extent to which
they agree or disagree with each statement on a 4-point scale. However, a 7-point scale
was used in this survey for consistency’s sake. Rosenberg’s (1965) self-esteem scale is
the most widely used measure of self-esteem, with satisfactory internal consistency
reliabilities ranging α = 0.72 - 0.91 (Chen, Gully, & Eden, 2004; Hutz, Midgett, Pacico,
Bastianello & Zanon, 2014; Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2003; Martín-Albo, Núñez,
Navarro & Grijalvo, 2007). Sample items include “I feel that I have a number of good
qualities” and “I take a positive attitude towards myself”.
Self-compassion. Raes, Pommier, Neff, and Van Gucht’s (2011) short-version of
the Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003) was used to measure self-compassion. The scale
consists of 12 items, asking participants to indicate the extent to which they engage in
certain thoughts or feelings on a 5-point scale. However, this survey will use a 7-point
agreement scale. This measure of self-compassion consists of six subscales: Self-
Kindness vs. Self-Judgement; Common Humanity vs. Isolation; and Mindfulness vs.
Over-Identification. The short version of the scale displayed adequate internal
consistency reliabilities ranging α = 0.80 - 0.92 (Raes et al., 2011; Smeets, Neff, Alberts
& Peters, 2014). Sample items include “When I fail at something important to me, I
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become consumed by feelings of inadequacy” and “I try to see my failings as part of the
human condition” (Raes et al., 2011).
Resiliency. Wagnild’s (2009) short-form of the Resiliency Scale (Wagnild &
Young, 1993) was used to measure resiliency. The scale consists of 14 items, asking
participants to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with each statement on
a 7-point agreement scale. The scale is a well-known measure of resiliency, with
adequate internal consistency reliabilities ranging α = 0.76 - 0.91 (Wagnild, 2009).
Sample items include “I feel that I can handle many things at a time” and “My belief in
myself gets me through hard times” (Paul & Garg, 2014).
Sample. Both mTurk workers (participating for money) as well as students
(participating for extra-credit) were used to collect this data. After the quality checks, the
sample consisted of 629 participants—42% undergraduate students and 59% mTurk
workers. The entire sample was mostly female (51.5%), White (76.5%), citizens of the
United States (95%), and native English speakers (93%). The average age was 32.43
years, with a standard deviation of 14.63 years.
Analysis. In cleaning the data, participants who completed the survey in under
three minutes, as well as those failing more than one of six attention checks, were
removed from the data, all negatively-worded items were reversed-coded, and all
variables were labeled appropriately in SPSS for ease of reading. SPSS was used to (1)
conduct exploratory factor analyses to shorten and refine each subscale to a manageable
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set of items, (2) assess internal consistency reliabilities, and (3) measure scale inter-
correlations.
Results
Exploratory Factor Analysis. Several rounds of EFAs (principal axis factoring
using an oblique Promax rotation) were conducted in studying this data—some rounds
deleting items to a more manageable set using communalities and factor loadings, some
using solely communalities after the program was commanded to extract one factor, and
some based on the structure of the factor loadings in the pattern matrix. Each final
version of each round resulted in scales of 9-15 items which all loaded onto the same
factor. The most common items to emerge after each round of EFAs were assessed
together—resulting in a scale consisting of five items for each subscale—self-esteem,
self-efficacy, and self-compassion, for a total of 15 common items. A group of four
SMEs convened to discuss the quality of wording, repetitiveness, and content validity of
each item, resulting in one item being deleted from each of the subscales.
The final scale consisted of four items per subscale, for a total of 12 items, as seen
in Table 23 below. The scale had appropriate factorability, with a KMO measure of 0.95,
and a highly significant Bartlett’s test (X2 = 5053.44**, df = 66). The one factor
extracted accounted for a total cumulative variance of 55.16%, and was highly reliable
with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.924, and an Intraclass Correlation Coefficient of 0.502**.
Table 24 displays the factor loadings of the same items, commanded to extract three
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factors. The three-factor solution accounted for a total cumulative variance of 62.44%.
While each component of Internal Self-Confidence seems visibly discernible, they do not
load cleanly into three distinct factors, giving more credibility to the one-factor solution
for the Internal Self-Confidence Scale.
Table 23. Study 3 Internal Self-Confidence Scale EFAs
Note. This table suppressed factor loadings under 0.30, except in cases in which none of the loadings for the item exceeded 0.30. In this case, the largest loading was included.
Descriptives & Correlation Analyses. As predicted, the Internal Self-
Confidence scale correlated significantly with known and validated measures of self-
efficacy (r = .731**), self-esteem (r = .814**), self-compassion (r = .719**), and
resiliency (r = .840**). Further, each of the subscales also exhibited large, significant
correlations in the expected direction: the self-efficacy subscale correlated significantly
with Sherer et al.’s (1982) General Self-Efficacy Scale (r = .743**), the self-esteem
subscale correlated significantly with Rosenberg’s (1965) Self-Esteem Scale (r = .814**),
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and the self-compassion subscale correlated significantly with both Raes et al.’s (2011)
Self-Compassion Scale (r = .707**), as well as Wagnild’s (2009) Resiliency Scale (r =
.753**). See Table 26 for the full correlation matrix.
Neither the scale as a whole, nor its subdimensions, had significant relationships
with gender nor age (only one self-compassion item had a significant gender difference,
as seen in Table 24). While the difference was insignificant, women (Mean = 5.4642, SD
= .91) scored higher in Internal Self-Confidence than men (Mean = 5.4995, SD = .96).
The same pattern was exhibited in each of the three factors, as seen in the gender
descriptives presented in Table 25. This pattern held true for both student and mTurk
samples. The only scale to have a significant (but still small) gender effect was Sherer et
al.’s (1983) Generalized Self-Efficacy scale (r = .108), in which women (Mean = 5.26,
SD = .99) also scored higher than men (Mean = 5.04, SD = .98).
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Table 24. Study 3 Item Correlations for the Internal Self-Confidence Scale (ISCS)
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Table 25. Study 3 Gender Descriptives for Internal Self-Confidence Scale (ISCS)
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Table 26. Study 3 Full Correlation Matrix
Note. Positive correlations with gender indicate that women scored higher than men. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Discussion
It was hypothesized that the final items representing “self-esteem” as an indicator
of self-confidence would positively correlate with Rosenberg’s (1965) Self-Esteem Scale,
the final items representing “self-efficacy” would correlate with Sherer et al.’s (1982)
General Self-Efficacy Scale, and the final items representing “self-compassion” would
correlate with Raes et al.’s (2011) Self-Compassion Scale, as well as Wagnild’s (2009)
Resiliency Scale. These hypotheses were supported with significant, positive correlations
with large effect sizes, indicating that each of the sub-scales of the Internal Self-
Confidence Scale are construct valid, and embody the constructs that they are meant to
represent. It was also hypothesized that all of the final items as a whole (i.e., the measure
of Internal Self-Confidence) would also highly correlate with the previously validated
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measures of self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-compassion, and resiliency. These
hypotheses were also supported with significant, positive correlations with large effect
sizes, supporting the notion that the scale as a whole is construct valid.
It was also expected that the Internal Self-Confidence Scale would load onto one
factor and have good fit with a one-factor solution. As expected, the items of the final
Internal Self-Confidence Scale naturally loaded onto one factor in the EFA. The three-
factor solution did not have each component of self-confidence load cleanly onto itself.
Theoretically, the one-factor solution makes more sense (as Internal Self-Confidence is
considered an overarching latent factor) and is more parsimonious than the three-factor
solution. Because of these facts, the one-factor solution to the Internal Self-Confidence
Scale is preferred.
Further, based on previous research, it was expected that men would score higher
in Internal Self-Confidence, as well as in each of the sub-scales, and associated scales
meant to assess construct validity. However, this was not the case with this sample.
While women only scored significantly higher than men in Sherer et al.’s (1982) General
Self-Efficacy Scale, women scored marginally higher in Internal Self-Confidence, as well
as in each measure of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-compassion. It may be that
women are not as lacking in internal perceptions of self-confidence as much of the
practical and scientific literature indicates.
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Study 4: External Self-Confidence Scale Development & Exploratory Factor Analysis
The purpose of Study 4 was to develop and refine a measure of External Self-
Confidence—or items that can be used to measure how self-confident or lacking in self-
confidence one appears to be to an onlooker. Understanding the confidence cues as
described in the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence, as well as how they relate to and
interact with internal perceptions of self-confidence, will help validate the model and
move the construct forward in research and practice.
Methods
In a manner similar to that of Study 2, the qualitative responses from Study 1
were used to develop items to tap external indicators of self-confidence for each of the
categories listed in Study 1. This resulted in a pool of 284 items, which were refined and
deleted based on theory, repetitiveness, and quality of wording, resulting in a pool of 70
items over seven categories. Ten items remained in each category—half of which were
reverse-coded. The seven categories were: affectivity/optimism, taking action, nonverbal
communication, verbal communication, independence, decisiveness, and egocentrism/
altruism, as agreed upon by the aforementioned group of SMEs.
Measures. The pool of 70 External Self-Confidence items was distributed
through an online survey. Participants were asked to rate the extent to which each item
was characteristic of a self-confident person (1 = Highly uncharacteristic of a self-
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confident person; 2 = Somewhat uncharacteristic of a self-confident person; 3 = Neutral;
4 = Somewhat characteristic of a self-confident person; 5 = Highly characteristic of a
self-confident person). This procedure, recommended by Hinkin (1998), assists in the
assessment of the content validity of each of the items in this External Self-Confidence
Scale.
Sample. Both mTurk workers (participating for money) as well as students
(participating for extra-credit) were used to collect this data. After the quality checks, the
sample consisted of 598 participants—46% students and 54% mTurk workers. The entire
sample was mostly female (54%), White (78%), U.S. citizens (94%), and native English
speakers (93%). The average age was 38.75 years, with a standard deviation of 12.17
years.
Analysis. In cleaning the data, participants who completed the survey in under
three minutes, as well as those failing more than one of six attention checks, were
removed from the data, all negatively-worded items were reversed-coded, and all
variables were labeled appropriately in SPSS for ease of reading. SPSS was used to both
conduct exploratory factor analyses to shorten and refine each subscale to a manageable
set of items, and to assess the scale’s internal consistency reliability.
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Results
Exploratory Factor Analysis. The first step in item deletions was to assess the
means of each item. Because this study asked participants to rate each item on how
characteristic vs. uncharacteristic of a highly self-confident person the indicator is. Items
which did not have an average rating of at least 4.0 (i.e., at least somewhat characteristic
of a highly self-confident person) were deleted, as well as five items based on quality of
wording. This resulted in the deletion of 25 items—including the entire subscale of
Egocentrism/Altruism. Several rounds of EFAs (principal axis factoring using an oblique
Promax rotation) were conducted in studying this data—some rounds deleting items to a
more manageable set using communalities and factor loadings, some using solely
communalities after the program was commanded to extract one factor, and some based
on the structure of the factor loadings in the pattern matrix.
Each final version of each round resulted in scales of 10-12 items which all
naturally loaded onto two factors. The most common items to emerge after each round of
EFAs (12 items across all subscales, except for independence) were assessed together,
along with the 6 initial items in the independence subscale which had means over 4.0,
and were deemed by the group of SMEs as having high-quality wording. Items with
extracted communalities under 0.40 were deleted, resulting in an initial 12-item scale.
The same group of SMEs reconvened to discuss the quality of wording, repetitiveness,
and content validity of each item. After some discussion, the group decided that items 44
and 48 (independence subscale) were highly similar, and should either be reduced, or one
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item should be substituted with a different item to hold the consistency of the subscale
structure. Of all the other independence items, item 41 had the best fit in terms of
replacing item 48 (based on communalities). This replacement resulted in the 12-item
scale presented in Table 27 below. This scale has appropriate factorability with a KMO
of 0.940 and a significant Bartlett’s test (X2 = 3118.27**, df = 66). The two-factor
solution had a total cumulative variance of 48.943%, while the one-factor solution had a
total cumulative variance of 44.595%. The scale had respectable reliability, with a
Cronbach’s alpha of 0.903, and an Intraclass Correlation Coefficient of 0.438**. The
naturally-extracted 2-factor solution appeared to mostly separate out the items based on
the direction of the item (with one exception). Because of this, and due to theory and
parsimony, the one-factor solution is preferred. A six-factor solution was also briefly
looked at and displayed no discernible patterns in factor loadings.
Table 27. Study 4 External Self-Confidence Scale (ESCS) EFA
Note. This table suppresses factor loadings under 0.35.
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Descriptive & Correlation Analyses. Participants in this study were asked to
rate the extent to which each item was characteristic of a self-confident person. They
were not asked to self-report, nor to indicate how representative each item is of
themselves. Descriptives depict representativeness of self-confidence for each item and
subscale. The External Self-Confidence Scale as a whole had a small, but significant
relationship with gender, in which women (Mean = 4.33, SD = .64) perceived the items
to be more representative of self-confidence than did men (Mean = 4.15, SD = .66). This
means that women in this sample found a majority of the items to be more representative
of a self-confident person than did men. While the difference was not significant with
every item in the scale, women did score somewhat higher than men on each item, and as
well as in almost every subscale of the measure. While women still scored marginally
higher in nonverbal communication, the difference was non-significant. One interesting
pattern to note, however, is that the correlation between gender and independence was the
highest, indicating that women may place a special significance on independence in
thought in action in representing how a self-confident person looks to them. The same
pattern held true for both student and mTurk samples, although the gender differences
were non-significant in the mTurk sample. See Table 28 for item and factor correlations,
and Table 29 for item gender descriptives.
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Table 28. Study 4 Item Correlations for External Self-Confidence Scale (ESCS)
Note. Participants in this study were asked to rate the extent to which each item is characteristic of a self-confident person. Descriptives depict representativeness of self-confidence for each item and subscale in this table. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Table 29. Study 4 Gender Descriptives for External Self-Confidence Scale (ESCS)
Note. Participants in this study were asked to rate the extent to which each item is characteristic of a self-confident person. Descriptives depict representativeness of self-confidence for each item and sub-scale in this table.
Discussion
It was expected that the External Self-Confidence Scale would load onto one
factor and have good fit with a one-factor solution. However, the program naturally
extracted two factors. Because it appeared to be based largely on the directionality of the
items, this was considered a statistical artifact, and therefore the one-factor solution was
accepted. Theoretically, the one-factor solution makes more sense (as self-confidence is
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considered an overarching latent factor) and is more parsimonious. Because of these
facts, the one-factor solution to the External Self-Confidence Scale is preferred.
The External Self-Confidence Scale as a whole had a small relationship with
gender, in which women scored significantly higher than men. However, because of the
nature of how the items were presented to participants, this only means that women in
this sample found a majority of the items to be more representative of how a self-
confident person looks than did men. One interesting pattern to note, however, is that
gender and independence appeared to have the strongest relationship, indicating that
women may place a special significance on independence in thought in action in
representing how a self-confident person appears to them.
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Study 5: Construct Validation Confirmatory Factor Analysis & Construct Validation
This purpose of this study was to validate the Internal Self-Confidence Scale
items that resulted from Study 3 and the External Self-Confidence Scale items that
resulted from Study 4. This study was also meant to determine how strong of a
relationship exists between internal perceptions of self-confidence and the external
perceptions of physical and behavioral confidence cues.
As a recap, participants in Study 1 were asked to identify what self-confidence
means to them. A group of SMEs developed categories and themes in order to code the
responses. Of the themes identified, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion were
included in the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence—or as indicators of Internal Self-
Confidence, as defined as self-trust in accordance with Mayer et al.’s (1995) trust model.
