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Rolf Isermann
M e c h a t r o n i c S y s t e m s
u n d a m e n t a l s
W ith 357 Figures
4y Springer
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Contents
List of Symbols xix
1 Integrated Mechanical Electronic Systems
1
1.1 From Mechanical to Mechatronic Systems 1
1.2 Mechanical Systems 6
1.2.1 Mechanical Systems in Mechanical En gin ee ring .. . 8
1.2.2 Mechanical Systems in Precision Mechanic
Devices 9
1.2.3 Micromechanics 9
1.2.4 Mechanical Systems in Apparatus
(Process Engineering) 10
1.2.5 Confinement of Mechatronic Systems 10
1.3 Functions of Mechatronic Systems 11
1.3.1 Design 11
1.3.2 Distribution of Mechanical and Electronic
Functions 12
1.3.3 Operating Properties 13
1.3.4 New Functions 13
1.3.5 Other Developments 14
1.4 Integration Forms of Processes and Electronics 14
1.5 Ways of Information Processing 18
1.5.1 Multi-level Control Systems 18
1.5.2 Special Signal Preprocessing 19
1.5.3 Information Gaining 19
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x Contents
1.5.4 M odel-base d M ethods of Con trol 20
1.5.5 Sup ervision and Fau lt D iagn osis 21
1.5.6 Intelligent System s 22
1.6 De sign Proced ures for M echatron ic Systems 24
1.7 Co ntents of this B oo k 29
2 Fun dam entals of Theor etical M odeling of Techn ical
Processes 33
2.1 Theo retical and Exp erimen tal M ode ling 34
2.2 Classification of Process Elem ents 37
2.2.1 Form s of M atter 37
2.2.2 M ain Flow s and Side Flow s 38
2.2.3 Process Elements with Lum ped Parameters 40
2.2.4 Process Elements with Distributed Parameters . . . . 46
2.3 Fundam ental Equations of Process Elements with Energy
and M atter Flows 46
2.3.1 Balance Equ ations 47
2.3.2 Co nstitutive Eq uations 51
2.3.3 Phenom enological Equations 68
2.4 Energy Balance Equations for Lum ped Parameter
Processes 71
2.4.1 En ergy Balance for M echan ical Systems 71
2.4.2 En ergy Balan ce for The rm al System s (Rigid
Bo dies, Fluids) 77
2.4.3 E nergy Balan ce for Ga ses and Steam 79
2.4.4 Energy Balance for Electrical Systems 83
2.4.5 Co m m on Properties of Balance Equ ations 85
2.5 Co nnection of Process Elem ents 88
2.5.1 No de Equation and M esh Equation 88
2.5.2 Cau sality of Proc ess Elem ents 91
2.6 An alogies between M echanical and Electrical Systems . . . . 94
2.7 Sum m ary 97
2.8 Prob lems 99
3 Fundam ental Equations of the Dyna mics of M echanical
Systems w ith M obile M asses 101
3.1 N ew ton s Law s of Kinetics 102
3.1.1 Translational M otion 102
3.1.2 Ro tational M otion 103
3.2 Principles of M echan ics 106
3.2.1 d A lem ber t s Principle 106
3.2.2 La gra ng e s Eq uations 109
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Contents xi
3.3 Prob lems 114
Mechanical Elements 115
4.1 Ba rs 116
4.2 Spring s 118
4.3 D am pers 121
4.3.1 D am pers with Dry and V iscous Friction 121
4.3.2 Spring-d amp er System s 122
4.4 Be aring s 124
4.4.1 Sliding Bearing s 124
4.4.2 Roller Bearing s 125
4.5 One-m ass Oscil lator (Spring-mass-damp er Systems) . . . . 128
4.5.1 Lon gitudinal Oscillators 128
4.5.2 To rsiona l O scillators 133
4.6 M ulti-mass Oscillators 134
4.6.1 Tw o-m ass Torsional Oscillator with On e Spring . 134
4.6.2 Tw o-m ass Torsional Oscillator w ith Tw o Springs
140
4.6.3 Tw o-m ass Torsional Oscillator with Gear and
One Spring 142
4.6.4 Pow er Trans mission s 146
4.6.5 Belt D rives 151
4.6.6 Ab sorbers and Dam pers 158
