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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 1
An Introduction to Design for SixSigma concepts
Dr Jane Marshall
Product Excellence using 6 SigmaModule
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 2
Objectives of the session
• History of Six Sigma
• Describe the Six Sigma Philosophy
• Introduce DFSS
• Key points in DFSS
• DFSS background
• DFSS process
• Differences between DFSS and Six Sigma
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 3
Introduction to Six Sigma
• Six Sigma is:
– A business process
– Proactive approach to designing and monitoring keyactivities
– Philosophy
– Methodology
– A process that is customer focussed and profitdriven
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 4
Introduction to Six Sigma
• It works by:
– Being adopted by the whole company;
– Creating an internal infrastructure within thecompany;
– Using metrics to measure processes and changes toprocesses
– Using scientific methods, changing the workingculture and introducing business processmanagement
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 5
Six Sigma Background
• Motorola employee investigating variation invarious processes
• Acted on results using tools to reduce variation
• Improved the effectiveness and efficiency of theprocesses
• Engaged CEO
• GE is the company that made SIX Sigma amanagement philosophy
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 6
Sigma ( s ) is a statistical metric that corresponds to dpm(defectives per million)
What is six sigma performance ?
2 s308,537 dpm
3 s66,807 dpm
4 s6,210 dpm
5 s233 dpm
6 s3.4 dpm
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 7
DMAIC
Define
Measure
Analyse
Improve
Control
Define business objectivesSet Up project team, establish the charter and develop
project planReview customer requirementsMap process
Data collection planConfirm starting and targetsValidate measurement system
Data analysisRoot cause analysis
Process analysis
Solution generation, selection and implementation
Launch new improvementsMonitor controls and track defect reductionDesign and implement audit plan
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 8
Product life cycle
Concept anddefinition
Design anddevelopment
Manufacturing
Installation
Operation andmaintenance
Disposal
Continuousassessment
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 9
Introduction to DFSS
• Systematic methodology for designing or
redesigning products or services according to
customer requirements and expectations.
• Optimises design process to achieve six sigma
performance
• Get it ‘right first time’
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 10
What is Design For Six Sigma?
• Companies who had seen the success of Six Sigmafor problem solving using DMAIC wanted to apply datadriven tools and techniques to the design of newproducts, processes & services
• Typically, after 2 years of DMAIC, Design For SixSigma programmes were launched
• Applied in both Manufacturing and Service industriesin technical and non-technical environments
• Used to define and/or supplement the ‘design’process
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 11
When to Use DFSS
• Creating a new product, process, or service
• Incremental improvement cannot close the gapbetween the current process capability and customerrequirements
• Should spend time understanding the faults ofexisting systems before you embark on a a redesignmethodology
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 12
Generic ‘Design’ Process
DefineProject
Identify
Require-ments
SelectConcept
Implement
Design
DevelopDesign
Requirements Flow downRequirements Flow down
CTQ Flow upCTQ Flow up
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 13
The DFSS OpportunityR
ela
tive
Co
st
toIm
pa
ct
Ch
an
ge
Research Design Development Production
Product Stage
1
10
100
1000 “Classic” Six Sigmafocuses here
DFSS focuses here
“Design in” quality when costs are lowest“Design in” quality when costs are lowest
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 14
Effect of design phases on life cycle
Design Produce/build deliver Service supporttime
Cost vs impactcost
impact
Potential is positiveImpact>cost
Potential is negativeImpact<cost
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 15
ReactiveDesign Quality
PredictiveDesign Quality
DFSS
From
• Evolving design requirements
• Extensive design rework
• Product performance assessed by“build and test”
• Performance and producibilityproblems fixed after product inuse
• Quality “tested in”
To
• Disciplined CTQ flow-down throughrequirements management
• Controlled design parameters
• Confidence in product performance
• Designed for robust performance andmanufacture
• Quality “designed in”
The Vision of DFSS
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 16
DFSS Methodology
• DMADV
– Define, Measure, Analyse, Design and Verify
• PIDOV
– Plan, Identify, Design, Optimise and Validate.