Many of the other themes, while not a part of Internal Self-Confidence itself, are highly
similar to and often confused with the construct—as demonstrated in the qualitative
study. Some of these themes include: taking risks and avoid/approach behaviors,
independence in thought and action, trust in decisions/judgments, cognitive capacity,
demeanor/ shyness, affectivity, locus of control, and optimism. Using measures which
tap into each of the similar themes will help develop a nomological network and
determine the construct validity of both the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales.
One measure will be particularly useful in establishing this nomological
network—core self-evaluations. Judge and Bono (2001) define core self-evaluations as
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“positive self-concept”, or more specifically, “a broad dispositional trait that is indicated
by four more specific traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and
emotional stability (low neuroticism)” (p. 80). Each of these lower-order indicators were
coded as themes in Study 1, and therefore the higher-order construct as a whole will also
be considered as a correlate of self-confidence (both internal and external).
Figure 4 below, derived from the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence,
demonstrates the relationships between self-confidence and the correlates and outcomes
of the construct which will be assessed in Study 5. It is hypothesized that Internal Self-
Confidence will show moderate relationships with the measures representing correlates—
neuroticism/affectivity (negatively), locus of control (negatively), and optimism
(positively). It is also hypothesized that moderate relationships will be exhibited with the
outcomes listed under taking risks in yourself (general risk propensity and achievement
motives), as well as confidence cues/outcomes (External Self-Confidence, decision-
making, independence, shyness/sociability, and problem-solving confidence). External
Self-Confidence is also expected to correlate moderately with the other measures
representing confidence cues/outcomes in the model. All of these relationships are
expected to be positive, except for all of the measure’s correlations with shyness and fear
of failure, which are expected to be negative.
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Figure 4. Construct Validation Model
Methods
In order to assess the construct validity of both the Internal and External Self-
Confidence Scales, a longitudinal study was conducted. Participants (n = 479) responded
to the Internal Self-Confidence Scale, along with measures of correlates of self-
confidence, at Time 1. At Time 2 (an average of 16 days subsequently), participants (n =
204) responded to the External Self-Confidence Scale, along with measures of outcomes
of self-confidence—as depicted in the theoretical construct validation model.
Measures. The survey at Time 1 consisted of the Internal Self-Confidence Scale
that came from Study 3 (see Appendix C), as well as measures of the following
correlates: affectivity/neuroticism, locus of control, optimism, and core self-evaluations.
The survey at Time 2 consisted of the External Self-Confidence Scale that came from
Study 4 (framed as a self-report measure this time—see wording in Appendix D), as well
as measures of the following outcomes/moderators: general risk propensity,
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avoid/approach behavioral style (in terms of achievement motives), independence in
thought and action, problem-solving confidence, and shyness/sociability (i.e., demeanor).
Core Self-Evaluations. Judge, Erez, Bono, and Thoresen’s (2003) Core Self-
Evaluations Scale was used to measure affectivity/neuroticism, as well as locus of
control, as depicted in the model in Figure 4. Participants were asked to respond to the
entire 12-item Core Self-Evaluations Scale on a 7-point agreement scale (as opposed to
the original 5-point scale) in order to maximize variability. Core self-evaluations are
considered a latent construct composed of neuroticism, locus of control, self-efficacy, and
self-esteem (Judge & Bono, 2001). Both the entire scale and subscales will be assessed
in their relation to self-confidence (internal and external). In other words, their subscales
of self-esteem and self-efficacy were compared to the same subscales in the ISCS. The
Core Self-Evaluations Scale has internal consistency reliabilities ranging α = 0.81 - 0.87
(Judge et al., 2003). Sample items include “Sometimes I feel depressed” (neuroticism
subscale), and “I determine what will happen in my life” (locus of control subscale)
(Judge et al., 2003).
Optimism. Scheier and Carver’s (1985) Life Orientation Test was used to measure
optimism. Participants were asked to respond on a 7-point agreement scale (as opposed
to the original 5-point scale) the extent to which they agree or disagree with eight
statements concerning their personal levels of optimism. The scale was considered
reliable with an internal consistency reliability of α =.76 (Sheier & Carver, 1985).
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Sample items include “I always look on the bright side of things” and “Things never
work out the way I want them to” (Scheier & Carver, 1985).
General Risk Propensity. Hung and Tangpong’s (2010) General Risk Propensity
Scale was used to measure individual’s general propensity towards risk. General risk
propensity is thought to influence the perceived risk of any given situation. Participants
were asked to respond on a 7-point scale the extent to which 10 items are accurate or
inaccurate descriptions of themselves. The scale has fair reliability, with a Cronbach’s
alpha of α = 0.71 (Hung & Tangpong, 2010). Sample items include “I believe that higher
risks are worth taking for higher rewards” and “I like to take chances, although I may
fail” (Hung & Tangpong, 2010).
Achievement Motives. Lang and Fries’ (2006) Revised Achievement Motives
Scale was used to measure achievement motives. The scale measures achievement
motives with two dimensions: Hope of Success and Fear of Failure. Participants were
asked the extent to which they agree or disagree with 10 statements on a 7-point scale (as
opposed to the original 4-point scale) in order to maximize variability. Reliability
coefficients were fair – ranging from α = 0.71 - 0.88 (Lang & Fries, 2006). Sample items
include “I am attracted by tasks in which I can test my abilities” (hope of success
subscale) and “I feel uneasy to do something if I am not sure of succeeding” (fear of
failure subscale) (Lang & Fries, 2006).
Decision-Making. Scott and Brown’s (1995) Decision-Making Style measure
was used to tap into trust in decisions/judgments. The scale consists of 24 items on a 7-
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point agreement scale (as opposed to the original 5-point scale) which assess the
“propensity to react in a certain way in a specific decision context” (Scott & Brown,
1995, p. 820). The authors present five different types of decision styles which can be
identified in this scale: (1) Rational—making decisions based on a logical evaluation, (2)
Intuitive—making decisions based on feelings and hunches, (3) Dependent—making
decisions based on direction and advice from others, and (4) Spontaneous—making
decisions based on a sense of immediacy in wanting to get the decision over with; and (5)
Avoidant—avoiding rather than making decisions. Internal consistency was acceptable
within each of the subscales—ranging from α = 0.77 - 0.85 (Scott & Brown, 1995).
Sample items include “When I make a decision, I trust my inner feelings and reactions”
(intuitive subscale) and “I put off making many decisions because thinking about them
makes me uneasy” (avoidant subscale) (Scott & Brown, 1995).
Independence. Lorr and More’s (1980) Independence Scale (a subscale of their
larger Assertiveness Scale) was used to measure individual independence in thought and
action. The scale consists of eight items which “reflect a willingness to resist social
pressure or authority in order to express beliefs and opinions” (Lorr & More, 1980, p.
133). The article refers to 12 Independence items, however, the article only provides the
eight which were most correlated with assertiveness. Participants were asked to indicate
the extent to which they agree or disagree which each of the eight items on a 7-point
scale (as opposed to the original 5-point scale). The 12-item Independence scale was
stated to have fair internal consistency reliability, with α = 0.77. Sample items include
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“When there is disagreement I accept the decision of the majority” and “My opinions are
not easily changed by those around me” (Lorr & More, 1980).
Shyness/Sociability. Cheek and Buss’ (1981) Shyness and Sociability Scale was
used to measure an individual’s level of shyness and sociability—which is thought to be
related their overall “demeanor”. Participants were asked on a 7-point scale (as opposed
to the original 5-point scale) the extent to which 14 items are characteristic or
uncharacteristic of themselves—nine items in the shyness subscale, and five items in the
sociability subscale. The scales had fair reliability—with α = 0.79 for the Shyness
subscale, and α = 0.70 for the Sociability subscale (Cheek & Buss, 1981). Sample items
include “I don’t find it hard to talk to strangers” (shyness subscale) and “I welcome the
opportunity to mix socially with people” (sociability subscale) (Cheek & Buss, 1981).
Problem-Solving Confidence. Heppner and Petersen’s (1982) Problem Solving
Inventory was used to measure Problem-Solving Confidence. The Problem-Solving
Inventory is an instrument for assessing the “dimensions underlying the applied problem-
solving process” (Heppner & Petersen, 1982, p. 66). It consists of 11 items in the
Problem-Solving Confidence subscale—all on a 6-point scale. However, participants in
this study responded to a 7-point scale. Internal consistency reliabilities were adequate—
being α = 0.90 for the entire inventory, and α = 0.85 for the Problem-Solving Confidence
subscale (Heppner & Petersen, 1982). Sample items include “I make decisions and am
happy with them later” and “Given enough time and effort, I believe I can solve most
problems that confront me” (Heppner & Petersen, 1982).
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Sample. The measures were distributed through an online survey, using both
mTurk workers (n = 198; participating for money) as well as undergraduate students (n =
281; participating for extra-credit). Of the 479 participants, 275 only took the Time 1
survey, while 204 took both Time 1 and Time 2 surveys. Only the 43% (n = 204) who
took both parts of the survey were included in analyses (28% undergraduate students and
72% mTurk workers). This sample was 53% male, 77% Caucasian, with an average age
of 32.2 (SD = .68). Participants consisted of 98% U.S. Citizens, and 95% Native English
speakers. The time lapse between the two item sets was 1-35 days later, with an average
of 16 days in between (Mean = 15.65, SD = 6.61). Students who took the Time 2 survey
less than 24 hours after taking the Time 1 survey were removed from the dataset.
Analysis. Quality checks were considered in the cleaning of the data and
elimination of participant responses from the dataset. Participants taking either survey in
less than two minutes were removed from the dataset, as well as those failing more than 1
of the 6 attention checks. All negatively-worded items were reversed-coded, and all
variables were labeled appropriately in SPSS for ease of reading. SPSS was used to
assess descriptives and correlation analysis, as well as to reaffirm the factor structure of
both scales using exploratory factor analysis. SPSS AMOS was used to conduct
confirmatory factor analyses to assess the measurement models and factor structure of the
Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales. Further, SEM (also using SPSS AMOS)
was used to test whether External Self-Confidence is indeed an outcome of Internal Self-
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Confidence, as well as both of their relationships with the other outcomes depicted in the
predicted theoretical construct validation model.
Results
Descriptive & Correlation Analyses. Correlation analysis was used to test the
nomological network identified by the hypotheses. See Table 30 for the hypothesized
correlation coefficients, and Table 34 for the full correlation matrix. As predicted, the
Internal Self-Confidence Scale was highly and significantly related to External Self-
Confidence (r = .651**), core self-evaluations (r = .853**), reversed neuroticism (r =
.688**), locus of control (r = .666**), optimism (r = .716**), and problem-solving
confidence (r = .647**). It also exhibited positive moderate correlations with general
risk propensity (r = .367**), hope for success (r = .398**), independence (r = .222**),
and sociability (r = .332**), as well as large negative correlations with fear of failure (r =
-.546**) and shyness (r = -.621**).
The External Self-Confidence Scale showed very similar patterns—it was also
highly and significantly related to core self-evaluations (r = .746**), reversed
neuroticism (r = .703**), locus of control (r = .570**), optimism (r = .569**), and
problem-solving confidence (r = .672**). It also exhibited positive moderate correlations
with general risk propensity (r = .398**), hope for success (r = .444**), independence (r
= .395**), and sociability (r = .280**), as well as large negative correlations with fear of
failure (r = -.742**) and shyness (r = -.804**).
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The Internal Self-Confidence Scale was more highly correlated with core-self
evaluations (p = .002**), optimism (p = .011**), and intuitive decision-making (p =
.022*), than the External Self-Confidence Scale. Conversely, the External Self-
Confidence Scale was more highly correlated with fear of failure (p = .001**), dependent
(p = .007**), avoidant (p = .002**), and spontaneous (p = .017*) decision-making, and (p
= .000**) shyness, than the Internal Self-Confidence Scale.
In this study, men scored marginally higher than women in both the Internal and
External Self-Confidence Scales, as well as in the subscales, and a majority of the items,
with a few exceptions—(see Table 31 for correlations with full scales and subscales,
Table 32 for item correlations, and Table 33 for gender descriptives for both items, full
scale, and subscales). Interestingly, women scored somewhat higher in taking action than
men (although the difference was not significant; p = 0.93). However, this pattern did not
hold true in the student sample, in which men scored higher on all subscales. Also, in the
External Self-Confidence subscale Decisiveness, men did score significantly higher than
women (p = .01**). However, this pattern did not hold true in the mTurk sample, in
which the difference was non-significant. This is interesting, considering the non-
significant relationship between gender and Problem-Solving Confidence (r = -.054), and
the significant and positive relationship between Problem-Solving Confidence and the
External Self-Confidence Scale’s Decisiveness (r = .590**). Also of note, the
relationship between Internal and External Self-Confidence was stronger for women (r =
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.665**; N = 97) than for men (r = .635**, N = 107), although the difference between
correlation coefficients was non-significant (z = 0.37, p = .711).
In terms of the validated measures included in this study, there were a few notable
gender differences: in reversed neuroticism (r = -.167*), and in fear of failure (r = .218).
This indicates that the men in this sample scored higher in reverse neuroticism (i.e., were
more emotionally stable, self-reported), and were lower in fear of failure than the women,
which could be expected based on the research literature.
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Table 30. Study 5 Hypothesized Correlation Coefficients
Note. Positive correlations with gender indicate that women scored higher than men. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Table 31. Study 5 Subscale Correlations
Note. Positive correlations with gender indicate that women scored higher than men.
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Table 32. Study 5 Item Correlations
Gender ISCS ESCS Gender - -.064 -.107 Internal Self-Confidence Scale -.064 - .651** External Self-Confidence Scale -.107 .651** -
I am capable of achieving my goals. -.042 .809** .467** I believe in my ability to succeed. -.047 .844** .517** I have what it takes to get things done. -.040 .795** .560** I often have doubts in my ability to meet my goals. (R) -.082 .650** .680** I am a person of value and worth. .041 .818** .420** I am happy with who I am as a person. .076 .873** .521** I am sure of myself and my beliefs. -.088 .757** .464** I feel good about myself and who I am. -.044 .874** .506** When I make a mistake, I can easily forgive myself. -.122 .740** .456** While I may not be perfect, I am good enough. .007 .842** .500** I can learn from failures and try again. -.077 .741** .474** I have the ability to cope with feelings of self-doubt. -.189** .819** .554**
Often appears nervous or anxious. (R) -.140* .546** .857** Appears comfortable in most situations. -.085 .604** .696** Appears eager to take on more responsibility or challenge. .021 .465** .524** Appears afraid to act or try new things. (R) -.010 .469** .716** Has difficulty making lasting eye contact with people. (R) -.013 .531** .717** Often makes nervous gestures or has fidgety body language. (R) -.086 .410** .773** Often mumbles when speaking to others. (R) .043 .377** .654** Often speaks up to voice views or opinions. -.134 .349** .498** Frequently needs approval from others. (R) -.043 .421** .730** Often looks for reassurance or confirmation from other people. (R) -.103 .418** .740** Often appears worried about making the wrong decision. (R) -.166* .503** .831** Often has a difficult time making up their mind. (R) -.176* .475** .754**
Note. Positive correlations with gender indicate that women scored higher than men. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Table 34. Study 5 Full Correlation Matrix
Note. Positive correlations with gender indicate that women scored higher than men. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Exploratory Analysis (EFA). Several exploratory factor analyses were
conducted in order to assess the factor structure of the Internal and External Self-
Confidence Scales. This was a preliminary analysis used to reaffirm previous results, and
to provide the information necessary for the parceling approach recommended by Little,
Cunningham, Shahar, and Widaman (2002), which is examined later in the confirmatory
factor analysis section.
