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Ms Sandhya Rani Dash
MODULE 6: ARITHMATIC CIRCUITS AS COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
Structure
6.1 Introduction6.2 Objectives
6.3 Adders6.3.1 Half adders
6.3.2 Full Adders6.3.3 Carry LookAhead Adders
6.3.4 BCD adder6.4 Subtractor
6.4.1 Half subtractor6.4.2 Full Subtract or
6.4.3 2s complement sub tractor6.5 Binary Multiplier
6.6 Unit Summary
6.1 INTRODUCTION
As we know a digital system consists of two types of logic circuits, namely
combinational and sequential. A combinational circuit consists of logic gates whose out
puts at any time are determined directly from the combination of inputs withoutdepending upon the history of past inputs. In a sequential circuit, the output at any time
depends on the present input values well as the past output values. The arithmetic circuit
such as adders, subtractors, multipliers, dividers are the examples of combinational
circuits.These arithmetic and logic circuits are mostly used in digital computes and
calculators which contain logic gates and flip-flops that adds, subtract, multiply and
divides by any numbers.
In this unit different kinds of arithmetic circuits such as adders, subtractors, multipliers,
dividers are introduced.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
i) Define arithmetic circuits
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ii) Describe the function of a half adders and draw half adders logic diagramsiii)Describe the function of a half adders and draw full adders logic diagrams using
half adders
iv)Design the circuitry required to use a full adder as a BCD adderv) Describe half and full sub tractorsvi)Develop logic circuitry and construct half and full subtractor
6.3 Adders
Adders are important in many types of digital system in which numerical data are
processed. The fundamental study of digital systems is the understanding of basic adder
operations. The most basic arithmatiic operation is the addition of two binary digits.
There are two types of adders
1. Half adders2. Full adders
6.3.1 Half adder
The arithmetic circuit which perform the addition of two binary digits, giving a sum bit
and a carry bit is called half adder. It is the simplest combinational circuit.
The truth table of the half adder consists of two inputs A and B an\d two out puts sum (S)
and carry ( C ) is given below:
Input Output
A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 01 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
The simplified Boolean expression for the two outputs can be obtained directly from the
truth table as,
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_ _
S= AB + AB
C= AB
The above expressions can be implemented as follows:
A half adder can therefore be realized by using one XOR gate and one AND gate as
shown in the figure above.
6.3.2 Full adder
It is the second category of adder. It is a combinational circuit that performs the
arithmetic sum of three input bits and generates a sum out put and an out put carry. The
full adder is designed for multibit addition purposes. The block diagram and truth table of
a full adder is shown below.
Cin
S
A
Cout
B
(Block Diagram of Full Adder)
FULL ADDER
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Input Output
A B Cin S Cout
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 00 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
The full adder shown in the above figure adds to inputs A, B, and input carry C in (carry
from the previous lower significant portion). The variable S represents the sum of three
input variables and Cout gives the output carry.
Since there are three inputs, so there are eight possible input combinations and for each
case the capital S and Coutvalues are listed in the truth table. So, the logic expression for
S and Coutfor which the output is 1 can be written as:
_ _ _ _ _ _
S= ABCin+ ABCin + ABCin + ABCin
By simplifying we will get
S= A B Cin
______ __ _ ___________ _ _Cout = ABCin+ ABCin+ ABCin+ ABCin
_ _ _ _ _ _
= BCin( A + A) + ABCin+ ABCin_ _ _ _
= BCin+ ABCin+ ABCin
Now, add the ABCin term twice for further simplification we have_ _
Cout = BCin+ ABCin+ ABCin+ ABCin + ABCin_ _
Cout = BCin+ ACin( B + B) + AB( Cin+ Cin)
Cout = BCin+ ACin+ AB
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From the above simplified expression of S and Cout, the logic diagram of the full adder
can be constructed by using two X-OR gates, three AND gates and one OR gate as
follows:
6.3.3 Carry-look-ahead-adder
In case of n-bit parallel adders, the sum and carry outputs will be delayed due to the
propagation delays of gates through which the signal are passing. It slowers the speed of
addition process. So a carry-look-ahead-adder is used for speeding up the addition
process by eliminating the carry delay that by reducing the number of gates through
which a carry signal must propagate.
The carry-look-ahead-adder is based on the principle of looking at the lower order bits of
the aguend and addend if a high order carry is generated. The output carry is produced
either by carry generation or by carry propagation.
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To explain this operation, let us consider the truth table of full adder.
