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Best on-farm ultrasound solutions
Bovine
ReproductionClinical booklet
with Easi-Scan
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Contents
Ovary 3
Uterus 5
Twins 7
Foetal Sex 8
Reproductive Tract Pathology 9
Cattle Gestational Age Tables 11
Glossary of Terms 12
References 13
Easi-Scan 14
Easi-Scan Congurations 16
This Bovine Reproduction Clinical Booklet has been designed by
BCF Technology Ltd as a reference booklet for the reproductive tract in
the cow and provides images to show different stages of the fertility and
reproductive processes.
Written by Kimberly Palgrave, BS BVM&S MRCVS in-house vet for
BCF Technology UK.
Images generously provided by M.V. Juan Jose Ferzola, veterinarian doctor
from AllVet Veterinarian Technology, Buenos Aires, Argentina. As a bovine
reproduction specialist in Chivilcoy, province of Buenos Aires, Argentina,
Juan Jose has been using ultrasound for the majority of his reproductive
examinations since 1991. Additional images courtesy of Lucy Tyler MA VetMB
CertCHP MRCVS of Hale Veterinary Group, Wiltshire, UK.
Special thanks to Carl Bollum of BCF Technology USA for his contributions.
© BCF Technology Ltd
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Evaluation of the bovine reproductive
tract is an essential aspect of both
beef and dairy herd management.
In addition to manual palpation,
ultrasonography is commonly used
to examine and evaluate the cow’s
reproductive tract. Transrectalultrasonography is performed through
the introduction of an ultrasound
transducer (probe) into the rectum.
This enables the architecture of
the ovaries, uterus, reproductive
vasculature and surrounding structures
to be visualised and evaluated.
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Linear-array transducers with frequency
ranges of 5.0 to 7.5 MHz producing
rectangular-shaped images are most
commonly used. Linear transducers
produce higher quality images of tissues
directly beneath the surface of the
probe (the ‘near’ eld) compared to
the wedge-shaped images produced
by a sector transducer. However,
sector probes may also be used.
At the start of each ultrasound
examination, the animal should be
adequately restrained. Excess faecal
material may be removed from therectum to facilitate examination of
the reproductive tract. The lubricated
transducer is then cupped in the
operator’s hand and carefully inserted
into the rectum. The transducer is
placed rmly against the ventral aspect
of the rectum (rectal oor) and the
exam is started. All of the internal
reproductive structures should be
identied and evaluated in a systematic
manner, including the ovaries, uterine
horns, uterine body, cervix and
vagina. The transducer, still within
the operator’s cupped hand, is then
gently withdrawn from the rectum.
The speed of ultrasound examination
may approach that of manualpalpation, depending on effective
animal restraint and operator ability.
However, it is also important to
remember that the amount of useful
information gained is increased
through the use of ultrasonography,
including early identication of
non-pregnant cows, identication
of cows carrying twins, assessment
of foetal viability, determination
of foetal sex, identication of
ovarian structures and detection of
ovarian/uterine abnormalities.
It is important to recognise both
normal and abnormal structures ontransrectal ultrasound examination.
It is also essential to realise that
there may be signicant variation
between cows. Therefore, ultrasound
examination ndings should always
be interpreted in combination with
farm records, herd data and visual
observations (e.g. ‘heat’ detection).
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Ovary
Anoestrus
The stroma of the anoestrus ovary
has homogeneous echogenicity
on ultrasound examination. Gross
structures associated with cyclic
activity such as follicles and corpora
lutea are typically not visible. Small,
truly anoestrus ovaries are usually
only found in young heifers.
Active ovAry
The components of the active ovary,
including follicles, corpora lutea
and ovarian stroma, have various
echogenicities and therefore will
appear as varying shades of grey
on ultrasound examination.
Flll
Follicles typically appear as anechoic
regions within the ovarian stroma.