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 17
Plan Identify Design VerifyOptimise
Define Measure Analyze VerifyDesign
Developprojectplans
VOC – CTQ
Prioritise CTQ
Generate,evaluate,
select andreview
concepts
Demonstratesatisfies
requirements
Detaileddesign and
optimiseperformance
DFSS Process
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 18
Define
Initiate, scope and plan the project
Measure
Understand customer requirements and generate specification
Analyse
Develop design concepts and high level design
Design
Develop detailed design and verification plan
Verify
Demonstrate compliance and launch product
Process for DFSS - DMADV
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 19
Tollgates and phases
• Stopping point within the flow of phases
– A thorough assessment of deliverables
– A thorough review of the project management plans for thenext phase
• Checklists
– Summary statements of tools and best practices required tofulfil gate deliverable
• Scorecards
– Summary statements from specific application of tools andbest practice
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 20
DMADV
Define
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 21
DMADV - Define
DevelopProjectPlans
DevelopOrganiza-
tionalChange
Plan
IdentifyRisks
ReviewTollgateRequire-ments
Developthe
Charter
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 22
Elements of a Charter
• Problem Statement
• Opportunity Statement
• Importance
• Expectations/Deliverables
• Scope
• Schedule
• Team Resources
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 23
Develop Project Plans
• Project schedule and milestones
• Organizational change plan
• Risk management plan
• Review schedule
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 24
Risk Management Plan
• Design projects face a number of risks
• The team’s job is to anticipate where the keyrisks of failure are and to develop a plan toaddress those risks
• In Define, the team should:
– Identify known and potential risks for the project
– Indicate when and how the risks will beaddressed
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma
Sources of risk
• External – legislation – outwith the control of theproject team
• Internal – within control of project design, humanfactors and technology etc.
• Handle risk by taking action to avoid (mitigation)
• Build up reserves (contingency)
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma
Risks cannot be transferred between disciplines
Risks must be translated between disciplines
Spheres of Risk
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma
Project plan vs Risk plan
• Project Plan
– Outlines what the project team intend to do
– Supports the Project Management process
• Risk Plan
– Covers how the project team might have tochange the plan
– Supports the Risk Management Process
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma
Quantify/Classify AnalyseIdentify
Provision Monitor
Manage / Control
Get OWNERSHIP
Risk Management Process
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 29
Systematic Risk Identification
• A structured approach that allows an organised criticalanalysis of risks of the system under consideration.
• All risks are reviewed systematically.
• Risks are addressed from the system level to thecomponent level.
• Risks arising due to system functional, environmentalprofiles, implicit & explicit requirements, interaction ofcomponents/subassemblies, manufacturing/assemblyprocesses & supply chain are considered.
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 30
Risk Categorisation
Probability of occurrence Impact
high 5 Uncertainties
Remain
medium 3 Someuncertaintiesremain
low 1 Fewuncertaintiesremain
high 5 Major redesignand programdelay
medium 3 Minor redesignand schedulereadjustment
low 1 Requirementsmet withinschedule
Risk element scores = probability X impact
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Categorizing Risks
• Risks are categorized by their probability ofoccurrence and their impact on the project
Low Medium High
Impact on Project
Yellow Light:
Proceed withcaution
Red Light:
Address beforeproceeding
Red Light:
Do notproceed
Yellow Light:
Proceed withcaution
Yellow Light:
Proceed withcaution
Red Light:
Reassessproject
Green Light: Yellow Light:
Proceed withcaution
Red Light:
Address beforeproceeding
Lo
wM
ed
ium
Hig
h
Pro
ba
bil
ity
of
Oc
cu
rre
nc
e
Proceed!
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma
Mitigation involves buying off a
problem in advance
Contingency means being ready tomanage crises pro-actively
Mitigation versus Contingency
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma
Mitigation activity isentered directly into the
project plan
Contingency plansand contingentmitigation plansare held in the
Risk Plan
Implementedcontingency
becomes partof the project
plan
when an impact occurscontingency plans are
movedContingency
Plan
Project Plan
Effect of mitigation and contingency onproject plans
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 34
Responsibility
• The Technical Manager or the Lead Engineer of theproject
• He/She acts as, or alternatively, nominates a teamleader.
• Responsible for organising Technical Risk Assessmentsessions & maintaining the information and selecting ateam.
• The team consists of at least one representative from:– Project Management; Stress/Integrity; Design Engineering;
Development Testing; ILS; Quality; Manufacturing; Sourcing;Systems/Requirements
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 35
RISK PRIORITISATION
Assess magnitude of the risk
RISK IDENTIFICATION
Identify risk
RISK MANAGEMENT
Develop plans to manage the risk
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3
4
Example: Riskassessment/managementprocess
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 36
Brainstorm all risksassociated with the‘FUNCTION’ of thecomponent (orsubassembly)
Brainstorm all risksassociated with the‘REQUIREMENT’ of thecomponent (orsubassembly)
Brainstorm all risksassociated with the‘MANUFACTURE/ASSEMBLY/ SUPPLY’ ofthe component (orsubassembly)
In order to ensure that all possible risks are identified,the risk identification for a component/sub-assembly iscarried out in three stages:
Example
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 37
Example : Brainstorming risks
Sub-assembly
Part Type of risk Description of risk Who
RotorWoundMainAssembly
ClampPlate
Function - What does itdo ? (eg. Insulating,protecting)
Clamp plate is too weak to clamp the rotorwindings axially – could cause windings toshort against rotor framework.
