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TertiaryEssay Writing
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contents/TerTiary essay WriTing 3
Time managemenT 3
Choosing a TopiC 3
Whatinterestsyoumost? 3
Whatresourcesareavailable? 3
Whatdoyouknowalready? 3
analysing The quesTion 4
Whattolookfor? 4
Processordirectivewords 4
Contentwordsandphrases 4
Limitingwordsandphrases 4
BrainsTorming 7
Whyisbrainstorminganimportantstep? 8
planning 8
researChing The TopiC 9
Searchingadvice 9
Exploringencyclopaedia,bibliographies 9
Searchingjournalindexes,electronicjournals 9
Howmuchtoread? 10
Gettingstarted 10
Reservelist 11
Recordingareference 11
Note-taking 11
Readingcritically 12
Whentostopreading? 13
revising The plan 13
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contents/WriTing The firsT drafT 13
Essaystructureandargument 14
Introducingyouressay 14
Thebodyofyouressay 14
Paragraphs 15
Coherence 15
Concludingyouressay 16
Usingsources 16
Anoteonplagiarism 18
Academicstyle 18
Clarity 18
Formality 19
Objectivity 19
Useofpassivevoice 20
Makingtentativestatements(hedging) 20
Nominalisation 20
Discipline-specificvocabulary 21
ediTing 21
Editingforstructureandargument 21
Introduction 21
Body 21
Conclusion 22
Editingforexpression,grammarandspelling 22
Referencing 22
suBmiTTing 22
resourCes 23
Furtherreading 23
Usefulwebsites 23
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TerTiary essay WriTingEssaysareacommonformofassessmentinmanytertiary-leveldisciplines.Theabilitytoconstructgoodessaysinvolvesunderstandingtheprocessandtheconventionsofessaywriting.
Thisbookletlooksattencommonstepsinvolvedinessaywriting.Themoreexperienceyougetinwritingessays,themorecomfortableyouwillbecomewiththisgenre.However,evenanexperiencedessaywriterneedstobedeliberateandthoroughinordertowriteawell-constructedessay.
1. Time managemenTA2000–3000wordessayshouldbestartedthreetofourweeks(orearlier)beforetheduedate.Thisallowstimefortopicanalysis,planningandresearch,writingthefirstdraft,revisionandpresentation.Plantospendabout50%ofyourtimeonanalysis,researchandplanning,25%ondevelopingadraft,and25%onrevising,editing,referencingandproofreading.
Forexample,ifyouexpecttospend30hourspreparinga2000-wordessay,15hourswouldbespentanalysingthequestion,findingrelevantmaterial,readingandnote-taking.Thiswouldleave7.5hourstopreparethefirstdraftandanother7.5hourstorevise,editandproofreadyourwork.
Youmayneedtospendmore(orless)than30hourstopreparea2000-wordpaper–theexampleaboveisonlyaroughguide.Themainthingisthatyouallowyourselfenoughtimetobethoroughintheplanning,writingandeditingstages;otherwise,youwon’tbeabletoachieveyourbest!
Itisalsoagoodideatogetsomeoneelsetoreadoveryouressayforanylanguageorlogicalinconsistenciesofwhichyoumightnotbeaware.Youshouldallowsometimeforthis,aswellastimetoconsideranychangessuggestedbythepersonwhohasreadoveryourwork.
2. Choosing a TopiCAfterschedulingtimetoresearchandwriteyouressay,thenextstepistochooseanessaytopic.Alistofquestionsortopicsisoftenprovidedbythelecturer.Whenchoosingone,youshouldtakeintoaccount:
What interests you most? Thebestwaytostaymotivatedistodowhatmostinterestsyou.Chooseatopicyouwanttoexploreinmoredepth.Alsoconsiderwhetheradeeperunderstandingofatopicmightbenefityou.
What resources are available? Itisgoodtodoalittlepreliminaryresearchonthetopic(s).Seewhetherthereareenoughresources(booksandjournalarticles)onthetopicofyourchoice.Ifeveryoneisdoingthesamequestion,itmaybedifficulttoaccesslibraryholdingsforsometime!Youcan,however,borrowfromothertertiarylibrariesifyouneedto.Anddon’tforgetjournaldatabases!
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What do you knoW already? Itmakessensetochooseatopicaboutwhichyoualreadyhavesomeideas.Thiswayyoucanthinkaboutpotentialargumentsthatcangointothepaperevenbeforeyoustartyourresearchandyoucanalsobuildonknowledgeyoualreadyhave.Ontheotherhand,ifyouhavethetime,youmightwanttobroadenyourhorizonsandchooseatopicyouarenotfamiliarwith.
3. analysing The quesTionWhenpreparingtoansweranessayquestion,itisimportantthatyouunderstanditwell.Sometimesstudentsmisunderstandtheessayquestion,oraddressonlypartofwhatisbeingasked.Youareexpectedtowriteatightlystructuredargumentfocusedonthequestionortopic.Sobeforeyoustart,youneedtocarefullyanalysethequestion.
Firstmakesurethatyoufullyunderstandthequestion.Checkthemeaningofanywordyoudonotunderstandinageneralorspecialistsubjectdictionary.Youmightalsoneedtoconsiderthattherearemorespecificusesofthesewordsinyourlecturesandreadings.
Agoodtechniquecanbetocopytheessayquestionoutonablankpieceofpaperandtoseparateandnumber–orcolour-code–thepartsofthequestion.Underlinekeywordsandidentifytheirfunctionasdescribedbelow.Onceyouhavedonethat,youcanrephrasethequestioninyourownwords.
What to look for?Youshouldlookforthreekindsofwordswhenanalysingyouressayquestion:
• Processordirectivewords• Contentwordsandphrases• Limitingwordsandphrases
process or directive words
Directivewordstellyouwhatyouarerequiredtodo–forexample:discuss, critically analyse, compare.Itisimportanttounderstandthemeaningofthesewordssothatyouressaywillanswerthequestionandaddressthetopic.
Herearesomeexamplesofcommondirectivewords:
Directiveword Definition
accountfor Giveajustifiedexplanationofwhyandhowsomethingisthecase.
analyse Divideintopartsorelementstodiscoverthenatureofsomething.Describethefunctionandrelationshipsofthepartstoidentifypossibleproblemsorweaknesses.