Row Input Output
A B Cin S Cout
0 0 0 0 0 0 No carrygenerationi.e, Cout=0
1 0 0 1 1 0
2 0 1 0 1 0
Carry
propagationi.e, Cout= Cin
3 0 1 1 0 1
4 1 0 0 1 0
5 1 0 1 0 1
6 1 1 0 0 1Carry
generation
i.e, Cout=17 1 1 1 1 1
In rows 0 & 1, the carry output is always 0 and independent of carry input, while in rows
6 & 7, the Cout is always 1 and independent of C in. These are known as carry generate
combinations and is represented by Gi. This function indicates as to when carry out
would be generated by the full adder.
In rows 2, 3, 4 & 5, the carry output is equal to carry output. i.e, C out= 1, only when Cin=
1. These are carry propagate combinations and is represented by Pi
From the truth table the G i can be expressed as the AND function of the two iput bits
corresponding to 6thand 7
throws as follows:
_Gi= Ai BiCin + Ai BiCin
_Gi= Ai Bi(Cin + iCin)
Gi= Ai Bi
Similarly, the carry propagation condition occurs when either both of the i/p bits are 1. So
Pi can be expressed as the OR function of the inputs A and B.
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_ _Thus Pi= Ai Bi + Ai Bi
= Ai BiConsider the addition of two 4 bit binary numbers A (A3A2A1A0) and B (B3B2B1B0).
The unit carry output of the ithstage can be expressed in the form of GiPi and Ci-1which
is the unit carry output of the (i-1)th
stage as follows:
Ci(Cout) = Gi+ PiCi-1
Where Ci-1 for LSB stage is Cinwhich is assumed to be 0. In a 4-bit binary adder four
stages of addition are required to add A0B0, A1B1, A2B2, A3B3 Therefore, for i= 0, 1, 2, 3
The Cis are given by
C0= G0+ P0Cin------
Where G0= A0B0; P0= A0 B0and Cin= 0
C1= G1+ P1C0
= G1+ P1(G0+ P0Cin)
= G1+ P1G0+ P1P0Cin
Where G1= A1B1and P1= A1 B1
C2= G2+ P2C1
= G2+ P2 ( G1+ P1G0+P1P0Cin)
= G2+ P2G1 + P2P1G0 + P2P1Cin-------
Where G2= A2B2and P2= A2 B2
C3= G3+ P3C2
= G3+ P3( G2+ P2G1+P2P1P0Cin)
= G3+ P3G2 + P3P2G1 + P3P2P1G0+ P3P2P1P0Cin-------
Where G3= A3B3and P3= A3 B3
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The sum of A & B is given by
S= C3S3S2S1S0
Where Si= Ai BiCi-1 for i = 0, 1, 2, 3
i.e. S0 = A0 B0 CinS1= A1 B1 C0
S2= A2 B2 C1
S3= A3 B3 C2
Using the above equation, a 4-bit carry look ahead adder can be realized as shown in the
figure
From the above diagram one can easily understand that the addition of two 4-bit numbers
can be done by a bit carry look ahead adder in a four gate propagation time. The Coutof
each full adder stage is dependent only on the initial input carry (C in), its generate and
propagate conditions and the generate and propagate condition of the preceding stages.
Since each of the Giand Pi functions can be expressed in terms of inputs A and B to the
full adders, all of the output carries are immediately available (except for gate delays) and
there is no need to wait for a carry to ripple through all of the stage before a final result is
achieved. Thus the carry look ahead adder speeds up the addition process.
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6.3.4 BCD adder
A BCD adder is circuit that adds two BCD digits in parallel and produces a sum digit
which is also in BCD. As we know that BCD uses four bits to represent a decimal no. as
shown in the table.
Legitimate BCD Numbers
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
Forbidden Numbers
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
A1lthough legitimate BCD numbers must stop at nine, there are six more counts before
all four columns are full. These six numbers i.e. the numbers greater than 9 are called
forbidden numbers. In BCD addition, care must be taken to compensate for these six
forbidden states.
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A BCD adder circuit must include the following steps.
i) Add two 4-bit BCD numbers using ordinary binary addition .
ii) If the 4- bit sum is equal to or less than 9, the sum is in proper BCD form and no
correction is needed.
iii) If overflow occurs during an addition or if one of the forbidden states occur (if the
sum is greater than 9) as a result of an addition , then 6 (0110) must be added to the result
to flip through the unwanted states. In the above table shown, let us add 7 with 5. The
result is 1100(12). To flip out of the forbidden states, count 6 more. The answer is 0010
or 2 with a carry to the next column. When you reach 1111, the next count is 0000 and a
carry has occurred.