PaulHarris
Requirement - Whatdoes it have to cope with? ( eg. CF loading,vibration, temp., oil)
Cannot withstand the high CF loads – couldcause clamp plate to break & thus, windingsto short against rotor framework
PaulHarris
Manufacture - How doyou make this or wheredid you buy it (supplychain) ?
New manufacturing process to be used. Thismay cause porosity of the material.
SteveRobb
PROMPTS FORBRAINSTORMINGRISKS!!
Remember all risksbrainstormed must be
considered & recorded !Clamp Plate : The function of the clamp
plate is to axially clamp the rotorwindings
Who identified therisk
Risk Identification
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 38
Magnitude of risk
• After a risk has been identified, the next step is toassess the magnitude of the risk. This enables theprioritisation of all the risks identified & ensures that aconcerted effort is made to mitigate the high scoringrisks.
• The following factors are used to assess the magnitudeof & prioritise technical risks :
» Pedigree» Testing» Analysis» Severity» Probability
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 39
FACTORS USED FOR PRIORITISING RISKS
PEDIGREE
Do we have any pastexperience (product/process) that canhelp us assess themagnitude of the
risk ?
TESTING
Do we have anyevidence fromtesting that canhelp us assess themagnitude of therisk ?
ANALYSIS
Do we have anyevidence fromtheoreticalanalysis that canhelp us assess themagnitude of therisk ?
SEVERITY
What impact canthis risk have onthe project orproduct ?
PROBABILITY
What is thelikelihood of therisk being realised?
Based on expert judgementBased on evidence
Risk Prioritisation
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 40
Example : Scoring Function/Requirements Risks
Pedigree1 Identical design in Long Field Service3 Identical design in Development Units/ Similardesign in long term service9 New Design
If pedigree = 1, stop scoring, move onto next risk.
Analysis1 Full Capable Analysis3 Preliminary Analysis9 No Analysis/not capable ofanalysis
Testing1 Full representative test3 Read across tests with good sample size/limited tests/ Verification9 Zero testing/ small sample size
Sub-assembly
Part Type of risk Description of risk P T A Evidence
Rotor WoundMainAssembly
ClampPlate
Function - What does it do ?(eg. Insulating, protecting)
Clamp plate is too weakto clamp the rotorwindings axially.
9 9 3 StressReport 1234
This is a new design. Therefore,Pedigree = 9
No development testing has been done using the new design ofthe clamp plate. Therefore, Testing = 9
Preliminary analysissuggests design meetsrequirements. Therefore,Analysis = 3
Engineering Report
No:
Issue:
Date:
Engineering Report
No:
Issue:
Date:
Preliminary AnalysisReport
Clamp Plate
Remember to record evidence used forscoring. This can be updated as
Managements actions are completed.
Risk Prioritisation –Function/Requirement Risks
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Example : Scoring Severity & Probability
Severity1 Low impact on product/project3 Medium impact of product/project9 High impact on product/project
Probability1 Low3 Medium9 High
The likelihood of the risk beingrealised is medium. Therefore,Probability = 3
If the clamp plate fails to clamp windings axially, windingscentrifuge outwards & short on rotor framework, leading tocatastrophic failure. Therefore, Severity = 9
Sub-assembly
Part Type of risk Description of risk
P T A RPN1
S PR
RotorWoundMainAssembly
ClampPlate
Function -What doesit do ? (eg.Insulating,protecting)
Clampplate istooweak toclamp
9 9 3 243
9 3
Windings short on rotorframe work
Risk prioritisation – severityand probability
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 42
• The ‘Project Risk Score’ is calculated using the formula :
Project Risk Score = S X PR• The Project Risk Score is used by the project managers for
the prioritisation of technical risks in the overall project riskmanagement process.
Example : Calculating the ‘Project Risk Score’
Sub-assembl
y
Part Type of risk Description of risk P T A RPN1
S PR
RPN2
ProjectRisk
Score
RotorWoundMainAssembly
ClampPlate
Function - Whatdoes it do ? (eg.Insulating,protecting)
Clamp plate is tooweak to clamp therotor windings axially.