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argue Makeacaseforacceptingorrejectingapositionbysystematicallygivingreasonsandevidencefororagainstit.Demonstratethatyouareawareofopposingviewpointsandprovidegroundsforrejectingthem.
assess Examinefromdifferentviewpoints,weighingupstrengthsandweaknesses.Makeaconsideredjudgement.
commenton Provideaninformedandsupportedviewpoint.
compare Identifycharacteristicsthataresimilar.Alsostressdifferenceswhererelevant.
contrast/differentiate/distinguish Identifycharacteristicsthataredifferent.Emphasisesimilaritieswhereappropriate.
critical(ly)/criticise/critique Analysesystematicallyfromdifferentperspectivesandidentifypositiveaspectsaswellaslimitations.Drawconclusionsfromtheanalysisandexpressaninformedjudgement.
Thisdoesnotmeantocriticiseinonlynegativeterms!
define Determineessentialqualities.→Stateconciseandclearmeanings,butomitdetails.Markthelimitsofthedefinitionandemphasisedifferencestosimilaritemsorobjects.
describe Characterise,recountandrelatesystematically.
discuss Analyseandcriticallyexamineindetail.Considerprosandconsinordertocometoasupportedassessmentandconclusion.
evaluate Assess
examine Investigateclosely,payingattentiontodetailandconsideringimplications.
explain Makesomethingclearbyelaboratingonit.Givereasonsandtrytoanalysecauses.
illustrate Explainandclarifybytheuseofconcreteexamples,data,diagrams,etc.
interpret Explainsomethingandmakeitsmeaningexplicit.Giveyourownjudgment.
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justify Showadequategroundsfordecisionsorconclusions.
list Presentinanorderedway.
outline Presenttheprincipalfeaturesandhowtheyrelatetoeachotherinalogicalorder.Includeallmainpointsandomitdetails.
review Surveyandexaminecriticallyandcomprehensively.Commentoncontroversialaspects.
state Presentthemainpointsbrieflyandclearly.Omitdetailsandexamples.
summarise Giveashortandcleardescriptionofthemainpoints.
Content words and phrases
Contentwordsestablishthegeneralfocusofthequestionanddefinethefieldorsubjectareaofthetopic.Thecontentwordsorphrasesareunderlinedinthefollowingexamples:
• DiscussthedevelopmentofFrenchopera.• OutlinePiaget’stheoryofdevelopment.• ExplainGeorgeHerbertMead’stheoryonthedevelopmentoftheself.Howcan
sociologistsuseittounderstandtheselfandsociety?
limiting words and phrases
Lookforwordsthatlimitthescopeofthetopicandmakethequestionmoremanageable.Forexample:
• Discusstwoperspectiveson…• HowrelevantisthistoAustraliansociety?• Whatisthecrucialvariable?• Outlinethemajorcausesof...• Howcansociologistsusethisconcepttounderstandtheselfandsociety?
Itisoftennecessaryforyoutolimitthequestionyourself.Ifthequestionisverygenerallyworded,limitingitsscopewillenableyoutowriteinmoredepthaboutaparticularaspect.Forexample,thefollowingtopicisverybroadandcouldformthebasisofadoctoralthesisaseasilyasa2000-wordessay:
Discuss and analyse the roles of women in society in the period 1000-1350.Itwouldbeappropriatetolimitthisquestionbyindicatingyourfocus,forexample,onpeasantwomen,oraristocraticwomen,nuns,womenheadsofstate,womeninpaidwork,womeninservice,womeninEnglandorChinaorFrance,orwomenwhoseliveshavebeenextensivelydocumented.
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Ifyoudecidetolimityourdiscussioninthisway,alwayscheckwithyourtutor/lecturer.Inyourintroduction,statehowyouhavelimitedthequestionandyourjustificationfordoingso.Forexample:‘Thispaperfocusesonthelivesofpeasantwomensincetheywerethelargestgroupinsociety.’
Thisisagoodexampleofatopicthatdoesnotexplicitlydirectyoutoformanargument.Althoughyoumayfeelyoucanwritedescriptivelyaboutthewomen,youstillneedtodevelopanargumentrelatingtothequestion.Forinstance,howcouldyouaccountforchangesovertime,orbetweenwomenfromdifferentregionsorcountries?Canyouanalysetheroleswomenplayedinthecontextoftheprevailingsocialorder?Canyouformulateanargumentaboutthecontributionofthewomentotheeconomicwealthorreligiouslifeofthecommunity?
Onceyouhaveagoodideaofwhatthequestionrequiresyoutodo,ofitsscopeanditsfocus,youcanthenthinkabouthowyoumightanswerthisquestiongivenwhatyoualreadyknow.Thisstepiscalledbrainstorming.
4. BrainsTormingBrainstorminginvolvesthinkingaboutthetopicandgeneratingasmanyideasaboutitasyoucan.Atthisstageyoumaynotknowalotaboutthesubjectmatterofyouressay,butitisstillimportanttothinkaboutwhatyouneedtoaddressandjotdownyourpreliminarythoughtsandideas.
Youcandrawuponbothyourgeneralknowledgeandtheinformationfromyourlectures,tutorialsandsubjectreading.Throughthebrainstormingprocessyouwillbecomeawareofideasyouwanttopursueandinformationyouneedtolocateduringtheresearchandreadingstages.
Itisimportantnottonarrowyourthinkingatthisstage;youshouldexploreyourideasinanopenanduncriticalway.
Tobrainstorm,usealargepieceofpaper.Havethequestioninmindandwritedownalltherelatedissues,theories,argumentsandevidencethatyouareawareofatthisstage.
When brainstorming, include…
• anyideastriggeredbythequestion• questionsyouneedtoanswerinordertowritetheessay• possiblelinesofthought,researchorargument• anyevidenceyouareawareoftosupportpossiblearguments• wordsyoumustdefine.Atthisstageyoumayneedtothinkabouthowmuchbreadthordepthyouressaycanhave.Thewordlimitisafactorherebutyoushouldalsoaskyourselfhowmanymainideasyoucanaddressandhowmuchinformationyoucanpresent.
Youmightalsothinkaboutwhetheritwouldbeappropriatetoincludepersonalopinionorexperience.Thisismoreappropriateforsomesubjectsthanforothers.However,itisimportanttobeawareofanypreconceivedideasorbiasesyoumayhave.Allowyourselftobeopen-mindedtonewideasandpossibledirectionstheessay’sargumentmighttake.
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Why is brainstorming an important step?Brainstorminggivesyouthebeginningsofawritingplan–atatimewhenyouareclosetothequestionandthereforelesslikelytomisspartsofit.Youshouldnoticeacentralthemeorargumentemerging.Thisprocessalsohelpsyoutofocusyourresearchbyraisingmorespecificquestionstoanswer(thishelpstominimiseunfocusedmeanderingthroughthesetreading).Itfurtherhelpsbygivingyousomeideasaboutwhatyoumightwanttowriteabout.Keepinmindthat,asyoudiscovermoreaboutthetopic,yourideaswillshiftandchange.Thisispartoftheprocess.