Example: Add 3 plus 5
Solution: 0 0 1 1(3)
+ 0 1 0 1(5)
1 0 0 0
There is no overflow and the result is a valid BCD number. So no correction is required.
The answer is 8.
Example -2: Add 8 plus 5
Solution: 1 0 0 0
+ 0 1 0 1
__________________
1 1 0 1
There is no overflow but the result isnt a valid BCD number. So 6 must be added to
compensate for the six forbidden numbers.
1 1 0 1
+ 0 1 1 0
__________________
1 0 0 1 1
The answer is 13.
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Example -3: Add 8 plus 9
Solution: 1 0 0 0
+ 1 0 0 1
__________________
1 0 0 01
The result is a valid BCD number but there was overflow So 6 must be added to
compensate for the forbidden states.
1 0 0 0 1
+ 0 1 1 0
__________________
1 0 1 1 1
The answer is 17.
To convert a binary adder into a BCD adder , logic must be provided that will produce a
signal when 6 should be added to the result of an addition. The carry out of the binary
adder can be monitored to see if overflow resulted.
The BCD adder for adding two BCD coded decimal digits using two 7483 ICS is as
shown in the figure.
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In the above BCD adder,
the two BCD digits, together with the input carry, are first added in the top 4-bit binary
adder to produce the binary sum. The bottom 4-bit binary adder is used to add the
correction factor to the binary result of the top binary adder.
The outputs of the top adder (Z3Z2Z1Z0and Cout) are checked to ascertain whether the
output is greater than 9 by AND- OR gate combinations. If correction is required, then a
0110 is added with the output of the top adder. Now the bottom adder output forms the
BCD result (S3S2 S1 S0) with carry output.
Note:
1. When the Output carry is equal to zero, the correction factor equals zero.
2. When the Output carry is equal to one, the correction factor is 0110.
The output carry generated from the bottom binary adder is ignored, since it supplies
information already available at the output-carry terminal.
A decimal parallel adder that adds n decimal digits needs n BCD adder stages. The output
carry from one stage must be connected to the input carry of the next higher-order stage.
Self Check Exercise 1
Q. No 1. Answer the following questions selecting most appropriate alternatives out ofthe four alternatives given in each question
a) A half adder is characterized by
i) two inputs and two outputs
ii) three inputs and two outputs
iii) two inputs and three outputs
iv) two inputs and one outputs
b) A full adder is characterized by
i) two inputs and two outputs
ii) three inputs and two outputs
iii) two inputs and three outputs
iv) two inputs and one outputs
c) The outputs to a full adder A=1,
B=1, Cin=0. The outputs are
i) S=1, Cout=1
ii) S=1, Cout=0
d) A 4-bit parallel adder can add
i) Two 4-bit binary numbers
ii) Two 2-bit binary numbers
iii) Four bits at a time
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iii) S=0, Cout=1
iv) S=0, Cout=0
iv) Four bits in sequence.
e) A half adder can be constructed from
i) two X-NOR gates only
ii) one X-OR & one OR gate with their
outputs connected in parallel.
iii) one X-OR & one OR gate with their
outputs connected in parallel
iv) one X-OR & one AND gate.
f) Parallel adders are
i) combinational logic circuits
ii) sequential logic circuits
iii) Both of these
iv) None of these
g) In which of these following adder
circuits the carry look ripple delay is
eliminated.
i) Half adder
ii) Full adder
iv) Parallel adder
v) carry- look -ahead adder
h) Which of the following adder
circuits can add three or more bits at a
time.
i) parallel adder
ii) carry- look -ahead adder
iii) carry- sense -adder
iv) full adder
Q. No 2. Determine the sum and output carry (C) of a half adder for each set of i/p bits.a) 0 1 b) 0 0 c) 1 0 d) 1 1
Q. No. 3. Describe the working of a half adder
Q. No 4. What is the difference between a half adder & a full adder. Design a full adder
circuit using only NOR gates
Q. No. 5. Design a full adder circuit using only NAND gates.
Q. No. 6. How does the carry -look-aheadadder speed up the addition process?
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6.4 Subtractors
The subtractors are the combinational circuits that subtracts 2-bits and produces their
differences. The subtraction process can be accomplished by taking the complement of
the subtrahend and adding it to the minuend. By this method, the subtraction becomes
and addition operation which requires full adders for its machine implementations. As
there are half and full adders, there are half and full subtractors.