However, it is not usually possible to
distinguish the follicular wall from the
surrounding stroma (apart from large
pre-ovulatory follicles). Follicles do not
always appear round due to transferred
pressure from the transducer on
the surrounding ovarian tissue.
ca La
Corpora lutea may be seen on the
ovaries of most cows as true anoestrus
is rare and the corpus luteum (CL) is
present for two thirds of the oestrous
cycle. Luteal tissue appears as distinctly
echogenic areas within the ovarian
stroma. A central lacuna (uid-lled
cavity) may be seen within a normal CL
> oa flll
ovAriAn FoLLicLes
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and should not be confused with the
presence of a luteal cyst. Compared
to a luteal cyst, a normal CL with a
central lacuna is less than 25mm in
diameter and the lacuna occupies
less than one third of the entire CL.
The CL may usually be identied on
ultrasound examination 4 days after
ovulation occurs. If fertilisation of the
ovum does not occur and pregnancy
is not established, the CL reaches
peak size 16 days post-ovulation and
then begins to regress. Therefore,
repeated examination of the ovariescan provide useful information
regarding stage of the cycle through
observation of changes to the CL.
Additionally, persistence of the CL
may assist in the determination
of early pregnancy diagnosis. The
embryonic vesicle can usually be
found in the uterine horn ipsilateralto the ovary containing the CL.
> cL laa
> cL flll
corpus
Luteum
corpus
Luteum
LAcunAe
FoLLicLes
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Uterus
non-pregnAnt uterus
The uterus has different echogenic
appearances depending on the stage
of the oestrous cycle. Viewing the
uterine horn in cross section, where the
uterus is circular in appearance may
enable the endometrium, myometrium
and uterine lumen and its contents to
be identied more easily. When the
cow is in oestrus, the endometrium
becomes oedematous and thereforethe endometrial folds become more
prominent. The lumen also has a varying
appearance depending on intraluminal
uid accumulation at different stages
of the cycle. In the periovulatory
period, the uterine lumen appears
anechoic due to mucus accumulation.
It is important to differentiate between
the appearance of a large amountof mucus in the uterus and early
pregnancy. This can be done through
examination of the ovaries for the
presence of follicles and corpora lutea
in addition to the presence/absence
of a foetus, foetal membranes and
placentomes (cotyledon/caruncle unit).
pregnAnt uterus
Early and accurate identication of
the non-pregnant cow is essential
to improve the overall reproductive
efciency of the herd. Although the
experienced operator may be capable of
detecting a pregnancy as early as day
17 post-breeding/articial insemination
(AI), the length of examination time
is increased as the entire uterus must
> n-a
> 30-a a
> 33-a a
endometrium
ALLAntoic FLuid
ALLAntoic FLuid
mucus within uterine Lumen
conceptus
conceptus
Amniotic
membrAne
Amniotic
membrAne
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be carefully evaluated to condently
diagnose a non-pregnant state.
Additionally, diagnosis of pregnancy
at this stage should be considered
with caution due to typically high
rates of early embryonic loss. Most
operators can diagnose pregnancy
under farm conditions quickly, easily
and accurately by day 30 through the
use of transrectal ultrasonography.
Therefore, it is generally advisable
to perform ultrasound examinations
for pregnancy diagnosis around
day 30 post-breeding/AI.A positive diagnosis of pregnancy
may be made without visualisation
of the embryo on ultrasound
examination. This is done through
identication of allantoic uid, foetal
membranes and placentomes.
> 42-a a
> 45-a a
> pla
pLAcentome
pLAcentome
FoetAL
heAd
Foetus
FoetAL
heAd
FoetAL
trunk
FoetAL
trunk
Amniotic
membrAne
Amniotic
membrAne
Amniotic
membrAne
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Twins
The development of twin pregnancies
in dairy cattle is undesirable due to
the resultant reduction in overall herdreproductive efciency and therefore
farm protability. Twinning in cows may
result in higher rates of embryonic death
and late term abortion, premature and/
or difcult calving and the development
of various metabolic diseases such as
ketosis. Therefore, early identication
of a cow carrying twins is important to
minimise potential costs to the farm.