5. planningAfterbrainstorming,developatentativeplantoguideyourresearch.Thedegreeofdetailintheplandependsonthequestionitselfandhowmuchknowledgeyouhaveatthisstage.Evenifyouhaveonlylimitedknowledge,youarestilllikelytobeabletocreateanoutlineofpossiblesections.Includesubheadingsandnotedownbackgroundinformationanddefinitionsyoumayneedtowritein.
Aplanhelpsyouformulatethecentralargumentorthemeofyouressay,aswellasgeneratesub-arguments.Italsomakesiteasiertostayontrackasyoustarttoresearchandwrite.
Ifyouhaveanargumentatthisstage,organiseyourpointstosupportit,andarrangeyourideasorsectionsintoalogicalorder.Youmayalsobeabletoidentifysomeoftheevidenceyoucouldusetosupportyourpoints.
Ifyouhaveverylittleknowledgeaboutthetopicandnoargumentyet,generatesomeheadingsandsub-questionsusingtheessayquestionasyourstartingpoint.Forexample,ifyourquestionis:
DiscussandevaluatethelegalapproachtoeuthanasiaandcriminalresponsibilityinVictoria.(2000words)
Youmighttentativelybreakthistopicdownintothefollowingparts:
1.Introduction(150words).2.Discussionofthecurrentstateofthelawoneuthanasiaand
criminalresponsibilityinVictoria(400words).3.Evaluationofthecurrentsituation:A.Whataretheproblemswiththecurrentlaw?What/whoarethe
driversofreform?Includedetaileddiscussionofthemostrecent/influentialcase(600words).
B.Whatreformproposalsarethere?Aretheyviable?Howhavetheseproblemsbeenaddressedelsewhere?Whatconclusions/recommendationscanImakeaboutthecurrentstateoflaw(700words)?
4.Conclusion(150words).
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Breakingthetaskdownintosmallersections–eachwithitsownfocusandpurpose–makesthetaskmoremanageable.Andgeneratingsub-questionswithineachofthesectionshelpsyoustayfocusedasyoureadforyouressay.Ifyouestimatehowmanywordsyoumightspendoneachpart,itwillalsogiveyouanindicationofhowmuchreadingyouneedtodoforeachsection.
Asinthepreviousexample,universityessaysoftenaskyoutodescribeoroutlineatheory,orthecurrentpracticeinafield,andthentocriticallyanalyseorevaluateit.Rememberthatthelatterpart–thecriticalanalysis–isthemoreimportantpartofyouressay.Itsrelativeimportanceshouldbereflectedinthenumberofwordsyouallocatetoit.
Whiletheprocessforwritingatertiaryessayisfundamentallythesameforanessayinanydiscipline,youshouldbeawareofdisciplinespecificexpectationsaswell.Theseareprovidedinanyguidelinestoessaywritinggivenbyyourdepartmentorfaculty.Thisisthestageatwhichyouwanttochecktheseguides.Eachdepartmenthasslightlydifferentexpectationsandrequirements.
Becauseyouarepreparingyouressayforaparticularsubject,youneedtoengagewithandtoaddressthatsubject’skeyconceptsandobjectives.Itisthereforeusefulatthispoint–andcertainlybeforeyoubeginwriting–tore-readthecoursedescriptionandcourseobjectives.
6. researChing The TopiCWhileyouwilloftenreceivedetailedreadinglistsasastartingpointforresearch,theonusisonyoutodevelopskillsasanindependentresearcher.Thisrequiresbecomingfamiliarwiththevariousuniversitylibraries,journaldatabasesandsearchengines,withperiodicals,newspapercollectionsandotherreferencematerials.
searching adviceWorkingoutwheretofindinformationandwhotocontactforadviceisoneofthemostimportantskillstolearnatuniversity.Takingthetimetobecomefamiliarwiththeuniversity’sinformationservicesandlibrarybrancheswillserveyouwellthroughoutyourtertiaryeducation.Youwillbeseveralstepsaheadifyoulearnearlyandwellhowtoaccesstheinformationyoumayneedtocarryoutyourliteratureresearch.
exploring encyclopaedia, bibliographies
Theuniversitylibrarieshavebrilliantreferencecollections.Whileinternetsearchingisincreasinglyeffective,notallsourceshavebeenputonline.Browsingalongthereferenceshelvesisanimportantcomponentoffindingandsiftinginformation.Subjectencyclopaedia,dictionariesandbibliographieswillhelpyougainagrasponresearchandconceptsusedinyourfield.
searching journal indexes, electronic journals
Publicationpatternsarechangingrapidly.Suchchangesareworkinginyourfavour!Moreandmorefull-textjournalsareavailableindigitalformat.Manypublishersevenofferpersonalisedpagesthatregisteryourresearchstrategiesandemailthetablesofcontentsofyourfavouritejournals.
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seeking the expertise of specialist staff to help you…
• withyoursearchstrategies• withgettingthemostoutofdatabases• trackdowninformationheldinotherlibraries• accessrareandarchivedmaterial• organiseinformation• withadviceoncitingsources.Librarystaffofferclassesonmakingthebestuseofthecatalogues,searchingdatabaseseffectivelyandmanagingyourreferenceinformationusingthesoftwareprogramEndNote.Thefollowingsuggestedlinkswillhelpyougetstarted:
UniversityLibraryhomepage
http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/
UniversityLibrarycatalogue
http://cat.lib.unimelb.edu.au/
SuperSearch
http://search.lib.unimelb.edu.au
Informationskillsclasses(catalogues,databasesearching,EndNote)
http://library.unimelb.edu.au/services/classes
LibGuides(subject-specificguidesandresources)
http://unimelb.libguides.com/index.php
Specialistlibrarians(individualconsultationsforgraduatestudents)
http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/learn/consult/
hoW much to read?Somestudentsoverestimatetheexpectationsofacademicstaffregardingthequantityofresearchrequired;someunderestimate.Attertiarylevel,youwilloftenfindthatthereismorereadingthanyoucanpossiblygetthrough.Askyourtutororlecturerforguidanceastothenumberofreferencestheyexpectyoutoconsultanduseinpreparingyouressay.Evenwhenthefocusofaquestionisonacoretext,itisassumedthatyouwillreadmorewidelyinpreparationforwritinganessay.
getting startedBeginwithgeneralreading;anytext-booksonyourreadinglistwillhelpyouunderstandyourtopicinthecontextofabiggerpicture.Thenmoveontojournalarticlesonspecificaspectsofyourtopic.Recentjournalarticlesaregenerallyconsideredofmorevalue
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inacademicwritingbecause1)theycontainmorecurrentinformation,researchanddiscussiononthetopicthandomanybookspublishedyearsearlier,and2)theyareoftenpeer-reviewedandcitedbyotheracademicswhichmakesthemamorereliableandrecognisedsourceofinformationandideas.