6.4.1 Half subtractor
An arithmetic circuit used for the subtraction of two bits is refe to as half subtractors. It
has two inputs X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend). And two outputs D (difference) and B
(borrow). The LSB of the subtrahend is subtracted from the LSB of the minund during
the subtraction of one binary number from the other. The logic symbol and the truth table
of a half subtractor is shown below:
X
D
Y B
(Block Diagram of Half Subtractor)
Input Output
X Y D B0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
From the above truth table, the logical expressions for the difference D and borrow B areobtained as
HALF
SUBTRACTOR
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_ _
D= XY + XY = X Y_
B= XY
From the above equation, a half subtractor can be realized by using an X-OR gate, a
NOT-gate and an AND-gate as shown below:
6.4.2 Full subtractor
A logic circuit that perform subtraction involving 3-bits namely; minund, subtrand and
borrow from the previous stage is known as full subtractor. Full subtractor is required for
performing multi-bit subtraction. The liogic symbol and the truth table of a full subtractor
is shown below.
X
D
Y
Bout
Bin
(Block Diagram of Full Subtractor)
FULL
SUBTRACTOR
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Input Output
X Y Bin D Bout
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 10 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
From the above truth table the logic expression for D and Bout is given as_ _ _ _ _ _
D= XYBin+ XYBin + XYBin+ XYBin
Simplifying the above expression_ _ _ _ _
D=Bin(XY + XY ) + (XY + XY) Bin_______ _
= (X Y)Bin+ (X Y)Bin
D= X Y Bin
Similarly,_ _ _ _ _
Bout = XYBin+ XYBin + XYBin+ XYBin
The equation for Boutcan be simplified using K-map as shown in the figure
.
_ _Now, Bout = XY + XBin + YBin
Using the above simplified expressions, a full subtractor can, therefore, be realized using
X-OR gates and AOI-gates as shown below:
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6.4.3 2 Complement addition and subtraction using parallel adders
2 Complement Adder/Subtractions
Q. Design a circuit that will use a 7483 IC to add the 4-bit number B 4,B3,B2,B1 to the 4-
bit number A4,A3,A2,A1 and to subtract B4,B3,B2,B1 from A4,A3,A2,A1 by using 2s
complement method for subtraction.
The 2s complement system is used to represent the negative numbers for subtraction
both the addition and subtraction operations of signed numbers can be performed using
only the addition operation, if we use the 2s complement form to represent negative
numbers.
2 Complement Addition
To perform the 2s complement addition process, the 7483 IC, 4-bit parallel adder is used
as the 2s complement adder circuits, which is as shown below:
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Now let us take an example of addition of -4 and +7.
The -4 is represented in its 2s complement form as 1100, where the left must bit 1 is the
sign bit; +7 is represented as 0111, with the left must bit 0 is the sign bit. These numbers
are stored in their corresponding registers A and B. The 4-bit parallel adder produces the
sum outputs 0011, which represents +3. The output carry C 4is 1, but discarded in the 2s
complement method.
2Complement Subtraction
As we know in the 2s complement method, the subtrahend is changed to its 2s
complement form and then added to the minund. The sum outputs of the adder circuit
represent the difference between the minund and subtrahend.
For subtraction of the two numbers, the subtrahend is stored in the register B and must be
2s complemented before it is added to the minuend stored in the register A. Then the
complemented numbers B3 B2 B1 B0 is fed to the adder along with A3 A2 A1 A0. The
initial carry input Co= 1 instead of 0 and is added to the LSB of the adder. For forming its
2s complement. The output S3S2S1S0represents the result of the subtraction operation.
The sign bit of the result S3 indicates whether the result is negative or positive.
The carry out C4 is again discarded. The arrangement q is complement subtractor as
shown below:
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A 4-bit adder/subtractor circuit that can perform both addition and subtraction in 2s
complement form is shown below:
____
When the ADD/SUB level is HIGH, the circuit performs the addition of the numbers___
stored in registers A and B. When the ADD/SUB level is LOW, the circuit subtracts the
number in register B from the number in register A.
The operation is described as follows:
___
When ADD/SUB = 1
1. AND gates 1, 3, 5 & 7 are enabled, allowing B0B1B2& B3 to pass to the OR-gate as 9,
_ _ _ _
10, 11, & 12. AND gates 2, 4, 6, & 8 are disabled, blocking B0, B1, B2& B3from
reaching the OR-gates 9, 10, 11, & 12
2. The levels B0to B3pass through the OR gate to the 4-bit parallel adder, to be added to
the bits A0to A3. The sum appears at the outputs S0to S3___
3. ADD/SUB =1 causes no carry into the adder,
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___
When ADD/SUB = 0
1. AND gates 1, 3, 5 & 7 are disabled, blocking B0B1B2& B3 from reaching the OR-
_ _ _ _gates 9, 10, 11, & 12 AND gates 2, 4, 6 & 8 are enabled allowing B0, B1, B2& B3 to pass
to the OR-gates
2. The levels B0to B3pass through the OR-gates into the 4-bit parallel adder, to be added
to bits A0to A3. The Coos now 1. The number in register B is converted to its 2s
complement form
3. The difference appears at the outputs S0to S3
Circuits like the adder/subtractor of the above figure are used in computers because they
Provide a relatively simple means for adding and subtracting signed binary numbers.