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Internal Self-Confidence Scale. Using principal axis factoring with an oblique
Promax rotation, the Internal Self-Confidence Scale had appropriate factorability, with a
KMO measure of 0.934, and a highly significant Bartlett’s test (X2 = 2012.543**, df =
66). The program extracted one factor, with a total cumulative variance of 61.2%, and
was highly reliable with a Cronbach’s alpha of .942, and an Intraclass Correlation
Coefficient of .573**. See Table 35 for extracted communalities and factor loadings.
Table 35. Study 5 Internal Self-Confidence Scale EFA
Note. This table suppresses factor loadings less than 0.35.
External Self-Confidence Scale. Using principal axis factoring with an oblique
Promax rotation, the External Self-Confidence Scale had appropriate factorability, with a
KMO measure of 0.905, and a highly significant Bartlett’s test (X2 = 1397.2***, df = 66).
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The program naturally extracted two factors, with a total cumulative variance of 47.3%,
and was highly reliable with a Cronbach’s alpha of .911, and an Intraclass Correlation
Coefficient of .460**. Because the two factors again reflected reverse and non-reversed
scored items, a one factor solution was run. Table 36 presents the one factor solution.
Table 36. Study 5 External Self-Confidence Scale EFA
Note. Program commanded to extract one factor. The 2-factor solution is based on Eigenvalues. This table suppresses factor loadings less than 0.35.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Several confirmatory factor analyses
using maximum likelihood standardized estimation were run using SPSS Amos in order
to assess the factor structure and measurement models of both the Internal and External
Self-Confidence Scales. As recommended in Linderbaum and Levy (2010), three models
were tested for each scale: (1) A one-factor model, with all items loading onto one
overarching latent construct, (2) A first-order model, with items loading onto their
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respective dimensions, with dimensions covarying, and (3) A second-order hierarchical
model, with items loading onto their respective dimensions, and each dimension loading
onto their second-order latent construct.
Internal Self-Confidence Scale CFA. Measurement models for the ISCS CFA
were parceled into two parcels per dimension in order to improve the fit of each model.
According to Little, Cunningham, Sharah, and Widaman (2002), “Compared with item-
level data, models based on parceled data (a) are more parsimonious (i.e., have fewer
estimated parameters both locally in defining a construct and globally in representing an
entire model), (b) have fewer chances for residuals to be correlated or dual loadings to
emerge (both because fewer indicators are used and because unique variances are
smaller), and (c) lead to reductions in various sources of sampling error” (p. 155).
Because of this, parcels for the ISCS were derived by using the item-to-construct balance
approach outlined by Little et al. (2002) (i.e., pairing the item with the largest EFA
extracted communality within a factor with the item with the smallest EFA extracted
communality within that factor). Potential modification to the models based on
modification indices (MI’s) were also examined, and considered unnecessary for this
particular scale.
The fit statistics for the Internal Self-Confidence Scale, as seen in Table 37 below,
show that parceling the items (as opposed to examining them as they were non-
parceled—i.e., the “whole model” version) provided much stronger fit for all three
models under examination. However, in both cases, Models 2 and 3 (the first- and
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second-order models) provided much stronger fit than Model 1 (the one-factor model),
while being identical to one another. According to Linderbaum and Levy (2010), when
this is the case, “the second-order factor is preferable, as it permits covariation among
first-order factors by accounting for corrected errors that are common in first-order
models” (p. 1396). Hierarchical second-order models are also more parsimonious, and
therefore Model 3 with the parceled items is preferred for further analyses. This model
has excellent fit, with non-significant Chi-squared statistic (X2 = 7.179, p = .305),
Goodness of Fit (GFI = .989), Comparative Fit (CFI = .999), and Tucker-Lewis (TLI =
.997) Indices all larger than 0.95, and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA = .031) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR = .016) values
both under .08. See Figure 5 for the graphical representation of each of the three
models—for both the parceled- and whole-item analyses.
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Table 37. Study 5 CFA—Internal Self-Confidence Scale
Fit Statistics for PARCELED MODELS Fit Statistics for
WHOLE MODELS Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 x Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
ML Test Statistic Degrees of Freedom P-value (Chi-Square)
31.159 9
.000
7.179 6
.305
7.179 6
.305
272.597 54
.000
188.941 51
.000
188.941 51
.000
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) Comparative Fit Index (CFI) Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI)
.950
.980
.966
.989
.999
.997
.989
.999
.997
.798
.890
.866
.856
.931
.911
.856
.931
.911
RMSEA RMR
.110
.037 .031 .016
.031
.016 .141 .089
.115
.089 .115 .089
Note. Model 1 is a one-factor model, with all items loading onto one overarching latent construct. Model 2 is a first-order model, with items loading onto their respective dimensions. Model 3 is a second-order hierarchical model with the dimensions loading onto latest construct
Figure 5. Study 5 CFA—Internal Self-Confidence Scale Measurement Models Note. The model with the best fit is the Parceled version of Model 3.
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External Self-Confidence Scale CFA. A total of four measurement models were
assessed for the ESCS CFA—two one-factor models—one using a model which parcels
the items into dimensions (Model 1 – Parcel), and one that does not (Model 1 – Whole), a
first-order model (Model 2), and a second-order hierarchical model (Model 3). Parcels
for the ESCS Model 1 were derived based on initial dimensionality (i.e., parcels were
based on the two items which already existed within each dimension). Modification
indices were assessed in each model to determine whether the fit could be improved,
which is a common practice in selecting model parameters (Whittaker, 2012). For each
of the four models presented in these analyses, modification indices were examined for
the covariances between uniqueness within their respective factors. Any recommended
MI’s within factors were included as new parameters in the models as depicted in Figure
6 below.
The fit statistics for the External Self-Confidence Scale, as seen in Table 38
below, show that among both the original and modified models, the parceled version of
Model 1—the one-factor model—had by far the best fit. In the case of the modified
models, the parceled version of the single-factor model had a non-significant Chi-square
statistic (X2 = 11.137, p = .194); Goodness of Fit (GFI = .983), Comparative Fit (CFI =
.995), and Tucker-Lewis (TLI = .992) Indices all larger than 0.95; and Root Mean Square
Error of Approximation (RMSEA = .044) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual
(SRMR = .045) values both under .08. This model had one parameter modification to
help improve fit—a modification which covaried the unique variances of independence
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and decisiveness. While this was a highly recommended modification based on the Mis,
it also makes theoretical sense. The independence dimension also taps into how
independently one makes their decisions—or how comfortable one is without their own
decision-making. Therefore, it would make sense for the dimensions to be so related.
This version of the measurement model had significantly better fit than either the first-
order or second-order model of the ESCS, or the model assessing the items without
parceling them into observed dimensions. See Figure 6 for the graphical representation
of each of the three models—for both the original and modified analyses.
Table 38. Study 5 CFAs—External Self-Confidence Scale
Fit Statistics for Original Models Fit Statistics for
Model Modifications Model 1-
Whole Model 1-
Parcel Model 2 Model 3 x Model 1- Whole
Model 1- Parcel Model 2 Model 3
Test Stat df p-value
272.519 54
.000
35.837 9
.000
113.760 39
.000
142.285 48
.000
144.201 52
.000
11.137 8
.194
73.239 37
.000
97.490 46
.000
GFI CFI TLI
.809
.840
.804
.944
.961
.936
.904
.945
.907
.882
.931
.905
.880
.932
.914
.983
.995
.992
.944
.973
.953
.924
.962
.946
RMSEA RMR
.141
.209 .121 .098
.097
.150 .098 .171 .093
.172 .044 .045
.069
.120 .074 .139
Note. Model 1 is a one-factor model, with all items loading onto one overarching latent construct. Model 2 is a first-order model, with items loading onto their respective dimensions. Model 3 is a second-order hierarchical model with the dimensions loading onto latest construct.
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Figure 6. Study 5 CFA—External Self-Confidence Scale Measurement Models Note. The model with the best fit is the modified version of Model 1 - Parceled.
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Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Structural equation modeling was used
to test whether External Self-Confidence is indeed an outcome of Internal Self-
Confidence, as well as their relationships with the other outcomes depicted in the model.
As seen in Table 39 below, many models were tested for fit. The top part of the table
below (and the left side of Figure 9 and Figure 10 below) depict the Internal Self-
Confidence factors (i.e., self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion) as latent
variables—or made up of the parcels described in the last section. The bottom side of the
table (and right side of the figures below) depict the Internal Self-Confidence factors as
observed—or further parceling of all four items into an average for each dimension.
Further, the SEM analyses were also assessed based on whether they only assessed
External Self-Confidence as the outcome (on the left side of the table, and entirety of
Figure 9), or whether they assessed the full array of possible outcomes, as depicted in the
theoretical construct validation model (on the right side of the table, and entirety of
Figure 10).
Three different types of models were assessed in only looking at External Self-
Confidence: (1) A model assessing the dimensions, or parceled factors/indicators, of
External Self-Confidence as direct outcomes of Internal Self-Confidence, (2) A model
assessing the effect of Internal Self-Confidence on External-Self-Confidence as a latent
variable, and (3) A model assessing the effect of Internal Self-Confidence on External
Self-Confidence as an observed variable. As can be seen in Table 39 below, the two
models with the best fit were the one that depicted External Self-Confidence as just the
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indicator variables, and the one that depicted it as a latent variable, made up of those
same indicators. While the model depicting External Self-Confidence as just the
indicator variables has better fit according to some statistics (but not all), the model
depicting External Self-Confidence as a latent variable was more theoretical,
interpretable, and exhibited a smaller Root Mean Square Residual, and was therefore the
preferred model going forward. The model depicting the ESCS as a latent variable had a
relatively low Chi-square statistic (X2 = 78.440, p = .000); Goodness of Fit (GFI = .930),
Comparative Fit (CFI = .960), and Tucker-Lewis (TLI = .942) Indices all larger than
0.90; and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA = .103) and Standardized
Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR = .083). Of note, one parameter modification was
made to this model, covarying the uniqueness between independence and decisiveness as
observed variables—the theory of which has been previous explained. This model is
depicted in Figure 7 below. The figure depicts factor loadings for each factor being
larger than 0.60, and Internal Self-Confidence having an overall effect of 0.70 on
External Self-Confidence. Overall, the model has adequate fit, and great interpretability.
Four types of models were examined when assessing all of the outcomes depicted
in the theoretical construct validation model—all of which depicted the outcomes as
observed, rather than latent, variables: (1) A model assessing the effect of Internal Self-
Confidence on all of the outcomes, (2) The same model, including recommended
parameter modifications with MI’s larger than 20, (3) The same model, including all
recommended parameter modifications based on MIs, and (4) A model including only the
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outcomes which had factor loadings larger than 0.40, including recommended
modifications. As can be seen in Table 39 below, the model with the best fit statistics is
the one including all recommended parameter modifications, and again is the model in
which the Internal Self-Confidence factors are depicted as observed, as opposed to latent.
Because all of the outcomes are on the same nomological network, it makes sense that
their error variances are so highly related. This figure is depicted in Figure 8 below.
Overall, this model had excellent fit, and was the only SEM model in this study to exhibit
a non-significant Chi-square test statistic (X2 = 35.507, p = .079); Goodness of Fit (GFI =
.970), Comparative Fit (CFI = .993), and Tucker-Lewis (TLI = .985) Indices all larger
than 0.95; and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA = .046) and
Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR = .039) both under 0.80, as desired. In
this model, Internal Self-Confidence is shown to have a strong, positive 0.81 effect on
External Self-Confidence. Therefore, not only does including the other factors as
outcomes in the model improve the fit of the model as a whole, but also increases the
effect that the ISCS has on the ESCS.
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Table 39. Study 5 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) Fit Statistics
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Figure 7. Study 5 Best Fit SEM Model - External Self-Confidence as the Outcome
Figure 8. Study 5 Best Fit SEM Model - Multiple Theoretical Outcomes
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Figure 9. Study 5 Structural Models – External Self-Confidence as the Outcome Note. The model with the best fit is the model is which the factors of both the ISCS and ESCS serve as observed variables, with ISC and ESC serving as latent variables.
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Figure 10. Study 5 Structural Models - Multiple Theoretical Outcomes Note. The model with the best fit is the one in which internal self-confidence factors are displayed as observed variables, and the model uses all parameter modifications.
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Discussion
It was hypothesized that Internal Self-Confidence would show moderate
relationships with the measures representing correlates—neuroticism/affectivity
(negatively), locus of control (negatively), and optimism (positively). It was also
hypothesized that moderate relationships would be exhibited with the outcomes related to
taking risks in yourself (general risk propensity and achievement motives), as well as
confidence cues/outcomes (external self-confidence, decision-making, independence,
shyness/sociability, and problem-solving confidence). These hypotheses were supported.
External Self-Confidence was also expected to correlate moderately with the other
measures representing confidence cues/outcomes in the model. All of these relationships
were expected to be positive, except for all of the measure’s correlations with shyness,
which were expected to be negative. These hypotheses were also supported.
In this study, men scored marginally higher than women in both the Internal and
External Self-Confidence Scales, as well as in the subscales, and a majority of the
items—with a few exceptions. However, the only significant difference was found in
decisiveness, where men reported significantly more decisiveness than women. This was
despite the non-significant relationship between gender and Problem-Solving
Confidence. Further, women reported higher neuroticism, as well as fear of failure,
findings supported by Lang and Fries (2006) and Costa, Terracciano, and McCrae (2001).
In terms of the factorability assessed in this study, the exploratory factor analyses
reaffirmed the factor structure supported in Studies 3 and 4—that both the ISCS and
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ESCS work well with their one-factor solutions, giving further support to assessing the
measures as unidimensional, as opposed to multidimensional. That being said, the
confirmatory factor analyses examined three models for each scale: (1) A one-factor
model, with all items loading onto one overarching latent construct, (2) A first-order
model, with items loading onto their respective dimensions, with dimensions covarying,
and (3) A second-order hierarchical model, with items loading onto their respective
dimensions, and each dimension loading onto their second-order latent construct. The
Internal Self-Confidence Scale exhibited the best fit with the parceled version of Model
3, supporting the notion that Internal Self-Confidence is a second-order hierarchical
construct, with three factors, as depicted in the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence,
which justifies looking at the scale as a unidimensional, as opposed to multidimensional,
measure. The External Self-Confidence Scale, on the other hand, exhibited the best fit
with the modified, parceled version of Model 1—the one-factor model. Because there
were already only two items per dimension, however, this is tantamount to External Self-
Confidence being represented as a first-order latent factor, with each of the six
dimensions being considered parceled observed variables. This also supports the use of
the External Self-Confidence Scale as a unidimensional whole, and not picking or
choosing dimensions out of it.
The structural equation modeling supported External Self-Confidence as an
outcome of Internal Self-Confidence. However, the fit was improved with the addition of
other outcomes such as General Risk Propensity, Achievement Motives, Independence,
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Shyness and Sociability, and Problem-Solving Confidence, supporting the construct
validity of both scales.
Overall, this study supported the construct validity and unidimensional factor
structures of both the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales. It is highly
recommended that these scales be used as a whole in order to represent the latent
structure, and not pick and choose dimensions from either scale to assess on their own.
This study also provides theoretical support to the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence
through the confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling using both
self-confidence scales.