Reliabilityandaccuracyofinformationisanimportantaspectoftertiaryresearch;thisisonereasonwhymostwebsitesareoflimiteduseandhavelessrespectabilityinacademicwriting:howcanyouverifythattheauthorofthewebpageispresentingaccurateinformation?
reserve listYourlecturermayhaveplacedaselectionofmaterialonthelibraryReserveList.Tofindoutwhichbooksareonthislist,gotothefollowingwebpage,accessiblefromthelibrarycataloguepage:
http://cat.lib.unimelb.edu.au/search/r
Entereitherthecoursenameornumber,orthenameofyourlecturer.Youwillthenfindalistofanybooks,photocopiedarticlesorothermediaonreserveforyoursubject.
Youonlyhaveaccesstoreserveitemsfortwohours(orsometimes24hrs)souseyourtimewisely.Turntothetableofcontentsandtheindexandidentifythepartsofthebookspecificallyrelevanttoyourquestion.Asyoucannotborrowthebook,itisnecessarytotakenotesasyougo.Makesurethatyoureadthebibliographycloselyasitmaycontainusefulreferencestojournalarticlesandotherbooksyoumaywanttoread.
Ifyouneedtousephotocopies,onlyphotocopythosepagesthatareabsolutelyessentialforyoutoreferbackto.Makesurethatinsteadofjustunderlininglargesections,youannotatethephotocopiedmarginswithyourowncommentsaboutwhatyouhavereadandhowitfitsintoyouressay.Note,forexample,howaparticularpoint,ausefuldefinition,andevidenceorexampleswillfitintoyouressay.
recording a referenceItismostimportanttoremembertotakefullbibliographicdetailsofeverythingyouread.Recordthepagenumberofeachpassagethatyouparaphraseandeachquotationyoutranscribe.EndNote,abibliographicsoftwarepackage,isavailablefreetoallUniversityofMelbournestudents.Itisinvaluableforkeepingrecordsofreferencesandyoucanenteryournotesintotheprogramaswellmakingthem‘searchable’.YoucandownloadEndNotefromthelibrarywebsite.Forfurtherdetailsaboutavailabilityandinstallation,checkthefollowingwebsite:http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/endnote
note-takingTakeyournotesinanorganisedway,eitherinanotebookordirectlyontoyourcomputer.Don’teverwriteinalibrarybook:youknowhowannoyingitistocomeacrossamarked-upbookinthelibrary–andhowdifficultitistoread!Nottomentionthefactthatthebookislibraryproperty!
Ifyouarereadingabook,itcanbemoreeffectivetosimplybookmarktherelevantpartofthetextandkeepgoingthantotakenotesasyouread.Attheendofeachchapterassesstherelativedegreeofimportanceofeachmarkedsection,andthentakenotes.Beselective.Excessivenote-takingcanbeasubstituteforthinkingcriticallyaboutwhatyouarereading.Lookforthemainpointsofanarticle.Whatisthewriter’smain
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contentionoridea?Whatevidenceorexamplesareusedtosupportthatidea?Whatconclusiondoesthewriterreach?Wheredoyoustandinrelationtothatcontentionorconclusion?
Itisgoodtotakepoint-formnotesinyourownwords.Thisisthebestwayofensuringthatyouunderstandthematerialyouareusing.Italsomeansthatyouhavealreadydonetheworkofparaphrasingtheideasfromtheoriginalsource.
Themoreyouread,themorefocusedyourideaswillbecome.Howdoesyourreadingreinforce,contradict,orsuggestalterationstoyouroriginalbrainstormedideasandplan?Continuetoevaluatethereadingintermsofitsrelevancetoyouressayquestion.Ithelpstostayfocusedbykeepingacopyofthetopicandyourtentativeplanwithyouwhileyouarereading.Asyoudomorereading,youmayneedtochangeordevelopyourplan.
reading criticallyYouneedtoevaluateyourreadingcontinuously.Itisnotsufficientsimplytoreproduce,summarise,reportordescribewhatothershavefound.Justbecausesomethingispublished,ortheauthoriswell-knownorrespected,doesn’tmeanthatitistrue,valid,orunchallengeable.Youneedtotesttheopinionsandfindingsofanauthoragainsttheevidenceprovided,againsttheopinionsandjudgementsofotherwriters,andagainstyourownpointofview.
questions to ask when you read critically:
• Whyhastheauthorcometothisconclusion?• Howconclusiveorvalidistheproposition?• Howsoundisthemethodology?• Howpracticalaretheauthor’sideas?• Whatarethestrengthsandweaknessesoftheauthor’sargument?• Whatculturalorintellectualpreconceptionsandbiasesdoestheauthorseem
tobringtothewriting?Criticallyengagingwiththereadinginvolvesthinkingaboutwhatanauthorissaying,andnotjustlookingatwhatheorsheiswritingasasourceofinformationthatyoucanuseinyouressay.Whileyouwillfrequentlyuseinformationotherauthorsprovideasevidencetosupportapointyouaremaking,youshouldfirstevaluatetheirargumentsandevidenceforyourself.
Whenassessinganauthor’sargumentandsupportingevidence,youdonotneedtorelysolelyonyourownthinking.Authorswhoholdcontrastingpointsofviewonatopicareanexcellentresource.Theyhelpyouevaluateargumentsandevidenceputforwardinaparticulartext.
how to use related texts in your essay:
• Canyoucontrastdifferentpointsofview?• Canyousupportwhatoneauthorsaysbyreferencetoanotherauthor?• Canyourecognisetheassumptionsbeingmadebyanauthor?• Canyouextendwhattheauthorissayingtoitslogicalconclusion?Doesthe
propositionstillmakesense?• Canyouidentifytheimplicationsofanauthor’sproposal?
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When to stop reading?Finally,youneedtodevelopasenseforwhenyouhavereadenough.Partofthisisdeterminedsimplybytimeconstraints:organiseyourselfandstartwritingsothatyouhaveacompletedessaybytheduedate(orbefore)!Butyoualsoneedtodeterminewhenyouhaveenoughmaterialtoworkwithinordertodevelopawell-thought-out,well-researchedessay.Youdon’twanttohavesomuchinformationandsomanyreadingstointegratethattheessaybecomesconfusedanddense.Andyoudon’twanttheessaytosimplybeastringofothersourcespatchedtogether!Otherreadingsmerelysupportandhelpsubstantiateyourownideas.Yourideasandthedevelopmentofyouroriginalargumentarestillgoingtobethebulkoftheessay.