Ultrasound is an effective tool as twin
pregnancies can be accurately identied
using transrectal ultrasonography
by 40-70 days post breeding/AI. It
is important to evaluate the ovaries
at the time of pregnancy diagnosis
as the presence of two or more CL
gives an indication of cows whichmay develop a twin pregnancy.
> t cL a
> t
ovAry
corporA LuteA
Foetus Foetus
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Foetal Sex
Transrectal ultrasonography is
useful for determining foetal sex by
evaluating the location of the genitaltubercle (precursor to the penis and
clitoris). Ultrasound can be used to
accurately determine foetal sex from
day 55-60 post ovulation. The genital
tubercle is located between the tail
and hind limbs in the female. In the
male foetus, it is located just caudal to
the point where the umbilicus enters
the body. Accurate identication offoetal sex may be useful for dairy
herd management programmes.
> Fal f
> mal f
Front
Limbs
tAiL
umbiLicAL
cord
genitAL
tubercLe
genitAL
tubercLe
hindLimbs
hindLimbs
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Reproductive
Tract Pathology
Ultrasonography is also useful forinvestigating members of the herd
with poor fertility due to cyclic
abnormalities or pathologic conditions
affecting the ovaries and/or uterus.
Conditions affecting fertility such as
cystic ovarian disease and endometritis/
pyometra can be accurately identied
and treated appropriately.
cystic ovAriAn diseAse
Cystic ovarian disease is an important
condition to consider, particularly in
dairy cattle herd management, as it
results in abnormal cyclic activity and
a subsequent decrease in fertility. This
condition is traditionally dened as
the presence of uid-lled structures
greater than 25mm in diameter on
the ovary for longer than 10 days
in the absence of a functional CL.
The two types of ovarian cysts
resulting in reproductive/cyclic
dysfunction are follicular cysts and
luteal cysts. The criteria generally
used to dene the type of cyst are:• Fllla - smooth,
thin wall (less than 3mm)
• Lal - thicker wall
(greater than 3mm) due to
a lining of luteal tissue
However, not all cysts will adhere
strictly to these criteria. Therefore,
it is important to fully examine the
entire reproductive tract and also
take into consideration additional
> Fllla
> Lal
thin wALL
thicker wALL oF LuteAL
tissue
45 mm
diAmeter
FoLLicuLAr
cyst
34 mm
diAmeter
LuteAL cyst
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criteria such as cow behaviour and
plasma progesterone concentrations if
ultrasound appearance of the cyst does
not provide a denitive diagnosis.
endometritis/pyometrA
Endometritis is a common condition
affecting dairy cattle which negatively
affects reproductive performance. Clinical
endometritis is dened as purulent or
mucopurulent uterine discharge present
approximately 21 to 26 days postpartum.
Subclinical cases of endometritis maynot have uterine discharge, however
fertility is negatively affected. Transrectal
ultrasonography may be used to evaluate
cows for signs of endometritis. Indicators
of endometritis on ultrasound exam
include accumulation of intrauterine
uid containing echogenic particles
(‘snowy’ appearance) and thickening of
the endometrium due to endometrialoedema and inammation. However,
ultrasonography alone does not always
provide a denitive diagnosis of
endometritis.
Pyometra is generally dened as an
accumulation of pus within the uterus.
Compared to manual palpation, the
differences between uterine enlargementdue to pregnancy and pyometra are easily
recognisable on ultrasound examination.
While foetal uids in the uterus appear
anechoic, pyometra appears as distension
of the uterine lumen with contents of
mixed echogenicity. Additionally, there
will be no evidence of a foetus, foetal
membranes or placentomes on ultrasound
examination of a cow with pyometra.