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Study 6: Criterion Validation Predictive & Criterion Validation for Career Success
One area that will particularly benefit from theoretical and operational advances
in self-confidence research is business and organizational dynamics (Hollenbeck & Hall,
2004). For example, literature in the business and leadership disciplines have linked self-
confidence to such outcomes as risk-taking and initiative (Bierema, 1994; Bukszar, 2003;
Ghosh & Ray, 1997; House & Aditya, 1997; Pratch, 2011; Shipman & Mumford, 2011),
career success and progression (Aycan, 2004; Bierema, 1994; Clarke, 2011; Emerson,
1998; Evans, 2010; Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015; Goldsmith, 2009; Pratch, 2011; White et
al., 1981), and job performance and effectiveness (Baldoni, 2009; Goldsmith, 2009;
Hannah et al., 2008; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; House & Aditya, 1997; Ireland et al.,
1992; Judge et al., 2002; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Knippen & Green, 1989; Schyns &
Sczesny, 2010; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992).
It is a common assertion in such literature that more self-confident employees
take more risks, and that it is this increased risk-taking that encourages taking the action
necessary to be an effective worker, which undoubtedly benefits one’s career success.
For example, Hollenbeck and Hall (2004) describe a “Self-Confidence Development
Cycle,” in which an individual takes a measured risk towards meeting an important goal,
and upon success, becomes more confident in their abilities toward meeting similar goals.
They subsequently set higher and higher goals, become more and more confident, and so
on, establishing a positive upward spiral in career attitudes. However, this positive self-
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reinforcing cycle rests upon the assumption that employees will not drastically spiral
downwards in the face of mistakes or failures. They must also be able to push forward in
cases where they may anticipate risk, and be able to cope and pick themselves up again
after failure or mistakes in order for this positive upward spiral in career attitudes to
work. Without a commonly accepted measure of self-confidence, the self-confidence
development cycle theory, and its corollary downward spiral have not yet been
empirically tested.
While self-confidence is important in the workplace, the literature suggests a
“Confidence Gap” in which women report less self-confidence than men. This research
has consistently shown that women, in comparison with men, tend to underestimate their
abilities and performance by predicting they will do worse on tests and other endeavors
(Ehrlinger & Dunning, 2003; Lundeberg et al., 1994; Pallier, 2003; Preckel & Freund,
2005), and do not consider themselves as ready for promotions as men (Kay & Shipman,
2014). In reality, men and women have very similar abilities and task performance levels
(Ehrlinger & Dunning, 2003; Lundeberg et al., 1994; Pallier, 2003; Preckel & Freund,
2005). When women underestimate their abilities, do not consider themselves as ready
for promotions, and predict less effective performance, they are impeding their own
career advancement. For example, a 2011 study conducted by Europe’s Institute of
Leadership and Management found that women leaders report lower career confidence
and higher self-doubt about their career performance, and this appeared to direct
women’s more cautious approach toward applying for promotions and less ambitious
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expectations for their career paths (Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Flynn, Heath, &
Holt, 2011). These results were replicated by a recent study by Bain & Co., finding for
that women leaders, their aspirations and confidence in reaching the top plummet after a
few years in leadership—especially compared to the confidence and aspirations of men
(Gadiesh & Coffman, 2015). Further, in his interview of French women in leadership,
Evans (2010) revealed that self-confidence was one of the major barriers cited as
preventing women from ascending in leadership hierarchies. The more cautious
approach towards career advancement and less ambitious expectations towards career
paths disadvantages women applying for more challenging positions and climbing
organizational hierarchies.
Another mechanism through which self-confidence increases workplace
effectiveness and career success is through convincing others that you are capable and
competent to do the job in which they have hired you to do. Not only must you push
forward and take the risks and action necessary to meet higher and higher goals, but you
must also be able to project to others that you are capable of meeting those goals.
Therefore, physical and behavioral confidence cues should play a similarly large role in
career success as risk-taking and taking action, as described in the Integrated Model of
Self-Confidence. However, this can have negative implications for women in the
workplace, as behaviors, gestures, or other cues that suggest self-confidence in men are
often seen as undesirable or abrasive when exhibited by women—especially in more
masculine leadership roles (Ibara, Ely, & Kolb, 2013).
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This is an assertion that is backed by Eagly and Karau’s (2002) Role Congruity
Theory, which proposes that women in leadership and more masculine positions face a
“double-bind” between the communal traits expected of them as women, and the agentic
traits expected of them as leaders. Women who are perceived as “too communal” are
perceived as socially acceptable women, but ineffective leaders. On the other hand,
women who are perceived as “too agentic” are perceived as effective leaders, but not
socially acceptable women, meaning that they are often deemed as “unlikable” or
“inauthentic”. While leaders are expected to be self-confident in navigating patriarchal
organizational cultures (Bierema, 1994), and to exhibit the confidence cues that invoke
perceptions of their own competence and influence, women may be penalized in
perceptions of leadership effectiveness if they exhibit too many of these cues (Ibara et al.,
2013). This “double-bind” in appearing too confident to be feminine versus not feeling
confident enough to effectively lead is particularly disadvantageous to women in more
masculine or leadership roles.
The “Confidence Gap” faced by women could very well explain the gap faced by
women in terms of higher-level leadership positions (Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Chusmir
& Koberg, 1992), promotions (Brown & Ridge, 2002; Eddleston et al., 2004), career
opportunities (Catalyst, 2015a; Catalyst, 2015b; Fairchild, 2014), and salary (Pay Equity
& Discrimination, 2013; Santos-Pinto, 2012). If this is the case, an organizationally-
focused measure of self-confidence (both Internal Self-Confidence and External Self-
Confidence) is needed to level the playing field. For example, science will be able to
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assess the merit of organizations providing access to various developmental opportunities
on self-confidence, as well as the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes of self-confidence.
It is a common assertion that organizational support in development can increase the self-
confidence of women in the workplace (Ambition and gender at work, 2011; Clarke,
2011), but the literature still needs to know which investments organizations should make
to optimally increase the self-confidence of their employees. Until such a measure is
developed, science will be ill-prepared to study the barriers that women face in the
“labyrinth” towards senior-level and executive positions, and therefore ill-prepared to
address and remedy the underrepresentation of women in upper managerial and executive
leadership positions.
The study of the barriers to self-confidence will aid organizations in
understanding and remedying the individual-, organizational-, and social-level barriers
faced by today’s working women. Organizations aiding in reducing individual barriers to
advancement (such as lack of internally- or externally-perceived self-confidence) through
removing organizational barriers (such as access to developmental opportunities and
equal rates of promotions) will be paving the way to reducing societal barriers that
women face in advancing in all organizations—especially those in leadership positions.
The purpose of Study 6 is to validate the final version of both the Internal and
External Self-Confidence Scales among a working population, as well as to validate the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence, as seen in Figure 11 below. Understanding the
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antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence in workplace contexts will be another step
toward establishing the predictive validity of both measures in organizational settings.
Figure 11 presents a career-specific version of the Integrated Model of Self-
Confidence. In this hypothesized model, internal perceptions of self-confidence
encourage taking risks in yourself (depending on the perceived risk of the situation).
These internal perceptions also manifest in other physical or behavior “confidence cues”
which demonstrate one’s competence to others. It is hypothesized that both taking risks
in yourself and in your career, as well as appearing confident and competent to others in
your organization (especially supervisors), will increase one’s objective (i.e., promotions,
salary, and tenure) and subjective (i.e., satisfaction with job, career, and life) career
success.
Figure 11. Criterion Validation Model
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The hypothesized criterion validation model in Figure 11 also presents five
possible career-related antecedents to Internal Self-Confidence—antecedents which can
be spurred by organizations wishing to boost the self-confidence of their key workers—
both male and female. These possible antecedents, which are hypothesized to have
beneficial effects on individual levels of self-confidence, include: networking
opportunities, mentoring relationships, development programs, developmental
assignments, and support for development and career advancement.
Networking Opportunities
Networking with others—both within and outside of one’s organization—is an
essential component of the social capital required to succeed in one’s career (Eagly &
Carli, 2007). “Networking refers to building and maintaining personal contacts in order
to obtain resources that, in turn, enhance one’s career success and work performance”
(Wolff, Schneider-Rahm, & Forret, 2011, p. 244). Examples include going out with
others to lunches or for drinks, going to conferences or professional events, keeping in
contact with former colleagues, or participating in community projects or work-related
athletic activities. Wolff et al. (2011) describes networking relationships as having four
main characteristics—they are (1) work-related, (2) informal (as opposed to formal), (3)
cooperative (as opposed to competitive), and (4) rely on a reciprocal exchange of favors.
They further distinguish between two facets: (1) A structural facet, which differentiates
between internal (contacts within one’s own organization) vs. external (contacts outside
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one’s organization—including clients and suppliers) networking; and (2) A functional
facet, which differentiates between process components of building, maintaining, and
using contacts. The literature has cited many outcomes to the different facets of
networking behaviors, including work performance and career success (Lyness &
Thompson, 2000; Wolff & Moser, 2009; Wolff et al., 2011), access to job opportunities,
promotions, and rate of advancement (Clarke, 2011; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Forret &
Dougherty, 2001; Forret & Dougherty, 2004; Hopkins, O’Neil, Passarelli, & Bilimoria,
2008; Lyness & Thompson, 2000), income and salary growth (Forret & Dougherty, 2001;
Forret & Dougherty, 2004; Wolff & Moser, 2009), and perceived career success and
career satisfaction (Clarke, 2011; Forret & Dougherty, 2004; Wolff & Moser, 2009). It is
expected that having access to networking opportunities will also increase the Internal
Self-Confidence of employees through providing opportunities to succeed in social
settings (a type of social self-efficacy), making them feel more valued and important in
their social networks (enhancing self-esteem), and by allowing them to hear how their
peers have overcome mistakes or failures, and realize that they can too (enhancing self-
compassion).
Mentoring Relationships
Mentoring relationships between a protégé and a mentor of a higher
organizational status are another type of social capital, which are also essential to career
guidance and success. Kram’s (1985) taxonomy of mentorship functions has been
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persistently cited in the literature (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz & Lima, 2004; Ann, 2005;
Betts & Pepe, 2005; Chao et al., 1992; Dreher & Cox, 1996; Ehrich, 2008; Higgins,
2000; Joiner, Bartram & Garreffa, 2004; Raabe & Beehr, 2003; Ragins & Cotton, 1999;
Rich, 2013). Kram (1985) states that mentoring plays a critical role in career
development by providing both career and psychosocial support. Career functions
include sponsoring promotions and other moves, increasing visibility and exposure to
higher-levels, coaching, protecting from adversity, and providing opportunities and
support for challenging assignments. Psychosocial functions, on the other hand, include
providing role modeling, friendship, acceptance, confirmation, and counseling to
protégés. Survey research has shown that participation in mentoring relationships has
been shown to have many positive outcomes for the protégé—both affective and more
tangible. These include increased self-confidence and competence, increased job
satisfaction, commitment, perceptions of organizational support, and employee retention,
as well as increased rates of promotions and of salaries (Allen et al., 2004; Ann, 2005;
Betts & Pepe, 2005; Chao et al., 1992; Dreher & Cox, 1996; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Foster
et al., 2011; Higgins, 2000; Joiner et al., 2004; Kim, 2007; Kraimer et al., 2011; Raabe &
Beehr, 2003; Ragins & Cotton, 1999; Rich, 2013; Valerio, 2009). It is expected that
having access to mentorships will also increase the Internal Self-Confidence of
employees through increasing the opportunities for success in challenging new
assignments, responsibilities, or roles (enhancing self-efficacy), making them feel worthy
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and valued by their mentors (enhancing self-esteem), and providing support and
acceptance through failures or mistakes (enhancing self-compassion).
Development Programs
Development programs are an essential component to developing the skills,
abilities, and confidence of employees in the workplace. McAlearney and Butler (2008)
define these programs as educational interventions which address and improve
capabilities and effectiveness. In leadership positions, for example, “development
programs provide an important avenue through which both new and established leaders
can receive education and training to meet their ongoing developmental needs”
(McAlearney & Butler, 2008, p. 320). Some exemplars of developmental programs
include leadership (or global leadership) development, skills-based training, intensive or
360-degree feedback, women’s-only development or support, and high-potential
programs. Development programs such as these can also serve as a signal that
organizations support and value the contributions of their employees, and are willing to
invest in their development and career aspirations. This can, in turn, increase the self-
confidence of employees in the workplace, as well as their work commitment and
motivation (Clarke, 2011). Development programs can also assist in developing
relationships and social networks (Clarke, 2011; Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011), increasing
rates of career advancement and career opportunities (Clarke, 2011; Kraimer et al., 2011),
and reducing turnover (Dries & De Gieter, 2014; McAlearney & Butler, 2008). It is
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expected that having access to development programs will also increase the Internal Self-
Confidence of employees through providing opportunities for gains in knowledge and
competence through training and education (enhancing self-efficacy), signaling to them
that they are valued by their organizations and worthy of their investment (enhancing
self-esteem), and by giving them the opportunity to overcome failures or mistakes in a
safe, developmental environment (enhancing self-compassion).
Developmental Assignments
Many researchers state that developmental job assignments are one of the most, if
not the most, effective methods to facilitate learning and success, and are essential for
accessing promotions (Brutus et al., 2000; Connerley et al., 2008; Lyness & Thompson,
2000; McCauley et al., 1995; Ohlott et al., 1994; Valerio, 2009). These developmental,
or “stretch”, assignments should be challenging, risky, non-routine, highly visible, and
grant some degree of authority over others. Examples include line, rotational, or
international assignments, as well as serving on a board or taskforce. When one is
assigned to a line position in a manufacturing plant, or to rotate positions within the
organization, they are “stretching” themselves and their abilities, and developing by
learning and doing something new. When employees have the opportunity to take action
and succeed on vital developmental assignments such as these, they are given the chance
to expand their abilities and contribute in a valuable way to their organization. And
according to the qualitative literature, this can lead to increased confidence, job
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satisfaction, career advancement, and employee retention (Brutus et al., 2000; Cianni &
Romberger, 1995; Hopkins et al., 2008; Kilian et al., 2005; McCauley et al., 1995;
Valerio, 2009). In fact, McCauley et al.’s (1995) qualitative study of approximately
1,100 managers found that new developmental positions were strongly related with the
learning of self-confidence, which can have profound implications, especially for women.
It is expected that having access to developmental assignments will also increase the
Internal Self-Confidence of employees through providing opportunities to succeed at
new, highly challenging tasks or roles (enhancing self-efficacy), signaling to them that
they are valued by their organizations and worthy of taking on more risky or visible
assignments (enhancing self-esteem), and giving them the opportunity to bounce back in
the face failures or mistakes in a safe, developmental setting (enhancing self-
compassion).
Support for Development & Career Advancement
Networking opportunities, mentoring relationships, development programs, and
developmental assignments are all tools that organizations can provide to increase not
only the self-confidence of their workers, but also to signal that they are willing to
support and invest in their employees. Perceptions that one’s organization provides both
support for their development, as well as opportunities for career advancement, are
essential to signaling that an organization is committed to one’s career success and well-
being. Kraimer, Seibert, Wayne, Liden, and Bravo (2011) define organizational support
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for development (OSD) as “the employees’ perceptions that the organization provides
programs and opportunities that support employee development” and perceived career
opportunity (PCO) as “employees’ belief that jobs or positions that match their career
goals and interests exist within the organization” (p. 486). In their research, Kraimer et
al. (2011) found that PCO moderates the relationship between OSD and turnover, in that
when an organization provides support for development (OSD), it only reduces turnover
intentions when it is followed with opportunities to advance their careers (PCO).