Youhavedoneenoughreadingwhenyouhaveformulatedaclearargument,supportedbyrelevantandup-to-dateresearchinyourfield.
7. revising The planOnceyouhavereadseveraltextsrelatedtoyourchosenquestion,it’stimetoreviewyourinitialplan.Whileyoucarriedoutyourresearch,newideasandevidencecontrarytoyourplannedargumentmayhaveemerged.Youneedtoelaborateuponyourplanormodifyyourargumentinthelightofsuchdevelopments.
Mostessayquestionsrequireyoutotakeaposition.Thisisthetimetobeclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay,inlightofwhatyouhavediscoveredsinceyoufirstreadthequestion.
Atthispointyourdirectionandtentativeconclusionsshouldbegettingclearer.Youshouldtrytoclarifyyourthesis(argument),andthepointsyouwishtomaketosupportthisthesis,togetherwithsupportingevidenceandexamples.
Thinkabouttheorderinwhichyouwishtopresentthesepoints.Thiscouldbeinorderofimportance,oryoumayfollowachronology,oryoumightgroupargumentsintocomparisonsandcontrasts.Therearemanypossiblestructuresbutyoudoneedalogical,orderedframework.
Thereisnosinglecorrectanswertoanessayquestion.Thelecturerisinterestedinwhatyouthink,andwhetheryoupresentyourideasinastructuredwaythroughareasonedargument,focusedonthequestion.Yourargumentshouldbewell-supportedbyevidence:includeexamplesorpointsfromyourreading.Plotoutyourrevisedplanascarefullyandcompletelyaspossible–eitheronpaperoroncomputer.Ifyouindicateonyourplanwhereyourdirectquotes,paraphrasesandexamplesfromreadingsfitintoyouroverallscheme(notingthepagenumbersfromtheoriginalsource),thiswillfacilitatetheactualwritingprocess.Youcanworkcloselyfromyourdetailedplantoconstructyouressay;it’susefultokeepyourplanbyyourcomputerforreferencewhileyouwritethefirstdraft.
8. WriTing The firsT drafTManystudentsfindthetransitionfromresearchingtowritingdifficult.Youneedtoresistthetemptationtocontinueresearching,andtobeawareofthevariousmeansofprocrastination(e.g.tidyingyourdesk,orfinger-paintingwithpeanutbutterandhoney,orknittingatamforyourFrenchpoodle).Ifyouhavealreadypreparedadetailedplanandare
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awarethatafirstdraftisonlyeveraroughattemptthatrequiresfurtherediting,thenyouwillfinditeasiertobegin.Yourfirstdraftisforyourself.Writefreelyandgetthecontentdown.Don’taimforperfection;youcanimprovethestyle,clarity,expressionandspellinglater.
Studentswhohavedifficultywritingessaysoftenbelievethatitisbecausetheycan’twrite.Itisoftenthecase,though,thatwhatmightseemorfeellike‘grammar’problemsresultsfromnothavingclearideasaboutyourtopic.Whilewritingskillsare,ofcourse,important,thinkingisatthecore.Inotherwords,manyessay-writingproblemsarisebecauseastudent’sthinkingisnotfullyworkedoutinrelationtothequestionortopic.Ifyouarestrugglingatthefirstdraftstage,gobacktoyourplan–doyouneedtoreviseit?Wherearethegaps?Isyourargumentclearandsupported?Areyouclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay?
Thetaskofessaywritingbecomeseasierasyourfamiliarityandexperiencewiththistypeofwritingincreases.Understandingthebasicstructureandelementsofanessay,howtousesourceseffectively,andknowingtheconventionsofacademictoneandstylecertainlyhelpsmakewritingeasier.
essay structure and argumentAllessaysrequireanintroduction,abodyandaconclusion.Theintroductionorientsthereadertoyourtopicandapproach.Itsfunctionistotellthereadertwomainthings:whattheessaywillbeaboutandwhatyouwillbearguing.Thebodydevelopsyourargumentandanalysis.Theconclusionoftheessaybringseverythingtogether,makingtheconclusionsofyourdiscussionclearforthereader.
Youwillhaveplannedyourargumentandideasduringandafterthereadingphase.Ifyouhavedonethiscarefully,youshouldhaveafairlygoodideahowtheessay’sargumentwillbestructured.Itmayhappen,however,thatintheprocessofwritingthefirstdraftyouwillchangeyourmindabouttheorderofpresentationofideas,orevenaboutsomeaspectsofyourargument.Thereforeitmaybenecessarytoreturnlatertotheintroductionandrewriteittoreflectyourchangestothestructureoftheessay.Oryoumayfindthatyouwanttostartwithwritingthebodyoftheessay,orasectionofthebodythatyoufeelmostcertainabout,comfortablewith,orinterestedin.Ifyoutakethisapproach,makesurethattheessayendsupwithalogicaldevelopmentofideas,andagainthattheintroductionreflectsthisoverallstructure.
introducing your essay
Theintroductionservestosetthefocusoftheessayandprovideamapforyourreader.Whetheryouwriteitfirstorlater,youshouldreviewitandmakechangesafteryouhavecompletedthemainbodyandconclusionoftheessay.Theintroductionshouldfocusareader’sattentiononthecentralthemeofanessay.Itshouldclarifyhowyouintendtointerpretorlimitthequestionandgiveaclear,butbrief,overviewofyourargumentandthemainpointssupportingit.Youmayalsoneedtomakeitclearhowyouaredefiningkeytermsinthequestion.
The body of your essay
Asyouwritethebodyofyouressay,youwillprobablyhaveseveralopenbooks,photocopiedarticles,pagesofnotes(ortheirelectronicequivalent,inEndNoteforexample),andyouressayquestionandplaninfrontofyou.Asyoudevelopeachpoint,
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referbacktotheessayquestionandthinkabouthowthepointyouaremakingbothrelatestothequestionanddevelopsyourargument.Ifitsrelationisnotclear,explaintherelevanceofyourpoint.
Paragraphs
Paragraphsareanimportantstructuralelementofgoodwriting.Eachparagraphshoulddevelopapointortopic–forthisreasontheyarethefoundationsuponwhichyourargumentisbuilt.Aparagraphshouldincludeatopicsentence,whichstatesthemainideaofthatparagraph.Itisoftenthefirstsentenceintheparagraph.Thetopicsentenceisunderlinedinthefollowingexample:
Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy-five miles an hour or more. The strong winds and heavy rainfall that accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by humankind throughout the world in one year.
Atopicsentenceintroducestheparagraph’smainidea.Intheensuingparagraphsyouthenelaborateandprovidesupportingevidenceforthatidea.However,whenyouhaveonlyindicatedtheissuethatistobeaddressedandcanonlydrawthemainpointoutafteryourdiscussionandexamples,thetopicsentencewillbethelastsentenceofaparagraph.Forexample:
Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of America’s noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These few examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure in life.