> e
> pa
(muco)puruLent mAteriAL
in uterine Lumen
puruLent mAteriAL in
uterine Lumen
uterus
uterus
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Cattle Gestational Age Tables
a
15 54
20 65
25 73
30 80
35 86
40 91
45 9550 99
55 103
60 106
70 112
80 117
90 121
100 125
110 128
120 132
a
15 56
20 69
25 79
30 87
35 94
40 100
45 10550 110
60 118
70 125
80 131
a
15 34
20 39
25 42
30 45
35 48
40 50
45 5250 54
60 57
70 60
80 62
90 64
100 66
110 67
120 69
130 70
140 71
150 72
160 73
170 74
180 75
a
25 62
30 70
35 76
40 81
45 86
50 90
55 9060 98
70 104
80 109
90 114
100 118
110 122
120 126
130 129
140 132
trunk diameer head diameer crown rump leng head leng
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Glossary of Terms
Alla – an outgrowth of the hindgut of
the early embryo which forms a signicant
part of the placenta
A – the absence of echoes resulting
in a black appearance on the ultrasound
image
A – non-occurrence of oestrus so
the female is not sexually receptive at any
time during the reproductive cycle
A – a cavity or chamber
cal – eshy masses on the wall of the
uterus which are the points of placentalattachment
c – the product of conception at
any stage of development, from fertilisation
of the ovum to birth; includes embryo/foetus,
extraembryonic membranes and the placenta
c l (plural - corpora lutea) – a
progesterone secreting glandular mass in
the ovary formed from the wall of an ovarian
follicle which has matured and released itsovum
cl –elevations of the foetal
membranes (placenta) which adhere to the
maternal caruncles
e – the characteristic ability
of a tissue to reect ultrasound waves and
produce echoes
e - containing structures that reect
high-frequency sound waves and thus can beimaged by ultrasonography
e – an animal in the early stages of
development which has not taken on an
anatomical form that is recognisable as a
member of the species
e l – the early embryonic
vesicle before the allantois has developed
and encircled the embryo
e – the mucous membrane lining
the uterus
F – the unborn young of a mammal that
is considered to have identiable features of
a given species
Flll – the ovum and its encasing cells, at
any stage of development
ialal – within the lumen
ilaal – on the same side
k – metabolic disorder characterised
by reduced milk yield, loss of body weight,
inappetance and possibly nervous signs
L – the cavity within a tubular organ
Lal – pertaining to or having the
properties of the corpus luteum
ml – containing both mucous and
pus
m – the smooth muscle layer of
the uterus
o l – regularly occurring periods
during which the female is sexually active andreceptive (oestrus) separated by periods in
which the female is not receptive
o – the time during the reproductive
cycle when the female displays interest in
mating
o - the female reproductive cell which,
after fertilisation, is able to develop into a
new member of the same species
pla – around the time of ovulation
pla – the cotyledon plus the
caruncle
p – hormone produced by the
corpus luteum to promote implantation of the
conceptus and maintenance of pregnancy
pl – containing or forming pus
sa – the tissue forming the support
structure, as opposed to the functional part,of an organ
slal – without clinical manifestations
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References
Barlund CS, Carruthers TD, Waldner CL
and Palmer CW (2008). A comparison
of diagnostic techniques for
postpartumendometritis in dairy cattle.
Theriogenology ,69: 714–723.
Blood DC and Studdert VP (1999). Saunders
comprehensive veterinary dictionary. London:
WB Saunders.
Boyd JS and Omran SN (1991). Diagnostic
ultrasonography of the bovine female
reproductive tract. In Practice, 13: 109-118.
Chaffaux S, Reddy GNS, Valon F and ThibierM (1986). Transrectal real-time ultrasound
scanning for diagnosing pregnancy and
for monitoring embryonic mortality in
dairy cattle. Animal Reproduction Science,
10: 193-200.
Curran S, Kastelic JP and Ginther OJ (1989).