4.7 M echan ical Systems with Friction 159
4.8 M echan ical Systems with Back lash 162
4.9 Prob lems 164
Electrical Drives
167
5.1 Ty pes of Electrical Dr ives 167
5.2 Electrom agne ts 170
, 5.2.1 Ty pes of Electrom agnets 170
, 5.2.2 Th e M agn etic Field 171
5.2.3 Static Be hav ior of Sim ple M agn etic Circuits . 173
5.2.4 Dy nam ic Behavior of Simple M agnetic
Circuits 175
5.2.5 Static Beh avior of Electrom agnets 177
5.2.6 D ynam ic Beh avior of Electrom agnets and
Position Con trol 181
5.3 Direct Cu rrent M otors 184
5.3.1 Induced Vo ltage 186
5.3.2 To rque G eneration 187
5.3.3 D ynam ic Beh avior 188
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Contents xiii
6.9.2 Higher Level Feedback Control 289
6.9.3 Adaptive Control 290
6.9.4 Fuzzy Control 290
6.10 Problems 291
Identification of Dynamic Systems
293
7.1 Identification Methods 293
7.1.1 General Procedure 293
7.1.2 Classification of Identification Methods 294
7.1.3 Identification Methods 295
7.1.4 Test Signals 298
7.1.5 Closed-loop Identification 299
7.1.6 Type of Application 299
7.2 Parameter Estimation for Discrete Time Signals 299
7.2.1 Method of Least Squares (LS) 300
7.2.2 Recursive Method of Least Squares (RLS) . . . 303
7.2.3 Modifications of
the
Least Squares Method . . 303
7.3 Parameter Estimation for Continuous Time Signals . . 303
7.3.1 Method of Least Squares 304
7.4 Time-varying Systems 306
7.5 Non-linear Processes 308
7.5.1 Parameter Estimation with Classical
Non-linear Models 308
7.5.2 Artificial Neural Networks 309
7.5.3 Fuzzy-logic Models 323
7.5.4 Grid-based Look-up Tables for Static
Systems 325
7.5.5 Parameter Estimation for Non-continuously
Differentiable Non-linear Processes
(Friction and Backlash) 327
7.6 Problems 331
Models of Oscillations and their Identification
333
8.1 Harmonic Oscillations 333
8.1.1 Single Oscillations 334
8.1.2 Superposition 334
8.1.3 Am plitude Modulation 334
8.1.4 Frequency and Phase Modulation 335
8.1.5 Beating (Libration) 337
8.1.6 Superposition and Non-linear Characteristics . 338
8.2 Identification of Harmonic Oscillations 339
8.2.1 Bandpass Filtering 339
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xiv Contents
8.2.2 Fourier An alysis 340
8.2.3 Co rrelation Fun ctions 340
8.2.4 Fou rier Transform ation 341
8.2.5 Fast Fou rier Transform ation (FFT ) 343
8.2.6 M axim um -entrop y Spectral Estimation 347
8.2.7 Speed Signal An alysis of Co m bustion
Engines 353
8.3 Prob lems 357
9 Sensors 359
9.1 M easuring System 360
9.2 Classification of Senso rs 360
9.3 Sensor Properties 362
9.4 Signal Ty pes, Tran sduc ers, M easuring Am plifiers . . . 363
9.5 Displacement M easurement 364
9.6 Velocity M easurem ent -368
9.7 Acceleration M easurement 370
9.8 Vib ration and Oscillation M easurem ent 372
9.9 Force and Pressure M easurem ent 372
9.10 Torque M easurement 373
9.11 Tem perature M easurement 373
9.12 An alog-to-D igital Con version 376
9.13 Electromagnetic Com patibil ity (EM C) 377
9.14 Integrated and Intelligent Sensors 378
9.15 Prob lems 381
10 Actuators 383
10.1 Basic Structures of A ctuators 384
10.2 Gen eral Survey of Ac tuators 387
10.2.1 Typ es of A uxiliary En ergy 387
10.2.2 Actua tor Beh avior and Con trol 389
10.2.3 Req uirem ents for Ac tuators and Servo-drives . 392
10.3 Electrom echanical Ac tuator Drive s 392
10.3.1 Electrical M otors 393
10.3.2 Electrom agnets 404
10.4 H ydrau lic Ac tuators 406