Whetheritcomesfirstorlast,agoodtopicsentencecontainsonlyoneideaandsumsupwhattheparagraphisabout.
Othersentenceselaboratethetopicofyourparagraphbygivingsupportingdetails,facts,examplesandquotations.Everysentenceinaparagraphmustbeclearlyrelatedtothemainidea.Thesentencesinaparagraphshouldalsobelogicallyordered.
Thelengthofaparagraphisdeterminedbyitscomplexityandsignificancetotheoverallargument.Themainfunctionoftheconcludingsentenceofaparagraphistodrawtheinformationtoalogicalconclusionandlinkittothenextparagraph.Eachparagraphshouldbethenextlogicalstepinthedevelopmentofyourargument.Tomakesurethisoccursyouneedtohavethoughtaboutthebestorderforyourideas,andhowyouwilldevelopyourargument.
Coherence Coherencerelatestothesmoothandlogicaldevelopmentofboththemainpointsandtherelateddetailsinapieceofwriting.Coherencecanbeenhancedthroughcarefuluseoftransitionsignals.Transitionsarewordsorphrasesthatshowtheconnectionsbetweenideasorbetweensentences.Thetablebelowgivesexamplesofdifferenttypesoftransitionsandthewordsandphrasesyoucanuseforthem:
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Typeoftransition Transitionwordorphrase
Addition additionally,and,also,aswellas,furthermore,inaddition,moreover
Comparison correspondingly,equally,identically,incomparison,inthesameway,likewise,similarly
Exemplifyingandillustrating e.g.,forexample,forinstance,including,markedly,specifically,suchas,toillustrate
Contrast alternatively,but,contrarily,conversely,however,incontrast,instead,ontheonehand…ontheotherhand,yet
Emphasis aboveall,again,certainly,especially,infact,indeed,mostimportantly,ofcourse,particularly
Concession although,eventhough,despite,nevertheless,notwithstanding,whereas,while
Causeoreffect asaresult,because,consequently,dueto,hence,since,subsequently,therefore,thus
Concludingorsummarising allinall,inconclusion,inshort,finally,insummary,toreview,tosumup,onthewhole
Clarificationorrestatement i.e.,inessence,inotherwords,namely,thatis
Concluding your essay
Theconclusionbringstogetherthedifferentstrandsofyourargument.Theclaimsyoumadeinyourintroductoryparagraphhavenowbeenfullydevelopedandsubstantiated,soyoucanreiteratethemmoreassertively.
Aconclusioncanalsoexplore:
• thesignificanceofyourfindings• theimplicationsofyourconclusion• anylimitationsoftheapproachyou’vetaken.Youcanalsomentionfactorsbeyondthescopeofyouressaythatwouldbeofinteresttoinvestigate.Theconclusionshouldnot,however,containanynewmaterial.
Finally,yourconclusionshouldreferbacktothetopicandendonawell-reasonednote.
using sourcesYouressay’sargumentemergesfromanddemonstratesyourcriticalreadingofrelevanttexts.Thepointsyoumaketosupportyourargumentneedtobesupportedwithevidencefromyourreading,andyoursourcesmustbeproperlyreferenced.
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Inacademicwritingitisnotenoughtomakeavalidpoint;youmustbackitupwithevidence.Thissupportingevidencecancomefromtheideasofotherauthors,factualinformation,statistics,logicalargumentationandsoon.Thekindofevidenceyouemploydependsonthedisciplineinwhichyouarewriting.
Belowaretwoexamplesfromstudentessaysthatdemonstratehowyoucanusesourcesandreferencedmaterialfromotherauthorstodevelopyourownpoints.
Thefirstexampleexploresthedifferencebetweenfantasyandfairytalesbyofferingacritiqueofoneauthor’sinterpretation.Notethatitdrawsontheworkofasecondauthortodevelopanalternativedefinition.Bothdirectquotationandparaphrasingareused;thisoffersdetailwithoutundulyslowingthepaceoftheessay.
When Cooper describes fantasy as ‘a metaphor through which we discover ourselves’ (1999, p.23), she implicitly identifies her work within the field of fairy tales where ‘internal processes are externalized and become comprehensible as represented by the figures of the story and its events’ (Roberts, 2000, p. 34). Indeed Cooper views fantasy as an expression of both dreams and the unconscious, especially when using medieval artefacts as the cipher through which these processes can be understood (1999, p. 44). Cooper appears to see fairy tales and fantasy as synonymous, and yet other authors suggest that fairy tales are very different in origin and evolution from works of fantasy. According to Roberts, fairy tales and folk tales are the product of oral cultures and their psychology is unconsciously imbedded in the story as it has been transmitted and shaped over numerous retellings (2000, p. 16). Fantasy writing, on the other hand, is more often than not a conscious construction of psychological motifs—a conscious reproduction of unconscious impulses that evolve naturally in the fairy tale (Roberts, 2000, p. 18).
ThesecondexampleincludesmaterialfromvarioussourcestoexplainanEducationDepartmentstrategy.Theauthorhereincorporatesintoherownsentencesdefinitionsdevelopedbyotherwriters:
Acknowledging that a ‘whole-school approach’ (Hill & Crevola, 1997) is required if middle years reform is to succeed, the Education Department is not instructing schools to adopt middle years reform. Instead, the strategy’s aims are: ‘To assist individual schools and clusters of schools to review their current practices and develop a strategic approach to effective change that leads to improved learning outcomes and increased opportunities for students in Years 5-9’ (1999, p. 9).In other words, if we employ Owen’s definition of policy as ‘a strategy undertaken to solve or ameliorate some problem’ (2001, p. 66), the state government policy response to the middle years problem has been primarily to support and entice individual schools to reform themselves.
Notehowtheinterpretationofferedinthelastsentenceofthisparagraphissupportedbytheprecedingdiscussionthatsetslimitsonthetopic(‘theEducationDepartmentisnot…’)anddefineskeyterms(‘ifweemployOwen’sdefinitionofpolicyas…’).Notetoothatthecitationsforboththedirectquotesandparaphrases
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(basedontheAPA5threferencestyle)includethepagenumberfromtheoriginaltext.Thisgivesreaderstheinformationtheyneedtolocateandconsultthereferencedsourcedirectlyiftheywish.