Self Check Exercise 2
Answer the following questions.
7) Design a half subtractor circuit using only NOR gates.
8) Design a full subtractor circuit using only NOR gates.
9) What are the advantages of complement arithmetic?
10) Draw the logic diagram of an 8-bit BCD adder. Use the BCD adder to add 9 and 7.
Hint:The sum from the first adder is 0000 with a 1 out on C4which generates the ADD 6
signal and the carry to the next stage. The answer is 16
6.5 Binary Multiplier
The multiplication operation can be carried out by multipliers using partial product
addition and shifting method. In a binary multiplier, instead of adding all the partial
products at the end, they are added two at a time and their sum accumulated in a register
called accumulator register.
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Now to understand the multiplication process using partial product addition & shifting
method, consider the multiplication of two 4-bit binary numbers 1110 & 100, as an
example.
1 1 1 0 Multiple
X 1 0 0 1 Multiplier
_____________________________
1 1 1 0 Partial Product 1
0 0 0 0 Partial Product 2
0 0 0 0 Partial Product 3
1 1 1 0 Partial Product 4
____________________________________________
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Result
From the above multiplication process, one can easily understand that if the multiplier bit
is 1, then the multiplicand is simply copied as a partial product; if the multiplicand bit is
0, then the partial product is 0, Whenever a partial product is obtained, it is shifted one bit
to the left of the previous partial product. This process is continued until the entire
multiplier bit is checked and then the partial products are added. This multiplication
process i.e, multiplication partial product addition and shifting can be implemented usingthe block diagram as shown below
Multiplier Register
Multiplicand Register
In the above diagram the four-bit multiplier is stored in register Y (Y0Y1Y2Y3); the 4-
bit multiplicand is stored in register M (M3, M2, M1, M0), and the X register (X4, X3, X2,
X4 X3 X2 X1 X0Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
4-bit Parallel Adder
M3 M2 M1 M0
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X1, X0) is initially cleared to 00000. Hear to perform multiplication, the least significant
bit of the multiplier bit (Y0) is checked. Whether it is 0 or 1. If Yo= 1, the number in the
multiplicand register M is added with the least significant 4-bits of X register (X3, X2, X1,
X0;X4is to store carry in addition process) and the combind x and Y register is shifted to
the right by 1-bit without performing any addition. This process has to be repeated four
times to perform 4-bit multiplication. Now the multiplication result (R7R6R5R4R3R2R1
R0) will be available in X and Y registers.
Self Check Exercise 3
Answer the following questions.
11) Design a parallel binary multiplier that multiplies a 4-bit number
B= B3B2B1B0by a 3-bit no. A= A2 A1A0to form the product C=C6C5C4C3C 2C1C 0
Hint: this can be done with 12 gates two 4-bit parallel adder. The AND gates are used to
form the products of pairs of bits. The partial products formed by the AND gates are
added with the parallel addition.
6.5 Unit Summary
In this unit, we havediscussed about different arithmetic and logic circuits, which contain
logic gates and flip-flops that add, subtract, multiply & divide binary numbers.
Now let us focus about some important points ;
1. A half adder is an arithmetic circuit that adds two binary digits.
2. A half sub tractor is an arithmetic circuit that subtracts one binary digit from another.
3. A full adder is an arithmetic circuit that adds two binary digits and a carry, i.e.3 bits.
4. A full sub tractor is an arithmetic circuit that subtracts one binary digit from another
considering a borrow.
The look- aheadcarry-adder speeds up the process by eliminating the ripple carry.
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Answer to Check Your progress
Q. No 1
a) i b) ii c) iii d) i
e) iii f) i g) iv h) iii
Unit End Exercise
1. Design a 4-bit carry -look-aheadadder by using a 4-bit parallel adder.
2. Describe the operations performed by the following arithmetic circuits.
a) Half adder b) full adder c) Half subtractor
d) Full subtractor e) carry- lookaheadadder
3) What is the need of arithmetic circuits?
4) Design a full adder circuit using only NOR gates. What relation has it to the half adder
circuit?
5) Design the logic diagram of a circuit for addition/subtraction.
6) Use the BCD adder to add 9 & 3.
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