10.4.1 H ydraulic Actu ation System s 407
10.4.2 Hyd raulic Com ponents and their M odels . . . . 408
10.4.3 M odels of an Hy draulic Servo-axis: An
Example 429
10.5 Pneu m atic A ctuators 439
10.5.1 Pneu m atic Ac tuating Systems 439
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Contents xv
10.5.2 Pneumatic Components and their Models . . . . 442
10.5.3 Model-based Control of
Pneumatic Servo-
axis 452
10.5.4 Models of
Pneumatic Valve 456
10.6 Unconventional Actuators 457
10.6.1 Thermo-bimetals 458
10.6.2 Shaped Memory Alloys 459
10.6.3 Thermal Expansion Elements 462
10.6.4 Electrochemical Actuators 463
10.6.5 Electro-rheological and Magneto-rheological
Fluids 463
10.6.6 Piezoelectric Actuators 465
10.6.7 Electrostrictive and Magnetostrictive
Actuators 469
10.6.8 Micro-actuators 470
10.7 Comparison of Application Areas 471
10.8 Actuators as System Components 474
10.8.1 Ports 475
10.8.2 Integration of Actuator and Process 475
10.8.3 Implemented Functionality 475
10.9 Fault-tolerant Com ponents 476
10.9.1 Fault-tolerance for Com ponents 476
10.9.2 Fault-tolerance for Control Systems 480
10.9.3 Fault Detection for Sensors, Actuators
and Mechatronic Servo-systems 480
10.9.4 Fault-tolerant Com ponents for Mechatronic
Systems 481
10.9.5 Fault-tolerant Sensors 481
10.9.6 Fault-tolerant Actuators 484
10.10 Problems 485
11 Microcomputers
487
11.1 Microcomputer Structure 489
11.2 Standard Processors 490
11.2.1 Standard Processor Architecture 492
11.2.2 Software for Standard Processors 495
11.3 Memory 497
11.4 Interfaces to the Process (Peripherals) 501
11.4.1 Analog Inputs 502
11.4.2 Digital and Binary Inputs 504
11.4.3 Analog Outputs 504
11.4.4 Digital and Binary Outputs 505
11.5 Microcontrollers 506
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xvi Contents
11.5.1 Architecture of Microcontrollers 507
11.5.2 Software for Microcontrollers 510
11.6 Signal Processors 510
11.7 Application-specific Processors (ASICS) 512
11.8 Field Bus Systems 514
11.8.1 Net Topologies 515
11.8.2 Basic Bus Functions 517
11.8.3 OSI (Open System Interconnection)
Reference Model 517
11.8.4 Profibus 519
11.8.5 CAN Bus 523
12 Examples for the Design of Mechatronic Systems:
Modeling Control and Diagnosis
527
12.1 Electromagnetic Actuator: Non-linear Control and
Fault Detection 527
12.1.1 Model-based Compensation of Non-linearities . 527
12.1.2 Electromagnetic Actuator 529
12.2 Electrical Throttle Valve for SI Engines: Modeling
and Fault Diagnosis 535
12.3 Semi-active Vehicle Suspensions 538
12.3.1 Passive Vehicle Suspensions 538
12.3.2 Semi-active Suspensions 543
12.3.3 Dynamic Models of
Quarter-car 549
12.3.4 Identification of a Quarter-car Model 551
12.3.5 Suspension Control 554
12.3.6 Simulations of
Semi-active Two-chamber
Air Spring 559
12.4 Electromechanical Disc Brake (EMB) 560
12.4.1 Introduction 560
12.4.2 Wheel Module 562
12.4.3 Brake Model 564
12.4.4 Simplified Brake Model 567
12.4.5 Simulation and Measurement 568
12.5 Control Prototyping and Hardware-in-the-loop
Simulation 569
12.5.1 Simulation Methods 569
12.5.2 Rapid Control Prototyping for Engine Control
571
12.5.3 Hardware-in-the-loop Simulation for Diesel
Engines 572
12.6 Industrial Robot 577
12.6.1 Modeling 578
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Contents xvii
12.6.2 Control 583
12.6.3 System Structure 585
Outlook 587
References 589
Index 617
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