Usequotationsthatdirectlysupportyourargumentandhavesomethingcriticaltosay.Itisbesttoavoidlongquotations(say,overfourlinesoftext).Itisbettertodemonstratethatyouunderstandwhattheauthorissayingthroughparaphrasingandsummarising.Yourreaderisinterestedinreadingyourargument,yourinterpretationandyouranalysis.
quotations should be used…
• whenyoucan’tfindappropriatesynonymstoparaphrasetheoriginalandareconcernedthatusingotherwordsmaydistortthemeaningoftheoriginal
• whentheoriginalwordingisparticularlymemorable,witty,succinctorappropriate
• whenyouareusingevidencefromaprimarysourceassupportingevidenceforthepointyouaremaking.
Lecturenotesarenotnormallyconsideredappropriatereferencematerial.Yournotesareyourrecordofwhatyouthinkyouheard.Contactyourlecturerifyouwanttolocateaparticularreference.
Usingotherauthors’writingstoprovidesupportingevidenceortorefutepointsofviewasyoudevelopyourargumentisacrucialacademicskill.Itdoes,however,taketimeandpracticetodevelop.Oneofthebestwaystodevelopyourownabilityinthisareaistopayattentiontohowthewritersyouarereadingforresearchusetheirsources.
a note on plagiarism
Plagiarismoccurswhenyouusesomeoneelse’swords or ideasinyourworkwithoutacknowledgingthesource.Evenifyoudonotquotedirectly,alwaysreferencethesourceofideasyouuseinyourwork.Ifyouhaveonlygenerallyreferredtoanotherwriter’sideasorconcepts,youshouldstillacknowledgethis.Whenyouuseadirectquote,copyitexactly(thatmightincludetypographicalerrorsorothermistakes!),acknowledgeitfullywithanin-textcitationandincludethepagenumberthequotecomesfrom.
academic styleAcademicwritingusesadistinctstyleandtone.Itisformal,preciseand–owingtothenatureofthetopicsbeingdiscussed–oftentechnicalandcomplex.Thecomplexityofacademicinquirydoesnotmeanthatacademicwritingneedstosoundpompousorbedifficulttoread.Itdoes,however,needtobeasobjective,precise,andconciseaspossible.
Clarity
Anecessaryfeatureofacademiclanguageisclarity.Whenwritinguniversityessays,avoidusingslang–forexample‘kids’insteadof‘children’–andemotionally-chargedwords–forexample‘outrageous’,‘ridiculous’,‘hideous’.Whileyoumayknowwhatyoumeanbythesewords,yourreadermaynot.Impreciselanguageisunlikelytoaddtoyourreader’sunderstandingofthetopicwhichshouldbeyourprimarygoal.
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formality
Afamiliarorchattytoneshouldbeavoidedaswell.Comparethetwopassagesbelow.Thefirstiswritteninaninformalstylewhilethesecondismoreacademic.Theunderlinedphrasesarecommentedonbelow.
When you look at the Australian economy between 1929 and 1985, you find lots of differences. Before 1939, many workers didn’t have jobs between 1930 and 1939. After 1945, about 2 in 100 male workers weren’t in jobs. Getting a job was very easy for every healthy worker, even for women. But it’s all different now in the 1990s and it’s very hard to get a job if you’re young and have no job experience, and especially if you’re a girl.
• ‘youlook’:arewe‘looking’attheAustralianeconomyoranalysingit?Also,whoisthe‘you’doingthe‘looking’?
• ‘lots’:thisisnotaprecisemodifier• ‘didn’t’:contractionsarenotgenerallyusedinacademicwriting• ‘about2in100’:thisisambiguous:werethereonly100maleworkers?Ordoesthe
authormeantwoinevery100workers?Also,writeoutnumbersfromonetonine.• ‘ajob’:thistermisverybroadandcanincludepaidemploymentaswellasleisure
occupations.Itisnotclearwhatmeaningtheauthorherehadinmind.• ‘veryeasy’:again,thiscouldbeinterpretedinarangeofways• ‘it’salldifferentnow’:whatisdifferent?Inwhatways?Thisneedstobemoreprecise.• ‘it’sveryhard’:again,whatdoesthismeanexactly?• ‘nojobexperience’:seenoteon‘job’,above• thelastsentence,startingwith‘But…”isacompoundsentencewhichusesthe
conjunction‘and’topiecetogethermorethanonecompletesentence:itshouldbebrokenintotwosentencesat‘It’sveryhard…’
Notehowmanyofthesedifficultiesofinterpretationareresolvedwhenamoreformalandprecisestyleofwritingisadopted:
When reviewing the Australian economy in the period 1929–1985, several differences become apparent. In the pre-War period a considerable proportion of the workforce experienced unemployment. It is claimed that up to 30% of male trade union members were unemployed between 1930 and 1939. In the post-War period the male unemployment rate was approximately 2%. Full employment was virtually the case, even for female members of the workforce. However, the situation in the 1980s has changed and unemployment rates have increased. It is extremely difficult for young inexperienced workers in general, and for young inexperienced female workers in particular, to obtain work.
(Adaptedfrom:McEvedy,M.R.,Packham,G.&Smith,P.(1985).WritingAssignments.Melbourne:Nelson).
Inshort,academicwritingaimstobeclear,concise,unambiguousandaccurate.Itscharacteristicsinclude:objectivity,nominalisationandtechnicalterminology.
objectivity
Sincetheemphasisofacademicwritingisonintellectualideasandfactualinformationratherthanonemotionsorindividualexperiences,youshouldavoidexpressingpersonal
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opinionsarisingoutofintuition,feeling,prejudiceoryourownexperience.Ifyouareaskedtowriteareflectiveessay,however,thiswillincludeyourpersonalexperience.
Use of passive voice
Academicwritingtraditionallyusesthepassivevoicesothattheuseofpronounsisminimised.Forexample:
Research was conducted into the breeding habits of marsupials in the north-west region of Victoria.
Thepassiveconstructionofthissentence(‘wasconducted’)workstofocusthereader’sattentiononthetopicratherthantheresearcher.(Itistakenforgrantedthattheauthorwastheonedoingthisresearch.)Ifthissentenceisre-writteninanactivevoice,notehowthe‘I’,ratherthantheresearchtopic,becomesthesubjectofthesentence:
I conducted research into the breeding habits of marsupials in the north-west region of Victoria.
Thereis,however,nohard-and-fastrulethatsaysyoucanneverusetheactivevoiceinacademicwriting.Instead,yourchoiceofactiveorpassivevoiceshouldbedeterminedbythefocusofyoursentence,andbytheconventionsofyourdiscipline.Ifindoubt,takeyourcuefromyourresearchreadingsoraskyourtutororlecturerwhattheconventionsareforyourdiscipline.