9 9 3 243 9 3 6561 27
Risk prioritisation – projectrisk score
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Example : Managing Risk Management Actions
The project manager is responsible for managing the risk managementactions and maintaining the risk curve.
Management
Action
Who Planned
ClosureDate
ActualClosure
Date
Status
Carry out fullstressanalysis ofclamp plate
DavidBonniema
n
15/01/02 Open
Monitorperformanceof clamp platewhen next fivedevelopmentunits aretested
PeterDunkz
15/01/02 Open
Fields filled in by projectmanager
A380 VFG Risk Curve
RPN2
TimeExpected Trend
At early stages, more risksidentified, total RPN2 rises
Effectivemanagement ofrisks –RPN 2falls.
Risk prioritisation – managing actions
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 44
Risk Management
• Identify some risks for projects
• Estimate the probability of occurrence
• Estimate the effect/impact
• Identify mitigating actions for highest scoringrisks.
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Project Reviews
• Regular reviews are key for successfulprojects and should be included in theproject schedule
• There are several levels of review:– Milestone or tollgate reviews; weekly reviews;
daily reviews
• In addition, design projects have threeunique reviews:– Concept review; High-level design review;
Detailed design review
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 46
Key Outputs of DEFINE Phase
• Project team
• Project business case
• Project objective
• Project plan (GANNT chart)
• Document control systems
• Risk reduction plan
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DMADV
Measure
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 48
DMADV - Measure
• Goals:– Collect Voice of the Customer data
– Translate VOC into design requirements (CTQs)
– Identify the most important CTQs
– Develop the measurement system for each CTQ
– Develop a design scorecard
– Revise project objective if necessary
• Output:– Prioritized CTQs
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 49
Measure: Tools
• Data collection plan
• Customer segmentation
• Customer research
• Voice of Customer table
• Kano model
• Affinity diagram
• Benchmarking
• QFD (Quality Function Deployment)
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 50
Measure: Key Activities
UnderstandVoice of theCustomer
TranslateVOC Needs
Into Require-ments (CTQs)
PrioritizeCTQs
ReassessRisk
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What is the Voice of the Customer?
• The term Voice of theCustomer (VOC) is used todescribe customers’ needsand their perceptions of yourproduct or service
• It includes all forms ofinteraction betweencustomers and yourorganization
Use of Kano analysis
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 52
Critical to Quality Characteristics
• A quality characteristic that specifies how the customerneed will be met by the product/service to be designed
• A quantitative measure for the performance of thequality characteristic
• A target value that represents the desired level ofperformance that the characteristic should meet
• Specification limits that define the performance limitsthat will be tolerated by customers
• Several CTQs will exist for each need.
• Use QFD to transfer VOC data into CTQs
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 53
Develop and Validate ameasurement system
• Review data requirements
• Review how to capture data
• Review applicable analysis methods
– e.g. compare voice of the process with voice of thecustomer – SPC and capability analysis
• Decision criteria to determine acceptance
• Establish validity of the measurement system
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 54
Develop a design scorecard
Used to help the team to:
• Establish nominal values and specification limitsfor each CTQ
• Predict output of the voice of the process withrespect to stability (SPC)
• Highlight problems and risks of CTQs
• Track CTQs throughout the entire life of theproduct
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Scorecard Part A (Voice of thecustomer)
Scorecard Part B (Predicted Voice of the process)
CTQ Target LSL USL Sigmatarget
Stable(Y/N)
Shape Mean StandardDeviation
DPU PredictedProcessSigma
Generic design scorecard
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 56
Reassess Scope and Risk
• How difficult do we predict it will be to meet all thetarget values of the most important CTQs?
• Is it necessary to adopt a phased approach to meet thetarget?
• What are the risks associated with not meeting theCTQs now?
• What are the risks associated with dropping some ofthe less important CTQs from consideration?
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Measure: Tollgate Review
• This tollgate review focuses on– Customer segmentation strategy
– Top 10-15 customer needs
– Top 8-10 CTQs and targets
– Summarized benchmark information
– Platform management matrix
– CTQ achievement matrix
• The review can lead to the following steps:– Proceed to Analyse
– Redo parts Measure
– Stop the project
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DMADV
Analyse
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 59
DMADV - Analyse: Key questions
• Important processes/functions that must be designed tomeet the design requirements?
• Key inputs and outputs of each process?
• Processes for which innovative new designs arerequired to maintain a competitive advantage?
• Different solutions available for designing each process?
• What criteria do we use to evaluate these designalternatives?