Without such opportunities, employees are likely to take what they learned and apply it
somewhere which does grant opportunities for career advancement—taking their
mobility capital elsewhere. The authors further found that OSD and PCO were
significantly related to job performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
perceived organizational support (Kraimer et al., 2011). It is expected that providing
support for development and career opportunities will also increase the Internal Self-
Confidence of employees through providing opportunities for gains in knowledge and
competence through training and education (enhancing self-efficacy), signaling to them
that they are valued by their organizations and worthy of their investment (enhancing
self-esteem), and by giving them the opportunity to overcome failures or mistakes in a
safe, developmental setting (enhancing self-compassion).
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Methods
As part of a larger study, a group of subject matter experts (SMEs) in women in
leadership developed a survey comprised of both SME-crafted items and validated
measures. The purpose of this survey was to explore the individual-, organizational-, and
social-level barriers that women face in advancing in organizational hierarchies. The
subset of items and measures that will be used for this study are aligned with Figure 11
above, and explore the antecedents and outcomes of one individual-level barrier to the
advancement of women in the workplace—the “Confidence Gap”—or both Internal and
External Self-Confidence.
Measures. In addition to the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales used
in Study 5 (see Appendices C and D), the following concepts were assessed for this last
study:
Networking Opportunities. Networking opportunities was assessed using 16
items drawn from both the Multidimensional Networking Scale (Wolff, Schneider-Rahm,
& Forret, 2011), as well as the Networking Behavior Scale (Forret & Dougherty, 2001).
A group of subject matter experts (SMEs) on the Women’s Leadership Research Team
discussed each item in its relation to networking as a potential barrier to women
advancing in organizational hierarchies. In Wolff et al.’s (2011) Multidimensional
Networking Scale, of the 44 items in the original measure, three items were retained (and
slightly reworded) from the Internal Networking subscale, and three items were retained
from the External Networking subscale. Participants rate the extent to which they display
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given behavior patterns on a 4-point scale. Sample items include “At company events or
outings I approach colleagues I haven’t met before” (internal contacts subscale) and “For
business purposes I keep in contact with former colleagues” (external contacts subscale)
(Wolff et al., 2011).
In Forret and Dougherty’s (2001) Networking Behavior Scale, of the 28 original
items, four items were retained from the Maintaining Contacts subscale, three from the
Socializing subscale, and three from the Engaging in Professional Activities subscale.
SMEs also slightly reworded the items to better fit in the survey. Participants rate the
extent to which they display given behaviors on a 6-point scale. Sample items include
“given business contacts a phone call or email to keep in touch” (maintaining contacts
subscale) and “participated in social gatherings with people from work” (socializing
subscale) (Forret & Dougherty, 2001). Participants were also asked on a 5-point
agreement scale if they have participated in networking opportunities provided by their
organization, if they are satisfied with them, and if they believe these opportunities have
been important to their overall career progression.
Mentoring Relationships. Mentoring relationships was assessed using 10 items
drawn from Dreher and Ash’s (1990) Career Mentoring Scale—originally 18 items. The
same group of SMEs discussed each item in the larger measure in its relation to
mentoring as a potential barrier to women advancing in organizations, and slightly
reworded some items to better fit the survey. Participants rate the extent to which a
mentor or direct supervisor has displayed given behaviors on a 5-point scale. Sample
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items include “To what extent has a mentor encouraged you to prepare for advancement”
and “To what extent has a mentor served as a role model” (Dreher & Ash, 1990).
Participants were also asked on a 5-point agreement scale if they have ever participated in
a mentoring relationship, if they have participated in one provided by their organization,
if they are satisfied with the mentoring they have received, and if mentoring has been
important to their overall career progression.
Development Programs. Kraimer, Seibert, Wayne, Liden, and Bravo’s (2011)
Participation in Formal Developmental Activities Scale was used to measure access to
developmental programs. Participants were asked to indicate on a 5-point scale the
extent to which they have participated in six career development activities: training to
develop technical skills, training to develop managerial skills, career planning
workshops, education courses that qualify for tuition reimbursement, job rotations into
different divisions, and job rotations into different functional areas. Participants were
also asked on a 5-point agreement scale the extent to which they have participated in
development programs provided by their organizations, their level of satisfaction in these
programs, and the extent to which these programs have been important to their overall
career progression.
Developmental Assignments. Developmental, or “stretch” assignments, was
assessed by asking participants on a 5-point agreement scale if they have participated in
assignments that have contributed to their professional development, or assignments
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which grant high visibility. Participants were also asked whether they are satisfied with
these assignments, and whether they have been important to their career progression.
Support for Development & Career Advancement. Kraimer et al.’s (2011)
Organizational Support for Development (OSD) & Perceived Career Opportunities
(PCO) Scales were used to assess the extent to which organizations support their
employee’s development, and that those employees perceive access to career
opportunities. Participants are asked to respond to nine items on a 7-point agreement
scale—six items for OSD (α = 0.89) and three for PCO (α = 0.89) (Kraimer et al., 2011).
Sample items include “My organization provides opportunities for employees to develop
their managerial skills” (OSD subscale) and “My company offers many job opportunities
that match my career goals” (PCO subscale) (Kraimer et al., 2011).
Job Satisfaction. Job satisfaction was assessed with Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins,
and Klesh’s (1983) 3-item Overall Job Satisfaction Scale. Participants are asked to
indicate on a 7-point agreement scale the extent to which they like and are satisfied with
their current jobs. The three items have good internal consistency reliability with α =
0.84 (Cammann et al., 1983). Sample items include “All in all, I am satisfied with my
job” and “In general, I like working here” (Cammann et al., 1983).
Career Satisfaction. Career satisfaction was assessed with Greenhaus,
Parasuraman, and Wormley’s (1990) 5-item Career Satisfaction Scale. Participants are
asked to indicate in a 5-point agreement scale the extent to which they are satisfied with
the success or progress they have made in various aspects of their career. The five items
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have good internal consistency reliability with α = 0.88 (Greenhaus et al., 1990). Sample
items include “I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career” and “I am
satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for advancement”
(Greenhaus et al., 1990).
Turnover intentions. Turnover intentions were assessed using Jaros’ (1997) 3-
item Turnover Intentions Scale. Participants were asked to indicate on a 5-point scale
about their desire as employees to continue as a member of their current organization.
The three items have fair internal consistency – exceeding .80 in all samples.
“Respondents were asked how often they think about quitting their organization, how
likely it was that they would search for a position with another employer, and how likely
it was that they would leave the organization in the next year” (Jaros, 1997, p. 325).
Workplace status. Workplace status, as part of subjective career success, was
assessed using Djurdjevic, Stoverink, Klotz, Koopman, Yam, and Chiang’s (2017)
Workplace Status Scale—or “an employee’s relative standing in an organization, as
characterized by the respect, prominence, and prestige he or she possesses in the eyes of
other organizational members” (p. 2). The scale consists of five items on a 7-point Likert
scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Sample items include “I
have a great deal of prestige in my organization” and “I possess high status in my
organization.” Reliability estimates were adequate, ranging from α = 0.89-0.96.
Life Satisfaction. Life satisfaction was assessed with Diener, Emmons, Larsen,
and Griffin’s (1985) 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale. Participants are asked to
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indicate on a 7-point scale the extent to which general conditions in their life are
satisfactory. The five items have adequate internal consistency reliability with α = 0.87
(Diener et al., 1985). Sample items include “In most ways my life is close to my ideal”
and “I am satisfied with my life” (Diener et al., 1985).
Objective Career Success. Objective career success was assessed by asking
participants to indicate their annual salary ($0-$30k, $31k-$60k, $60k-$100k, or
$100k+), the number of vertical job movements (i.e., movements which increase status,
pay, and/or title - climbing the latter) and lateral job movements (i.e., movements which
maintain similar status and/or pay, but that expand your skills/abilities to broaden your
career - expanding the lattice) that they have had in the last five years, and their tenure
(in years)—for job role, organizational, and industry. Participants were also asked to rate
their own leadership effectiveness on a 7-point effectiveness scale. Participants were also
asked to indicate the stage of career in which they are currently in: (1) Exploration Stage:
narrowing your career choices, deciding what type of work to pursue, and planning your
career goals; (2) Establishment Stage: settling into your job, becoming more comfortable
and secure, and focusing on promotions and advancement; (3) Maintenance Stage:
focusing on keeping your current job, attaining the most current job skills, and
maximizing job performance; or (4) Disengagement Stage: slowing down and beginning
to consider or plan for retirement.
Sample. The survey was completed by Turk Prime workers, restricted to those
who reside in the United States, and who are employees at an organization or business.
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The final sample consisted of 127 participants who were mostly male (57.5%), White
(77.2%), and on average in their mid-30’s. Participants were well educated, with 0.8%
having less than a high school degree or equivalent, 7.1% having a high school degree or
equivalent, 15.7% having some college; 14.2% an Associate degree, 47.2% a Bachelor’s
degree, 13.4% a Master’s degree, and 1.6% a Professional degree. Further, 15.0% of
participants indicated that they were in the exploration stage of their career, 37.8% in
establishment, 43.3% maintenance, and 3.9% disengagement. Please see Table 40 below
for a full breakdown of annual salary, education, and career stage frequencies by gender.
While 202 participants completed the first part of the survey, only 127 (or about 62.87%)
took the second half of the survey—this was between 10-29 days later, with an average of
19.42 days between surveys (SD = 3.35 days).
Table 40. Study 6 Demographics
Male Female Total
Annual Salary
Less than $30k 10% 17% 27% $31k-$60k 33% 19% 52% $61k-$100k 10% 5% 15% More than $100k 5% 1% 6%
Education
Some high school or equivalent 0% 1% 1% High school graduate or equivalent 5% 2% 7% Some college 8% 8% 16% Associate Degree 5% 9% 14% Bachelor's Degree 28% 19% 47% Master's Degree 10% 3% 13% Professional Degree 1% 1% 2%
Career Stage
Exploration Stage 10% 5% 15% Establishment Stage 24% 14% 38% Maintenance Stage 23% 20% 43% Disengagement Stage 1% 3% 4%
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Analysis. Quality checks were considered in the cleaning of the data and
elimination of participant responses from the dataset. Participants taking either survey in
less than two minutes were removed from the dataset, as well as those failing more than 1
of the 6 attention checks. All negatively-worded items were reversed-coded, and all
variables were labeled appropriately in SPSS for ease of reading. Participants responding
“N/A” to particular questions concerning developmental opportunities were coded as
missing data. SPSS was used to assess descriptives and correlation analysis. Further,
CFA was be used to reassess the measurement models for the Internal and External Self-
Confidence Scales, and SEM (using AMOS) was used to test the hypothesized criterion
validation model presented in Figure 11 above, as well as the relationship between
Internal Self-Confidence and External Self-Confidence for employees in the workplace.
Missing data in AMOS was addressed by using the Maximum Likelihood
Estimation (MLE) function (and by estimating means and intercepts). MLE procedures
are commonly recommended for SEM over such procedures as listwise or pairwise
deletion, or multiple imputation (Allison, 2003; Arbuckle, 2017; Johnson & Young,
2011; Newman, 2003; and Shin, Davison, & Long, 2017). They work by conducting “an
incremental search for optimal parameter estimates. In the likelihood formulas, candidate
parameter estimates are repeatedly replaced, and for each replacement, the likelihood (or
log-likelihood) value is computed using the sample data. The process terminates when
the particular constellation of parameter estimates are found that maximize the (log)
likelihood and, thus, the best fit to the data” (Shin et al., 2017, p. 428).
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Results
Reliability Analysis. Both the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales were
again found to be highly reliable measures. The Internal Self-Confidence Scale had a
Cronbach’s Alpha of .937 and Intraclass Correlation Coefficient of .552** over 12 items,
while the External Self-Confidence Scale had a Cronbach’s Alpha of .913 and Intraclass
Correlation Coefficient of .466** over 12 items.
Descriptives and Correlation Analysis. Correlation analysis was used to test the
direct relationships between the variables presented in the proposed criterion validation
model in Figure 11. Table 42 presents the full correlation matrix, while Table 41
presents the correlations with only the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales,
including gender comparisons of correlation coefficients. Further, Table 43 compares the
means of all relevant variables in the study based on gender descriptives, and Table 44
gives a full description of the single items used into tap into each of the developmental
opportunities discussed in this study. Of note, none of the single items used to assess
developmental opportunities had a significant gender differences in terms of mean
comparisons.
The relationship between Internal and External Self-Confidence was strong and
significant (r = .592**), and was largely stronger for women (r = .651**, N = 54) than for
men (r = .544**; N = 73), although the difference between correlation coefficients was
non-significant (z = 0.91; p = 0.363). Of note, there were no significant gender
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differences in the Internal Self-Confidence Scale, the External Self-Confidence Scale, nor
any of their underlying factors. Men displayed marginally higher levels of Internal Self-
Confidence and all of the underlying factors, while women displayed marginally higher
levels of External Self-Confidence, and in taking action, verbal and non-verbal
communication, and independence. Men showed marginally higher scores in terms of
affectivity (similar to emotional stability in this case), and decisiveness. Although again,
none of the mean differences were significant.
Networking Opportunities. Wolff et al.’s (2011) networking items was
significantly correlated to the ISCS (r = .255**), as well as the ESCS (r = .201**). The
items used to assess Networking Behavior derived from Forret and Dougherty’s (2001)
scale had no significant relationship with either the ISCS and the ESCS. Further, the
single items used to assess networking opportunities, were all highly correlated to the
ISCS (r = .348**, .334**, and .329**, respectively), and somewhat less correlated to the
ESCS (r = .331**, .195*, and .212*).
Mentoring Relationships. Mentoring, as an average of Dreher and Ash’s (1990)
Career Mentoring Scale (modified), had significant relationships with both the ISCS (r =
.341**) and the ESCS (r = .205*). In terms of the single items used to assess mentoring
relationships, it appears that the ISCS has a much stronger relationship (r = .253**,
.259**, and .091, respectively) than the ESCS (r = .104, .144, -.031).
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Development Programs. Kraimer et al.’s (2011) Participation in Formal
Developmental Activities Scale asked participants to rate to extent to which they have
participated in six career development activities: training to develop technical skills,
training to develop managerial skills, career planning workshops, education courses that
qualify for tuition reimbursement, job rotations into different divisions, and job rotations
into different functional areas. Of these, none of the correlations with the ESCS proved
significant. In terms of the ISCS, only two of the items showed significant relationships:
training classes to develop managerial skills (r = .310**), and education courses that
qualified for tuition reimbursement (r = .217*). In terms of the single items used to
assess developmental programs (i.e., participation, satisfaction, and importance to career
success), the ESCS had no significant relationships to display, while all statements were
significantly related to the ISCS (r = .257**, .253**, and .309**, respectively).
Developmental Assignments. Participation in assignments beyond job duties that
contributed to professional development had a significant relationship with the ESCS (r =
.229*). However, that was the only significant relationship with the ESCS and the single
items for developmental assignments. The ISCS had significant relationships with
participation in high-visibility assignments (r = .283**), satisfaction with developmental
assignments (r = .244**), and importance of these assignments to career success (r =
.188*).
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Support for Development & Career Advancement. Kraimer et al.’s (2011) OSD
and PCO Scales had significant relationships with the ISCS (r = .294** and .237**), but
not with the ESCS (r = .079 and .058).