Determining sex of the bovine fetus by
ultrasonic assessment of the relative location
of the genital tubercle. Animal Reproduction
Science, 19:217-227.
Douthwaite R and Dobson H (2000).
Comparison of different methods of
diagnosis of cystic ovarian disease in cattle
and an assessment of its treatment with a
progesterone-releasing intravaginaI device.
Veterinary Record, 147: 355-359.
Edmondson AJ, Fissore RA, Pashen RL
and Bondurant RH (1986). The use of
ultrasonography for the study of the bovine
reproductive tract I. Normal and pathological
ovarian structures. Animal Reproduction
Science, 12: 157-165.
Farin PW, Youngquist RS, Parfet JR
and Garverick HA (1992). Diagnosis of
luteal and follicular ovarian cysts by
palpation per rectum and linear-array
ultrasonography in dairy cows. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association.
200 (8): 1085-1089.
Fissore RA, Edmondson AJ, Pashen RL
and Bondurant RH (1986). The use of
ultrasonography for the study of the bovine
reproductive tract II. Non-pregnant, pregnant
and pathological conditions of the uterus.
Animal Reproduction Science, 12: 167-177.
Fricke PM (2002). Scanning the future—
ultrasonography as a reproductive
management tool for dairy cattle. Journal of
Dairy Science, 85:1918–1926.
Kastelic JP, Curran S, Pierson RA and Ginther
OJ (1988). Ultrasonic evaluation of the bovine
conceptus. Theriogenology, 29 (1): 39-54.
Kastelic JP, Pierson RA and Ginther OJ
(1990). Ultrasonic morphology of corpora
lutea and central luteal cavities during the
estrous cycle and early pregnancy in heifers.
Theriogenology, 34 (3): 487-498.
Müller E and Wittkowski G (1986).
Visualization of male and female
characteristics of bovine fetuses by real-time
ultrasonics. Theriogenology 25 (4): 571-574.
Pierson RA and Ginther OJ (1984).
Ultrasonography of the bovine ovary.
Theriogenology, 21 (3): 495-504.
Pierson RA and Ginther OJ (1984).
Ultrasonography for the detection of
pregnancy and study of embryonic
development in heifers. Theriogenology,
22 (2): 225-233.
Reeves JJ, Rantanen NWand Hauserb M(1984). Transrectal real-time ultrasound
scanning of the cow reproductive tract.
Theriogenology, 21 (3): 485-494.
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The Easi-Scan has been designed and manufactured by
BCF Technology Ltd.
For more information and to arrange a demonstration,
call +44 (0)1506 460023
or email f@fl.
Easi-Scan is a revolutionary veterinary rectal
scanner designed to perform effectively in the
harsh environment in which it is likely to beused. Full battery operation removes the need
for electrical power supplies and substantially
reduces the set-up time before you start
scanning.
Easi-Scan only has ve buttons, so it is very easy
to ensure that the system settings are optimised.
Easi-Scan can be used in different congurations,
with the option of viewing the ultrasound images
on either the Easi-Scan Remote Display, wrist
display or BUG viewing devices.
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> bug v d
Various options available. The highly
ergonomic heads-up displays allow
you total mobility while viewing real
time ultrasound images right before
your eyes. No more need to look away
to view monitor screens. Best of all,
they’re daylight readable.
> i
Probe introducer to avoid the need to
insert the arm into the rectum.
> w- Lcd la
Available for wrist or machine
mounting.
> ea-sa r dla
The image is sent from the scanner
to the remote monitor via radio-wave
transmission, removing the need for
wires between the scanner and the
monitor. The Easi-Scan Remote Display
uses the same type of replaceable
batteries as Easi-Scan.
Easi-Scan congurations
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BCF Technology Ltd
UK Tel: +44 (0)1506 460023IRE Tel: +353 (0)429 320 070
US Tel: +1 (507) 529 8200
www.bcftechnology.com
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