• Collect information on these criteria for evaluation?
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DMADV - Analyse
Identify KeyFunctions
PrioritizeFunctions
GenerateConcepts
Evaluateand Analyze
ConceptReview
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Identify Key Functions
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 62
Identify Key Functions
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Generate Concepts
• Concepts are generated using two approaches:
• Creative idea-generation techniques that focuson analogy, connections, extrapolations andcreative visualization to develop new ideas
• Benchmarking techniques that study similardesigns in competing and non-competingbusinesses
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 64
Design Review
• Process for objectively evaluating the quality of adesign at various stages of the design process
• Opportunity for voices external to the design teamto provide feedback on the design, as the productand service is being developed
• Helps to ensure that the design will satisfycustomers, and that the design process willfunction effectively to produce a high qualityproduct or service
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When to conduct a design review
• Concept Review: Conducted after two to three keyconcepts have been identified and their feasibility hasbeen determined.
• High Level Design Review: Conducted after a selectedconcept has been designed to some level of detail andtested, and before detailed design begins.
• Pre-pilot Design Review: Conducted when the detaileddesign is complete and the product/service is ready tobe piloted.
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 66
Design for X
• Design for manufacture
• Design for assembly
• Design for reliability
• Design for testability
• Design for service
• Design for quality
• Design for reusability
• Design for environment
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Analyse: Tollgate Review
• This tollgate review focuses on:
– List of key functions
– List of top concepts
– Pugh Matrix
– Concept review outputs
– Risk analysis update
• This review can lead to the following steps:
– Proceed to High Level Design
– Redo work on concepts, concept review and tollgate review
– Stop the project
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 68
DMADV
Design
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DMADV - Design
High LevelDesign
DetailedDesign
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 70
From Concept to Design
Less Detail /Many Alternatives
More Detail/Few Alternatives
Most Detail/Single Alternative
CONCEPTDESIGN
HIGH LEVELDESIGN
DETAILEDDESIGN
Redesign
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Design: Goals and Outputs
• Goals:
– Develop high level and detailed design
– Test design components
– Prepare for pilot and full scale deployment
• Outputs:
– Tested high level design
– Tested detailed design
– Plans for process control
– Completed design reviews
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 72
Design: Tools
• QFD
• Simulation
• Rapid prototyping
• Weibull analysis
• SPC and process capability
• Detailed design scorecards
• FMEA
• Reliability testing and qualification testing
• Design reviews
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Tollgate review
The pre-pilot detailed design tollgate reviewfocuses on:
• Developed design
• Completed FMEA/simulation analysis
• Design solutions for vulnerable elements
• Organizational Change Plan updates
• Process management system variables
• Process management system details
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 74
DMADV
Verify
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PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 75
DMADV - Verify
Plan thePilot
Conductand
Evaluatethe Pilot
ImplementClose
Project
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 76
Steps in the Verify phase
• Build a prototype
• Pilot test the prototype
• conduct design reviews using design scorecards
• Decide if the process is meeting businessobjectives
• Close DMADV project
• Transfer lessons learned from the project
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Verify: Goals and Outputs• Goals:
– ‘Stress-testing’ and de-bugging of prototype– Implementation and team closure
• Outputs:– Working prototype with documentation– Plans for full implementation– Process owners using control plans to measure, monitor and
maintain process capability– Project closure and documentation completed– Ownership transition from sponsor to operations
management, and from design team to process managementteam(s)
– Lessons learned
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Completion Checklist
• Completed project documentation thatsummarizes results and learnings
• Recommendations (supported by updatedinformation, if possible) for the next generation ofthis design
• Plans for (or results from) communicating yourachievements to the rest of the organization
• Plans for celebrating your success
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Advantages of DFSS
• Provide structure to development process
• Anticipate problems and avoid them
• Reduce life cycle cost
• Improve product quality, reliability and durability
• Cultural change
• Minimise design changes
• Improve communication between functions
PEUSS 2012/2013 Design for Six Sigma Page 80
Difference between SS and DFSS
DMAIC DFSS
reactionary proactive
detecting and resolving problems preventing problems
Existing products or services Design of new products,services or processes;
Financial benefits quantifiedquickly
Financial benefits long-term
Mainly manufacturing processes Marketing R&D and design
DFSS team cross-functional
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DFSS Summary
• Rigorous approach to design
• Primarily used for new product design
• Structured approach
• DMADV and PIDOV
• Tailored for each company
• In conjunction with product introduction
• Pushes key issues up front – design forreliability and design for manufacture
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