Subjective Career Success. Cammann, et al.’s (1983) Overall Job Satisfaction
Scale had significant relationships with both the ISCS (r = .415**) and the ESCS (r =
.289**). Greenhaus, et al.’s (1990) Career Satisfaction Scale had significant a
relationship with the ISCS (r = .331**), but not the ESCS (r = .157). Diener, et al.’s
(1985) Satisfaction with Life Scale had significant relationships with both the ISCS (r =
.505**) and the ESCS (r = .345**). Jaros’ (1997) Turnover Intentions Scale had
significant and negative relationships with both the ISCS (r = -.357**) and the ESCS (r =
-.411**). And finally, Djurdjevic, et al.’s (2017) Workplace Status Scale had a
significant relationship with the ISCS (r = .257**), but not the ESCS (r = .131).
Objective Career Success. Neither vertical nor lateral job movements had
significant relationships with the ISCS (r = .118 and .064) nor the ESCS (r = .014 and -
.074). Annual salary had a small but significant relationship with the ISCS (r = .196*),
but not for the ESCS (r = .036). This pattern was only reflected in the female sample (r =
.291*), and not in the male sample (r = .092). Job, organizational, and industry tenure all
exhibited significant correlations with the ESCS (r = .179*, .253**, and .329**).
Industry tenure had a small but significant correlation with the ISCS (r = .227*), but not
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job or organization tenure (r = .124 and .174). And finally, career stage had significant
relationships with both the ISCS (r = .248**) and the ESCS (r = .418**).
Table 41. Study 6 Correlation Coefficients – Gender Comparisons
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Table 42. Study 6 Full Correlation Matrix
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Table 43. Study 6 Full Gender Mean Comparison
Table 44. Study 6 Analysis of Developmental Opportunities Single Items
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Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Reaffirming confirmatory factor analyses using
maximum likelihood standardized estimation were run using SPSS Amos in order to
assess the factor structure and measurement models of both the Internal and External
Self-Confidence Scales. The models with the best fit for each scale were retested in this
section—using the same parceling techniques and model modifications as in Study 5.
In Study 5, the preferred measurement model of the ISCS was the one in which
Internal Self-Confidence served as a hierarchical second-order latent factor, with three
factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion. The preferred measurement
model of the ESCS was the one-factor model, in which each parcel (i.e., each of the six
dimensions) loaded onto a single factor of External Self-Confidence. The fit statistics are
displayed in Table 45 below. For the Internal Self-Confidence Scale, the Chi-Square test
statistic was fairly small (although still significant—X2 = 23.757**, df = 6), the CFI was
over .95 (CFI = .974), while the GFI (= .947) and TLI (= .935) were only approaching the
preferred value for those test statistics. The RMSEA was well over .08 (at RMSEA =
.153), but the RMR was well under .04 (at RMR = .034). This model still has adequate,
while not ideal, fit. The External Self-Confidence Scale, on the other hand, had a non-
significant Chi-squared value (X2 = 11.836, df = 8, p = .159), GFI (= .969), CFI (= .991),
and TLI (= .983) all well over .95, and a RMSEA (= .062) and RMR (= .062) under .08.
The ESCS model exhibited excellent fit. The path diagrams can be seen in Figure 12 and
Figure 13 below.
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Table 45. Study 6 Measurement Model Fit Statistics
Internal Self-Confidence
External Self-Confidence
ML Test Statistic Degrees of Freedom P-value (Chi-Square)
23.757 6
.001
11.836 8
.159
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) Comparative Fit Index (CFI) Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI)
.947
.974
.935
.969
.991
.983
RMSEA RMR
.153
.034 .062 .062
Figure 12. Study 6 ISCS Measurement Model
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Figure 13. Study 6 ESCS Measurement Model
Structural Equation Modeling. Structural equation modeling was used to
reaffirm whether External Self-Confidence is indeed an outcome of Internal Self-
Confidence, as well as its relationships with the other antecedents and outcomes depicted
in the theoretical criterion validation model. Due to the small sample size collected for
this study, antecedents and outcomes were not all assessed in the same model. Assessing
models with a maximum of two outcomes per model allowed for a more ideal ratio of
parameters to sample size, and permitted for more accurate model estimation.
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The analyses started off with an assessment of the outcomes which exhibited the
strongest fit within two types of models: (1) Models in which External Self-Confidence
had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between Internal Self-Confidence and
the other outcomes, and (2) Models in which Internal and External Self-Confidence had a
covarying effect with one another. Fit statistics for both types of models can be found in
Table 46, and their graphical depictions can be found in Figure 16. For the models in
which Internal and External Self-Confidence covaried, annual salary and career stage
were the outcomes which provided the strongest fit for the models, with organizational
tenure coming in at a close third. However, when organizational tenure and career stage
were considered in the same model, the fit improved (X2 = 71.08, p = .001, CFI = .963,
TLI = .947, RMSEA = .081). For the models in which External Self-Confidence had a
partial mediating effect on the relationship between Internal Self-Confidence and the
other outcomes in the proposed criterion validation model, the outcomes with the
strongest fit models were lateral job movements and career stage, with salary coming in
at a close third. However, when lateral job movements and career stage were considered
together, the model’s fit improved to an even greater extent (X2 = 9.60, p = .213, CFI =
.993, TLI = .985, RMSEA = .054). Clearly, the latter was the stronger fit of the two
types of models. This strongest fit outcome model is depicted in Figure 14. This model
depicts External Self-Confidence having a moderate, positive, partial mediating effect on
the relationship between Internal Self-Confidence and both lateral job movements and
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career stage. In the case of the relationship between Internal Self-Confidence and career
stage, it appears that External Self-Confidence may have a full mediation effect.
After the assessment of the outcomes which fit best in the self-confidence model,
antecedents were considered individually for their fit within that best fit outcomes model.
Fit statistics for the addition of antecedents can be found in Table 47. While the single-
item antecedents discussed earlier, and several of the smaller measures, did not provide
the necessary parameters to be included in the model, the SEM program was able to run
Wolff et al.’s (2011) networking scale, Dreher and Ash’s (1990) mentoring scales, and
Kraimer et al.’s organizational support for development and perceived organizational
effectiveness scales as antecedents. While some of these models provided adequate fit
when being added onto the outcome model individually, the strongest model by far was
the one in which Dreher and Ash’s (1990) mentoring scale and Kraimer et al.’s (2011)
organizational support for development scale were assessed together. This model is
depicted in Figure 15 below, and has the best fit of any of the models in this study (X2 =
5.191, p = .393, CFI = .998, TLI = .994, RMSEA = .017). In this multiple mediation
model, mentoring relationships have a strong positive effect on perceptions of
organizational support for development—partially mediating its effect on Internal and
External Self-Confidence. Further, both Internal and External Self-Confidence act as
partial mediators in the relationship between mentoring and perceived organizational
support for development and both lateral job movements and career stage.
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Table 46. Study 6 SEM Fit Statistics – Outcomes Only
Note. The strongest model in which the ESC has a partial mediation effect on the relationship between ISC and outcomes is the one in which both lateral job movements and career stage serve as the dependent variable. The strongest model in which ISC and ESC covary (as opposed to the ESC being a partial mediator) is the one in which organizational tenure has a partial mediation effect on the relationships between both ISC and ESC. The former has much stronger fit than the latter, and is the preferred model.
Table 47. Study 6 FIT Statistics - Antecedents
Antecedent(s) of Interest X2 df p CFI TLI RMSEA
Networking (Wolff) 13.724 4 .008 .889 .585 .139
Mentoring (Dreher) 3.715 3 .294 .992 .958 .043
OSD (Kraimer) 4.919 4 .296 .989 .958 .043
OSD & PCO 9.682 7 .207 .984 .951 .055
OSD & PCO ESC 7.119 5 .212 .987 .946 .058
MentorOSDESC 5.191 5 .393 .998 .994 .017
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Figure 14. Study 6 Best Fit SEM Model – Outcomes Only
Figure 15. Study 6 Best Fit SEM Model – Full Model
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Supplementary Gender Analysis
Supplementary gender analysis, based on descriptives and correlations, were
assessed to provide additional validation evidence for the ISCS and ESCS. These
supplementary analyses were examined due to predictions that women have lower levels
of self-confidence than men, and receive less opportunities for development, as specified
in the theoretical criterion validation model. While the data provided by this research
thus so far has not supported significant gender differences in Internal nor External Self-
Confidence, perhaps men and women do have different relationships between self-
confidence and some of the antecedents and outcomes provided in the theoretical model.
Networking Opportunities. All items used to assess networking opportunities
were scored marginally higher by men than by women. Networking opportunities, as
assessed by Wolff et al.’s (2011) items, had significant gender differences among the
Internal Contact subscale (p = .01), but not in the External Contact subscale (p = .25).
Forret and Dougherty’s (2001) networking items also had a significant gender difference
(p = .01), although none of the single-items used (in terms of participation, satisfaction,
and importance to career success) had any significant gender differences. Wolff et al.’s
(2011) networking items was significantly correlated to the ISCS (r = .255**), as well as
the ESCS (r = .201**). Interestingly, while the same pattern held for the ISCS between
genders, the relationship between Wolff et al.’s (2011) scale and the ESCS was
significantly stronger for women (r = .413**) than for men (r = .050). The items used to
assess Networking Behavior derived from Forret and Dougherty’s (2001) scale had no
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significant relationship with either the ISCS and the ESCS. Further, the single items used
to assess networking opportunities, were all highly correlated to the ISCS (r = .348**,
.334**, and .329**, respectively), and somewhat less correlated to the ESCS (r = .331**,
.195*, and .212*). All of these relationships were significant among the women in the
sample, while the case was not so with the males in the sample—especially in terms with
satisfaction with networking opportunities. It appears that the relationship between
satisfaction with networking opportunities and Internal and External Self-Confidence was
stronger for women than for men. Further, it appears that participation in networking
opportunities provided by their organization has a largely stronger relationship with
External Self-Confidence for women (r = .417**) than for men (r = .249*).
Mentoring Relationships. None of the variables used to measure mentoring
relationships exhibited any significant gender differences—while the items from Dreher
and Ash’s (1990) Career Mentoring Scale were scored slightly higher by women, and all
of the single items used to assess mentoring relationships (i.e. participation in,
satisfaction with, and importance to career success) were all scored marginally higher by
men. Further, mentoring, as an average of Dreher and Ash’s (1990) Career Mentoring
Scale (modified), had significant relationships with both the ISCS (r = .341**) and the
ESCS (r = .205*). Again, the relationship between mentoring and the ISCS held when
comparing genders, however, the relationship between mentoring and the ESCS was
significantly higher for women (r = .355**) than for men (r = .086). In terms of the
single items used to assess mentoring relationships, it appears that the ISCS had a much
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stronger relationship (r = .253**, .259**, and .091, respectively) than the ESCS (r =
.104, .144, -.031). It is also notable how much stronger of a relationship exists between
these single-items and the ISCS for men (r = .380**, .444**, and .237) than for women (r
= .088, .136, .006).
Development Programs. None of the items used to assess developmental
programs had any significant gender differences, although men scored marginally higher
in each of Kraimer et al.’s (2011) activity items, and in satisfaction with developmental
opportunities offered by their organizations. Women, on the other hand, scored
marginally higher in reported participation in these programs, and in their perceived
importance of them to their career success. Kraimer et al.’s (2011) Participation in
Formal Developmental Activities Scale asked participants to rate to extent to which they
have participated in six career development activities: training to develop technical skills,
training to develop managerial skills, career planning workshops, education courses that
qualify for tuition reimbursement, job rotations into different divisions, and job rotations
into different functional areas. Of these, none of the correlations with the ESCS proved
significant. In terms of the ISCS, only two of the items showed significant relationships:
training classes to develop managerial skills (r = .310**), and education courses that
qualified for tuition reimbursement (r = .217*). When assessing the gender breakdown,
these significant relationships only remained so among women—it appears that the
relationship between these educational programs may have a significant effect on the
Internal Self-Confidence of women (r = .387** and .370*), but not of men (r = .226 and
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.063). In terms of the single items used to assess developmental programs (i.e.,
participation, satisfaction, and importance to overall career success), the ESCS had no
significant relationships to display, while all statements were significantly related to the
ISCS (r = .257**, .253**, and .309**, respectively). The relationship between
participation in and satisfaction with developmental programs provided by their
organizations with both Internal and External Self-Confidence was somewhat stronger for
women (r = .285* and .296*) than for men (r = .236 and .198). On the other hand, the
importance of these programs to career success had a stronger relationship with the
Internal Self-Confidence of men (r = .402**) than for women (r = .229).
Developmental Assignments. There were no significant gender differences in
any of the single items used to assess developmental assignments. Participation in
assignments beyond job duties that contributed to professional development had a
significant relationship with the ESCS (r = .229*), and this was true for women (r =
.334*), but not for men (r = .132). However, that was the only significant relationship
with the ESCS and the single items for developmental assignments. The ISCS had
significant relationships with participation in high-visibility assignments (r = .283**),
satisfaction with developmental assignments (r = .244**), and importance of these
assignments to career success (r = .188*). There were not large gender differences in
these relationships.
Support for Development & Career Advancement. There were no significant
gender differences in either Organizational Support for Development (OSD) and
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Perceived Career Opportunities (PCO). Kraimer et al.’s (2011) OSD and PCO Scales
had significant relationships with the ISCS (r = .294** and .237**), but not with the
ESCS (r = .079 and .058). Interestingly, the relationship between OSD/PCO and the
ISCS was somewhat higher for men (r = .310** and .421**) than for women (r = .290*
and .040).
Job Satisfaction. There was no significant difference in job satisfaction between
genders, although men scored marginally higher. Cammann, et al.’s (1983) Overall Job
Satisfaction Scale had significant relationships with both the ISCS (r = .415**) and the
ESCS (r = .289**). This relationship was somewhat stronger for men (r = .445** and
.331**) than for women (r = .399** and .242). It appears that both Internal and External
Self-Confidence has stronger relationships with job satisfaction for men than for women.
Career Satisfaction. There were so significant gender differences in career
satisfaction, although men scored marginally higher. Greenhaus, et al.’s (1990) Career
Satisfaction Scale had a significant relationship with the ISCS (r = .331**), but not the
ESCS (r = .157). This pattern held consistent in the gender comparison.
Life Satisfaction. There were no significant gender differences in life satisfaction,
although men scored marginally higher. Diener, et al.’s (1985) Satisfaction with Life
Scale had significant relationships with both the ISCS (r = .505**) and the ESCS (r =
.345**). This relationship was markedly stronger for women (r = .578** and .433**)
than for men (r = .427** and .277*). It appears both Internal and External Self-
Confidence may have stronger effects on the life satisfaction of women than of men.
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Turnover intentions. There were no significant gender differences in turnover
intentions, although men scored marginally higher. Jaros’ (1997) Turnover Intentions
Scale had significant and negative relationships with both the ISCS (r = -.357**) and the
ESCS (r = -.411**). This pattern held consistent in the gender comparison, although the
relationship between turnover intentions and External Self-Confidence was markedly
higher for men (r = -.507**) than for women (r = -.307*).
Workplace status. There were no significant gender differences in workplace
status, although men scored marginally higher. Djurdjevic, et al.’s (2017) Workplace
Status Scale had a significant relationship with the ISCS (r = .257**), but not the ESCS
(r = .131). This pattern held consistent in the gender comparison.
Objective Career Success. Neither vertical nor lateral job movements had
significant gender differences, nor relationships with the ISCS nor the ESCS—a pattern
which held between genders. There was a significant gender difference in salary, with
men scoring significantly higher than women (p = .002). Annual salary had a small but
significant relationship with the ISCS (r = .196*), but not for the ESCS (r = .036). This
pattern was only reflected in the female sample (r = .291*), and not in the male sample (r
= .092). Job, organizational, and industry tenure all exhibited non-significant gender
differences, although women scored marginally higher in all three. All levels of tenure
exhibited significant correlations with the ESCS (r = .179*, .253**, and .329**), which
held consistent for industry tenure in the gender comparisons, but not in job nor
organizational tenure. The relationships between the ESCS and job and organizational
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tenure were relatively higher for women (r = .237 and .344*) than for men (r = .094 and
.172). The only significant relationship with the ISCS was for industry tenure (r =
.227*). The pattern for job and organizational tenure remained consistent. However, it
appears the relationship between industry tenure and Internal Self-Confidence was much
stronger for women (r = .305**) than for men (r = .172). And finally, women indicated
higher levels of career stage than did men (p = .05). Career stage had significant
relationships with both the ISCS (r = .248**) and the ESCS (r = .418**). The
relationships between career stage and both Internal and External Self-Confidence were
much stronger for women (r = .379** and .451**) than for men (r = .159 and .386**),
especially in terms of Internal Self-Confidence. While not displayed in the table, this was
also the case for age. The relationship between age and both Internal and External Self-
Confidence was much stronger for women (r = .458** and .451**) than for men (r = .175
and .277*).
Discussion
Overall, the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales were found to be
strongly and significantly correlated with one another, and moderately and significantly
related to such outcomes as job satisfaction, life satisfaction, turnover intentions, and
perceived effectiveness as an employee. Only Internal Self-Confidence had significant
moderate relationships with such subjective outcomes as career satisfaction and
workplace status. In terms of the potential antecedents, as predicted by the theoretical
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criterion validation model, it did appear that mentoring relationships and networking
opportunities had significant moderate effects on Internal and External Self-Confidence,
while developmental programs, developmental assignments, organizational support for
development, and perceived career opportunities appeared to have stronger relationships
with Internal Self-Confidence.
It was particularly interesting that there did not appear to be any significant
gender differences in terms of Internal and External Self-Confidence in this study,
although there were some interesting findings in regard to gender in the workplace, and
the relationship that certain antecedents and outcomes have with self-confidence. For
example, the relationship between Internal and External Self-Confidence itself was again
much larger for women than it was for men, although the difference was non-significant
in this smaller sample. Also, it appears that there is a stronger relationship between
networking and External Self-Confidence for women than for men, as well as a stronger
relationship for satisfaction with networking and both Internal and External Self-
Confidence for women than for men. Further, it appeared that Dreher and Ash’s (1990)
Mentoring Scale also had a significantly stronger relationship with External Self-
Confidence for women than for men. Also of note, it appears that participation in
training classes to develop managerial skills, as well as participation in and satisfaction
with developmental programs also seems to have a stronger effect on the Internal and
External Self-Confidence of women than of men.
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In regards to the gendered effects of Internal and External Self-Confidence on the
outcomes listed in the theoretical criterion validation model, it appears that both Internal
and External Self-Confidence have stronger relationships with job satisfaction for men
than for women, and stronger relationships with life satisfaction for women than for men.
According to these findings, self-confidence plays more of a role in life satisfaction for
women, while it plays more of a role in job satisfaction for men. One last interesting
finding in regards to the correlation analyses was that the relationships between career
stage (as well as age) and both Internal and External Self-Confidence were much stronger
for women than for men, especially in terms of Internal Self-Confidence, indicating that
women may especially grow in their self-confidence as they progress through their career
(and their lifetimes). It is also likely the case that there is a cyclical effect, in which self-
confidence assists in one’s career progression, which in turn builds more self-confidence,
which in turn furthers careers, and so on. A multi-year longitudinal study would be
required to test this cyclical effect, in which self-confidence serves as both an antecedent
and an outcome to career progression and success.
While the correlation coefficients supported the relationship between Internal and
External Self-Confidence, the structural equation models supplied even more evidence to
support a modified version of the proposed criterion validation model. The multiple
mediation model for this study depicted mentoring relationships having a strong positive
effect on organizational support for development—partially mediating its effect on
Internal and External Self-Confidence. Further, both Internal and External Self-
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Confidence acted as partial mediators in the relationship between mentoring and
organizational support for development and both lateral job movements and career stage.
There is a clear story here: Organizations offering support for development (through such
means as providing mentoring relationships), are playing their part in aiding Internal
Self-Confidence (which is reflected in External Self-Confidence), which has clear effects
on both lateral job movements as well as on career stage. This has particular implications
for women in the work world, given the findings that career stage and both Internal and
External Self-Confidence had a much stronger relationship for women than for men,
especially in terms of Internal Self-Confidence. Again, this was also the case for the
relationship between mentoring (on the Dreher & Ash, 1990 scale) and External Self-
Confidence—the relationship was significantly stronger for women than for men, and
therefore has particular implications for women in the work world.
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General Discussion
The purpose of this research was to not only summarize the current state of
literature of self-confidence, but to use that information to provide a coherent and
theoretically-derived definition of self-confidence, so that it can be measured and studied
in organizational contexts. This study did just that through the development of the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence, which (a) operationalizes Internal Self-Confidence
as self-trust, not only as self-efficacy or self-esteem as other researchers have done, (b)
operationalizes Internal Self-Confidence as an attitude, like trust, which can be changed
with proper interventions, and (c) includes affective, behavioral, and cognitive
components in the discussion of self-confidence, and (d) includes a multiple-perception
perspective of the construct by differentiating between internally- and externally-
perceived self-confidence.
The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence states that Internal Self-Confidence, as
an overarching latent construct, is mainly influenced by three factors: self-efficacy, self-
esteem, and self-compassion. Together, these constructs determine how trustworthy an
individual considers themselves to be, and how much they trust themselves. While one’s
attitude towards themselves is undoubtedly important, subtle signals and behaviors (i.e.,
External Self-Confidence) are thought to be indicative of an individual’s level of self-
confidence to others—and therefore inform others’ perceptions of their competence.
According to this research, the most discernible and recognizable confidence cues include
affectivity/optimism; taking action, risks, and initiative; nonverbal communication;
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verbal communication; independence in thought and action, and trust in one’s own
decisions and judgment. The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence was used to develop
and validate both the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales (ISCS & ESCS)
through a series of six studies.
Study 1 was a qualitative assessment of how people define and recognize signs of
self-confidence. When respondents were asked what self-confidence means to them,
self-esteem (44%) and self-efficacy (35%) were by far the most frequent definition
themes to arise, highly supporting the assertion that both are essential to the construct
definition of self-confidence. Individuals’ tendencies to avoid or approach risks, goals,
or challenges (18%), independence of opinions, decisions, and actions (16%), self-
compassion and resiliency (13%), one’s trust in their decisions and judgments (13%), and
one’s knowledge of their own strengths, expertise, and competence (9%) were also
common in defining the colloquial use of self-confidence and were considered in its
nomological network.
The information collected in the qualitative study was used to inform the
development of the items used in Study 2—the exploration of initial items with the
purpose of understanding which factors fit best as components of self-confidence, and
which fit better as outcomes or correlates of the construct. This study developed items
based on the qualitative responses collected in Study 1, and the coding categories
developed by the team of subject matter experts (SMEs). Exploratory Factor Analyses
refined these items to be most representative of their prospective categories and
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confirmed the distinctness of each of the six categories. Confirmatory Factor Analyses
further established the factor structure of each of the items and compared alternative
models, finding that the combination of self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion
best served as indicators of the broader construct of self-confidence—supporting the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence. And finally, Structural Equation Modeling further
confirmed that self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-compassion serve best as indicators of
self-confidence, and also indicated that the items representative of avoid/approach
behaviors, trust in decisions/judgments, and independence in thoughts and behaviors
serve best as outcomes of self-confidence, rather than as indicators of the construct.
The results of Study 2 were used to develop both the Internal Self-Confidence
Scale (assessed in Study 3), as well as the External Self-Confidence Scale (assessed in
Study 4), using Exploratory Factor Analysis. Both scales loaded well onto one factor,
and had respectable internal reliability consistency and factorability. Contrary to
hypotheses, however, the Internal Self-Confidence Scale did not exhibit significant
gender differences (Study 3). The External Self-Confidence Scale assessed in Study 4,
however, did exhibit gender differences in perceptions of how related each item was to a
self-confident person—women found each item as more representative of a self-confident
person than did men, indicating that women may be particularly sensitive to picking up
these “confidence cues” in their observations of themselves, or of other people.
Further, Study 5 served as both a Confirmatory Factor Analysis and a construct
validation of both the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales. All construct
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validation hypotheses were supported—Internal and External Self-Confidence were
found to have significant negative relationships with neuroticism/affectivity and locus of
control, and significant positive relationships with optimism, general risk propensity,
achievement motives, decision-making, independence, shyness/sociability, and problem-
solving confidence. In this study, men scored marginally higher than women in both the
Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales, as well as in the subscales, and a majority
of the items—with a few exceptions. However, the only significant difference was found
in decisiveness, where men reported significantly more decisiveness (or trust in their
decision-making and judgments) than women.
In terms of factorability, the Internal Self-Confidence scale exhibited the best fit
with the parceled version of Model 3, supporting the notion of Internal Self-Confidence
as being a second-order hierarchical model, with three factors, as depicted in the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence. This justifies looking at the measure as a
unidimensional, as opposed to multidimensional, scale. The External Self-Confidence
Scale, on the other hand, exhibited the best fit with the modified, parceled version of
Model 1—the one-factor model. Because there were already only two items per
dimension, however, this is tantamount to External Self-Confidence being represented as
a first-order latent factor, with each of the six dimensions being considered parceled
observed variables. This also supports the use of the External Self-Confidence Scale as a
unidimensional whole, and not picking or choosing dimensions out of it. The structural
equation modeling supported External Self-Confidence as an outcome of Internal Self-
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Confidence. However, the fit was improved with the addition of other outcomes such as
General Risk Propensity, Achievement Motives, Independence, Shyness and Sociability,
and Problem-Solving Confidence, supporting the construct validity of both scales.
And finally, Study 6 served as a criterion, or outcome, validation of both the
Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales, regarding the career success of employees.
Overall, the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales were found to be strongly and
significantly correlated with one another, and moderately and significantly related to such
outcomes as job satisfaction, life satisfaction, turnover intentions, and perceived
effectiveness as an employee. Only Internal Self-Confidence had significant moderate
relationships with such outcomes as career satisfaction and workplace status (classified as
subjective career success measures). In terms of the potential antecedents, as predicted
by the theoretical criterion validation model, it did appear that mentoring relationships
and networking opportunities had significant moderate effects on Internal and External
Self-Confidence, while developmental programs, developmental assignments,
organizational support for development, and perceived career opportunities appeared to
have stronger relationships with Internal Self-Confidence.
It was particularly interesting that there did not appear to be any significant
gender differences in terms of Internal nor External Self-Confidence in this study,
although gender did play a role in the relationships that Internal and External Self-
Confidence played with other variables. Most notably, self-confidence appeared to play
more of a role in life satisfaction for women, while it played more of a role in job
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satisfaction for men. Also interesting is the finding that the relationships between career
stage (as well as age) and both Internal and External Self-Confidence were much stronger
for women than for men, especially in terms of Internal Self-Confidence, indicating that
women may particularly grow in their self-confidence as they progress throughout their
careers and their lifetimes. Although in terms of career progression, there is very likely a
cyclical effect in which self-confidence assists in furthering along one’s career, which in
turn builds more self-confidence, which in turn furthers careers, and so on. A multi-year
longitudinal study would be required to test this cyclical effect, in which self-confidence
serves as both an antecedent and an outcome to career progression and success.
While the correlation coefficients supported the relationship between Internal and
External Self-Confidence, the structural equation models supplied even more evidence to
support a modified version of the proposed criterion validation model. The multiple
mediation model for this study depicted mentoring relationships having a strong positive
effect on perceptions of organizational support for development—partially mediating its
effect on Internal and External Self-Confidence. Further, both Internal and External Self-
Confidence acted as partial mediators in the relationship between mentoring and
organizational support for development and both lateral job movements and career stage.
There is a clear story here: Organizations providing support for development (through
such means as mentoring relationships), are playing their part in aiding the Internal Self-
Confidence of their employees (which is further reflected in their External Self-
Confidence), which has clear effects on both lateral job movements, as well as on career
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stage. This has particular implications for women in the work world, given the findings
that career stage and both Internal and External Self-Confidence had a much stronger
relationship for women than for men, especially in terms of Internal Self-Confidence.
Again, this was also the case for the relationship between mentoring (on the Dreher &
Ash, 1990 scale) and External Self-Confidence—the relationship was significantly
stronger for women than for men. Therefore, organizations wishing to develop the self-
confidence of their female employees could very well put extra support into their
mentoring programs.
Overall, both the Internal Self-Confidence Scale (ISCS) and External Self-
Confidence Scale (ESCS) were highly reliable and valid measures, which can feasibly be
used in workplace or organizational settings (with ISCS reliability coefficients ranging α
= .924 - .942, and ESCS reliability coefficients ranging α = .903 - .913). This research
supported the construct and criterion validity and unidimensional factor structure of the
Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales. It is highly recommended that these scales
be used as a whole in order to represent the latent structure, and that researchers not pick
and choose dimensions from either scale to assess on their own. This research also
provides theoretical support to the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence through
confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling using both self-confidence
scales.
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Scientific and Theoretical Implications
Before this research, the scientific literature has often failed to provide a coherent
and unified conceptualization of self-confidence (Berman, 2005; De Mascia, 2015;
Goldsmith, 2008; Ibarra, Ely, & Kolb, 2013; Kerfoot, 2010; Knippen & Green, 1989;
Mohr, 2014; Tichy & Charan; 1989). What the literature needs is a clear, concrete
definition, operationalization, and measure of self-confidence, which this research
provides. First of all, this paper contributes to theory on self-confidence through the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence, which draws on an existing theoretical model of
trust and subsequently conceptualizes Internal Self-Confidence as a form of self-trust.
This conceptualization was supported by the data through the validation of the Internal
and External Self-Confidence Scales. Researchers can use these measures to further our
understanding of self-confidence (both internal and external) in multiple contexts. The
development of the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence will help reduce the limited
understanding of self-confidence as a construct across fields and disciplines.
Additionally, the notion of External Self-Confidence as a construct within the
Integrated Model of Self-Confidence is another strong scientific and theoretical
contribution of this research. The subtle signals and behaviors which are often thought
to be indicative of an individual’s level of self-confidence are often used by others to
inform how competent or able they believe another individual to be (Anderson, et al.,
2012; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Locke & Anderson, 2015). The theory described in
this research delineates this process—one’s Internal Self-Confidence is often reflected in
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verbal, nonverbal, and behavioral confidence cues (or External Self-Confidence, in terms
of affectivity, taking action, verbal and non-verbal communication, independence, and
decisiveness). Researchers can use the measure of External Self-Confidence developed
in this study to explore this construct in multiple contexts—particularly in terms of
studying the effect of “self-confidence” on women in leadership.
Practical and Workplace Implications
The practical literature has also fallen short in terms of defining or
operationalizing the construct of self-confidence—treating it as a vague and ominous
quality that is important for employees to possess (Berman, 2005; De Mascia, 2015;
Goldsmith, 2008; Ibarra, Ely, & Kolb, 2013; Kerfoot, 2010; Knippen & Green, 1989;
Mohr, 2014; Tichy & Charan; 1989). While there is some speculation on the
antecedents and outcomes of self-confidence in the practical literature (such as
developmental opportunities and leadership effectiveness), these propositions are not yet
empirically backed (Baldoni, 2009; Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Ireland, Hitt, & Williams,
1992; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; White, de Sanctis, & Crino, 1981). That is what the
development of the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales will help accomplish—
it will help further our understanding of the impact of self-confidence on career
progression which has been proposed in the practical literature. Now that there are
sensible measures of the construct, we can study the antecedents to self-confidence
through longitudinal research in order to better understand the levers that will improve it.
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The operationalization of these new measures will help alleviate the particularly
limited understanding that we currently have concerning the implications of self-
confidence in the work world. Now self-confidence can feasibly and reliably be studied
in workplace settings. These scales (particularly the Internal Self-Confidence Scale) can
further be used to select employees and/or leaders who need to be or appear self-
confident in their positions, as well as to target which current employees need
interventions in terms of self-confidence (though the use of high-potential programs,
formal training, developmental assignments, mentoring, or networking opportunities).
Further, use of the External Self-Confidence Scale would likely help coach leaders and
managers regarding the perceptions of self-confidence that others may have of them.
Leaders having an understanding of how self-confident they appear to others will be able
to actively shape those perceptions, and appear more competent to subordinates, clients,
supervisors, colleagues, or anyone else they may encounter in the work world.
Limitations
While this research is certainly groundbreaking, there are several limitations that
need to be taken under consideration. Most importantly, the samples mostly consisted of
either students, mTurk workers, or both—samples which potentially may not generalize
to a full-time working population, nor to the overall population in general. Two more
limitations to keep in mind refer specifically to Study 6. First, the smaller sample size
affected the power of the statistical analyses. Second, some measures were comprised of
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a single item. Of note, the single-item variables have been clearly labeled in order to
assist in accurate interpretation. These factors may have very well impeded the full
testing of the hypothesized theoretical criterion validation model, and full validation of
the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence in workplace settings.
Further, common method bias may be of small concern, as all data was collected
through cross-sectional surveys. While the longitudinal designs in Studies 5 and 6 may
help relieve some of the cross-sectionality, measurement bias may still play a factor in
some of the results, and should be considered in their interpretation. Additionally, all
studies collected data from those currently residing in the United States, which may
further impede the generalizability of the results, considering that self-confidence may be
a strictly “Westernized” concept. The model and the associated scales may potentially be
only generalizable to such contexts.
One final limitation to take into consideration when interpreting the results of this
study is the bias that may have been introduced in the development and refinement of the
categories, or dimensions, that were assessed in each scale. The first study (being 69%
female, as half the sample came from the Women’s Business Center, now
weVENTURE), and the second study (being 60% female) were pivotal in the
development of the scales developed in Studies 3 and 4. Because the samples of these
studies were so heavily skewed toward females, females were able to have more of a say
in what self-confidence means, and the dimensions that resulted from the analyses of the
first two studies. This could very well explain the lack of a gender difference found in
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the Internal and External Self-Confidence scales. It could be that the dimensions used to
assess self-confidence (internal and external) in this set of studies is tapping something
entirely different than any of the other measures that have been used to tap into this
construct in past research. So while it may be considered a limitation that there was such
a heavy bias towards females in the samples of the first two studies, this could also serve
as a strength of these scales—that they are framing self-confidence in a way that has
potentially been ignored in the past.
Future Directions
The development of the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence, along with the
Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales, opens up the world to an array of future
research. For example, future researchers will be able to use the newly developed scales
to study many workplace phenomena—such as the lack of equal representation of women
in higher-level and executive leadership positions, and how self-confidence (whether it be
internal or external) may act as an individual-level barrier hindering progression up
leadership hierarchies. Are women in leadership less self-confident, or do they just
appear so? Do women exhibit the same indicators or self-confidence—is it equally
desirable to do so in terms of perceived leadership effectiveness, influence, and
likability? Which indicators of self-confidence may be more or less effective for women
in leadership roles to try to display? Where does the double bind come into play here?
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Organizations will also be able to study the effect that different interventions
(such as formal training, developmental assignments, high-potential programs,
networking opportunities, and mentoring relationships) have on the self-confidence of
their employees. Is self-confidence the mechanism through which these interventions
impact career success? Which would be more useful for organizations to try to impact—
Internal or External Self-Confidence? Which matters more in terms of progression up
leadership hierarchies and in terms of career success? How do the Internal and External
Self-Confidence levels wax and wane over time based on these work interventions?
Future research will also be able to study the “Confidence Gap,” as described by
Kay and Shipman (2014). Is this phenomenon still alive and well? Is it more of a
reference to Internal or External Self-Confidence—where does the gap really lay?
Further, many state this it is wise to “fake it ‘till you make it!” But is this sound advice,
given that people may only be looking at your confidence cues (or External Self-
Confidence) in order to determine your perceived level of competence? Does “faking it
‘till you make it” though External Self-Confidence have eventual tiring or exhausting
effects on Internal Self-Confidence? What relationship does authenticity have with one’s
levels of both Internal and External Self-Confidence?
And finally, while this research used the External Self-Confidence Scale as a form
of self-assessment, it can be used to rate others, as well. Multiple-rater studies would be
an excellent next step. For example, does one’s perceived level of External Self-
Confidence align with others’ perceptions of their self-confidence? Which has more of
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an effect on their Internal Self-Confidence? On their life satisfaction or career success?
Now that self-confidence (both internal and external) can be feasibly and reliably studied
based on one coherent and theoretically-derived definition of the construct, much
research is needed to really solidify the construct in both the scientific and practical
literature.
Conclusion
To recap, this research not only summarized and consolidated the current state of
the literature on self-confidence, but it also developed the Integrated Model of Self-
Confidence, which was validated over a series of six studies. This research explored
Internal Self-Confidence as a form of self-trust through the development of the Integrated
Model of Self-Confidence, which states that self-confidence, as an overarching latent
construct, is mainly influenced by three factors: self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-
compassion. Together, these constructs determine how trustworthy an individual
considers themselves to be, and how much they trust themselves (i.e., Internal Self-
Confidence). While one’s attitude towards themselves is undoubtedly important, subtle
signals and behaviors (i.e., External Self-Confidence) are thought to be indicative of an
individual’s level of self-confidence—and therefore inform others’ perceptions of their
competence. According to this research, the most discernible and recognizable
confidence cues include affectivity/optimism; taking action, risks, and initiative;
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nonverbal communication; verbal communication; independence in thought and action,
and trust in one’s own decisions and judgment.
The Integrated Model of Self-Confidence was used to develop and validate both
the Internal and External Self-Confidence Scales (ISCS & ESCS) through a series of six
studies. Overall, both the Internal Self-Confidence Scale (ISCS) and External Self-
Confidence Scale (ESCS) were highly reliable and valid measures, which can be used in
workplace or organizational settings. This research supported the construct and criterion
validity and unidimensional factor structure of the Internal and External Self-Confidence
Scales. It is highly recommended that these scales be used as a whole in order to
represent their latent structures, and that researchers don’t pick and choose dimensions
from either scale to assess individually. This research also provides theoretical support to
the Integrated Model of Self-Confidence through confirmatory factor analysis and
structural equation modeling using both self-confidence scales.
INTEGRATED MODEL OF SELF-CONFIDENCE
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Appendices
- Appendix A. Self-Confidence Definition Categories by Discipline
- Appendix B. Trends in Scales Used to Measure Self-Confidence.
- Appendix C. Internal Self-Confidence Scale
- Appendix D. External Self-Confidence Scale
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Appendix A. Self-Confidence Definition Categories by Discipline
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Appendix B. Trends in Scales Used to Measure Self-Confidence
Measure Citations Sample Items
Adjective Checklist – self-confidence subscale
Chusmir & Koberg, 1991; Chusmir, Koberg, & Stecher, 1992; Gough & Heilbrum, 1965; Koberg, Chusmir, & Carlin, 1992; Pasveer, 1998
1. Assertive 2. Outgoing
Agnihotri's Self-Confidence Inventory Srivastava, 2013 Could not locate items
Beattie's Trait Robustness of Self-Confidence Inventory
Beattie et al. (2011)
1. A bad result in competition has a very negative effect on my self-confidence
2. My self-confidence remains stable regardless of fluctuations in fitness level
Cattell's (1970) 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire – anxiety subscale
Melamed (1996) 1. Am afraid that I will do the wrong thing 2. Don't worry about things that have
already happened
CSAI (any version)
Cox, Martens & Russell, 2003; Coudevylle et al., 2011; Dumitrescu et al., 2012; Freeman & Rees, 2010; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Jones et al., 1991; Koivula et al., 2002; Rees & Freeman, 2007; Vosloo et al., 2009
1. I’m confident I can meet the challenge. 2. I’m confident of coming through under
pressure.
Day & Hamblin’s (1964) Self-Confidence scale
Bell, 1967; Chuang et al., 2013; Day & Hamblin, 1964
1. I feel capable of handling myself in most social situations
2. I don’t spend much time worrying about what people think of me
Emerson's Personal Success Profile—self-confidence factor
Emerson (1998)
1. I prefer to work on routine rather than challenging projects
2. I feel more comfortable following the leadership of others than being the leader
Erwin Identity Scale– Confidence Subscale Erwin & Kelly (1985)
1. No matter how hard I try, I do not feel prepared to enter the working world
2. My confidence is readily shaken when I see so many capable people with abilities as good or better than mine
Gabriel et al’ Self-Confidence Scale
Gabriel, Renaud & Tippin (2007)
1. Right now, I feel like I really know who I am
2. Right now, I feel very comfortable with who I am
Garant's self-confidence scale
Garant et al., 1995; Johnson et al., 2000; Johnson & McCoy, 2000
Could not locate items
Kolb's 5-item self-confidence scale Kolb (1999) 1. I have confidence in my own decisions
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2. I have what it takes to succeed in my chosen career
Locke’s confidence items Locke (2005)
1. Confident” vs “insecure 2. Feel good about yourself vs. bad about
yourself
Popper et al.’s measure of self-confidence Popper et al. (2004)
• Rotter's Locus of Control Scale • Speilberger's Trait Anxiety Scale • Chen & Gully's General Self-Efficacy
Scale
Self-Esteem Scales
Al-Hesbaish, 2012; Chelminski & Coulter, 2007; Cox & Bauer, 1964; Locander & Hermann, 1979; Malkin & Stake, 2004; Nygren & Ransom-Flint, 1997; Owens, 1993
• Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (Al-Hesbaish, 2012)
• Tafarodi & Swan’s Self-Liking and Self-Competence Scales (Chelminski & Coulter, 2007)
• Janis & Field’s Feelings of Inadequacy (Cox & Bauer, 1964)
• Coppersmith’s Self-Esteem (Locander & Hermann, 1979)
• Stake’s (1985) Performance Self-Esteem Scale (Malkin & Stake, 2004)
• Mirels’ Self-Doubt Scale (Nygren & Ransom-Flint, 1997)
• Items drawn from Rosenberg’s and Cobb’s Self-Esteem Scales (Owens, 1993)
Shrauger’s Personal Evaluation Inventory – general confidence subscale
Cheng & Furnham, 2002; Shrauger & Schohn, 1995
1. I lack some important capabilities that may keep me from being successful.
2. I have fewer doubts about my abilities than most people.
Siegrist et al. General Confidence Scale
Siegrist, Gutscher, & Earle (2005)
1. Nowadays, things seem to be getting more and more out of control.
2. A person can never have too much insurance to protect against the inevitable disasters in life.
Specific Self-Efficacy Scales
Albarracín & Matichell, 2004; Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001; Hart et al., 2014a; Hart et al., 2014b; Heppner & Peterson, 1982; Kalaian & Freeman, 1994; Manning & Ray, 1993; Sander & Sanders, 2006; Schyns & Sczesny, 2010; White, 2014
• Defensive Confidence Scale (Albarracín & Matichell, 2004)
• Problem-solving confidence (Heppner & Peterson, 1982)
• Self-confidence in caring for patients in acute deterioration (Hart et al., 2014a; Hart et al., 2014b)
• Schyns & von Collani’s Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale (Schyns & Sczesny, 2010)
• Nursing Anxiety & Self-Confidence with Clinical Decision Making (White, 2014)
• Bearden’s Consumer Self-Confidence Scale (Bearden, Hardesty, & Rose, 2001)
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• McCroskey’s (1982) Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (Manning & Ray, 1993)
• Academic Behavioural Confidence Scale (Sander & Sanders, 2006)
• Self-Confidence in Teaching (Kalaian & Freeman, 1994)
Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI) (Helmreich & Stapp, 1974) – Form A
Zuckerman, 1985 1. I would describe myself as self-
confident 2. I feel confident of my appearance
Vealey’s measure of state sport confidence, trait sport confidence, or sources of confidence
Grove & Heard, 1997; Hidayat & Budiman, 2014; Lirgg, 1991; Machida, Ward, & Vealey, 2012; Mills, 1996; Ryska, 2002; Vealey, 1986; Vealey et al., 1998
Vealey (1986) Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory: 1. Compare your confidence in your
ability to execute the skills necessary to be successful to the most confidence athlete you know
2. Compare your confidence in your ability to make critical decisions during competition to the most confident athlete you know
Wright's Generalized Social Confidence scale
Greenacre, Tung, & Chapman, 2014; Wright, 1975
1. I do not spend much time worrying about what people think of me
2. I feel capable of handling myself in most social situations
Yorke’s Self-Confidence Scale Yorke, 2016
1. I worry about the difficulty of my program
2. I’m confident of completing my program successfully
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Appendix C. Internal Self-Confidence Scale Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements. There is no right or wrong answer. Please be as honest as possible. 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Somewhat disagree 4 = Neither agree nor disagree
5 = Somewhat agree 6 = Agree 7 = Strongly Agree
Self-efficacy
1. I am capable of achieving my goals. 2. I believe in my ability to succeed. 3. I have what it takes to get things done. 4. I often have doubts in my ability to meet my goals. (R)
Self-esteem
5. I am a person of value and worth. 6. I am happy with who I am as a person. 7. I am sure of myself and my beliefs. 8. I feel good about myself and who I am.
Self-compassion
9. When I make a mistake, I can easily forgive myself. 10. While I may not be perfect, I am good enough. 11. I can learn from failures and try again. 12. I have the ability to cope with feeling of self-doubt.
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Appendix D. External Self-Confidence Scale Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements. There is no right or wrong answer. Please be as honest as possible. Others (besides myself) would describe me as someone who: 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Somewhat disagree 4 = Neither agree nor disagree
5 = Somewhat agree 6 = Agree 7 = Strongly Agree
Affectivity
1. Often appears nervous or anxious. (R) 2. Appears comfortable in most situations.
Taking Action
3. Appears eager to take on more responsibility or challenge. 4. Appears afraid to act or try new things. (R)
Nonverbal Communication
5. Has difficulty making lasting eye contact with people. (R) 6. Often makes nervous gestures or has fidgety body language. (R)
Verbal Communication
7. Often mumbles when speaking to others. (R) 8. Often speaks up to voice views or opinions.
Independence
9. Frequently needs approval from others. (R) 10. Often looks for reassurance or confirmation from other people. (R)
Decisiveness
11. Often appears worried about making the wrong decision. (R) 12. Often has a difficult time making up their mind. (R)
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