Making tentative statements (hedging)
Inacademicwritingitiscommontomaketentativeorqualifiedstatementsratherthanstrongclaims.Thereareanumberofreasonswhyyoumightwanttobecautiousaboutbeingtoodirectoroverlyconfidentinyouropinions.Forone,youdon’twanttosounddogmatic.Sinceacademicwritingaimstobeobjectiveandrational,lettheevidencespeakforitself,andleaveituptothereadertodecidewhetheryourargumentisconclusive.Anotherreasonforhedgingyourclaimscouldbethat–evenifyouhavealotofevidenceinsupportofyourargument–youwanttodemonstrateyourawarenessthatotherinterpretationsorconclusionsareplausibleorthatfutureresearchmightrefuteyourthesis.
Youcanmaketentativestatementsusingmodals(suchascan/could, may/might),verbs(appear to, indicate that, seem to, suggest that),adverbs(almost, apparently, frequently, maybe, mostly, perhaps, possibly, probably)andadjectives(certain, likely, main, most, possible, probable, unlikely).
Althoughdouble-negatives(e.g.The results are not inconclusive)canhaveasimilarfunction,theyareusuallyavoidedinacademicwriting.
Howassertiveyouwanttosoundwillrelatetotheevidenceyouprovideandmightdependonyourdiscipline.Payattentiontotheuseofqualifierswhenyoudoyourresearchandthinkabouthowstrongyouwantyourclaimstobewhilewriting.
nominalisation
Anothercommonfeatureofacademicwritingisnominalisation,wherebyactions/processes(verbs)becomethings(nouns).Thispracticeenablesmoreinformationtobecompactedintoasinglesentence.Take,forexample,thefollowingsentences:
Germany invaded Poland in 1939. This was the immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second World War.
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Thesesentencescanbecondensedintoasinglesentencebynominalisingtheaction(‘invaded’)describedinthefirstsentence:
Germany’s 1939 invasion of Poland was the immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second World War.
Notethattheentirefirstsentencebecomesasinglenoungroup–‘Germany’s1939invasionofPoland’.Notonlydoesthisnominalisationenabletheideatobecondensedtoasinglesentence,italsohelpstofocusthereader’sattentiononthemainclaimorissue:thecontentionthattheinvasionwastheimmediatecauseofthewar.
discipline-specific vocabulary
Anotherfeatureofacademiclanguageistheuseofabstractandtechnicalterms.Itisimportantthatyoubecomeawareofthecommontermsandspecificlanguagepracticesofyourdiscipline.Compileaglossaryoftermsanddefinitionsthatyoucomeacrossinthecourseofyourstudy:Observethelanguageusedbyyourlecturersandtutors.Makenoteofnewvocabularyyouencounterinyourreadings,andmakesureyouunderstandit!Aspecialistdictionaryinyoursubjectcanalsobeuseful.Inyouressaysyouwillbeexpectedtodemonstrateyourunderstandingofdiscipline-specificlanguageandtechnicalterms.
9. ediTingOnceyouhavewrittenafirstdraft,itisgoodtohaveabreaksothatyoucandistanceyourselffromwhatyouhavewritten.Ifyoucan,leaveitforadayortwobeforereturningtoit.Afterabreakyouwillbeabletore-readwhatyouhavewrittenwithafreshandmoreobjectiveperspective.Thiswayyouwillbebetterabletodiscoveranyinconsistenciesinlogicorargument,weakvocabularyorgrammaticalmistakes.Youmayevenfindthatyouhavethoughtofsomenewideatoincorporate.
Itisimportanttoallowtimeforediting.Youneedtoeditforstructureandargument;expression,grammarandspelling;andcorrectreferencing.
editing for structure and argumentWhenreadingthroughyourfirstdraftconsiderthefollowing:
introduction
• Doesyourintroductiontellthereaderhowyouunderstandthetopic,e.g.doesitgivebackgroundorcontextualinformation?
• Arekeytermsdefinedifnecessary?• Doesitclearlypreviewyourargument?• Doesitprovidethereaderwithamapofyouressay?
Body
• Doeseachparagraphhaveoneandonlyonemainidea?• Doallthesentencesineachparagraphcontributetothatmainidea?• Dothepointsyouaremakingfollowlogically?• Istheconnectionbetweenoneparagraphandanotherclear?• Isyourargumentconsistent?• Isanyonesectiontoolongorrepetitious?
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Conclusion
• Doestheconclusionbringthestrandsoftheargumenttogether?• Doesitleavethereaderinnodoubtaboutyourpositioninrelationtothequestion?
Asyouedit,imaginesomeoneelsereadingyouressay.Ateverystep,youneedtotellthereaderexactlywhatyouaredoing.Iftheyhavetostopandthink,‘Howdoesthispointrelatetothequestion?’or‘Whatisthepointbeingmadehere?’thenyouhavenotdoneyourjobofcommunicatingclearlytothereader.
Aftereditingforstructure,youshouldbehappywithyourargumentandthewayyouhavedevelopedandsupporteditintheessay.Younowneedtoeditforexpressionandspelling.
editing for expression, grammar and spellingYouneedtomakesurethatyourgrammar,punctuationandspellingarecorrect.Areyoursentencescomplete,clearandconcise?Doyoursentencesreadeasilyandaretheywithoutambiguities?Reviewyourworkatthispointforunnecessaryrepetitionandoveruseofanywordsorphrases.
It’salsoimportantatthisstagetocheckallofyourpronouns:he, she, it, they, them, this, that, these, those, who, whichetc.Isitclearwhatyourpronounsarereferringto?Itcansometimeshelptoreadyourworkaloudoraskafriendtoreaditforyou.
referencingMostdepartmentsrequireaspecificreferencingstyle(APAandHarvardaretwocommonstyles).Ifyourdepartmentdoesnothaveastyleguideforreferencingandyoursubjectreaderortheassignmentsheetdoesn’tnominateareferencingstyle,findoutthenameofthestylegenerallypreferredbythedepartmentoraskyourlecturerwhichstyleyoushoulduse.Findaprintedorelectronicstyleguideandtakesometimetostudyit.Makesureyouhaveappliedthestyleconsistentlyandaccurately(downtothesmallestdetail!)toeachreferenceinyouressay.Rememberalsotocreateareferencelistorbibliographywhichconformstoyourdepartment’sreferencingstylerequirements.IfyouuseEndNotetogenerateyourcitationsandreferencelist,thistaskwillbegreatlysimplified.
Onceyouhaveeditedforstructure,argument,expression,grammar,spelling,andcheckedreferencing,youressayisreadyforsubmission.
10. suBmiTTingYouwillneedtofindoutfromyourdepartmentorfacultyhowtosubmittheessay.Somedepartmentsrequireonlinesubmission,eitherthroughtheLMSorothermeans;othersmayrequireyoutodownloadandprintanofficialcoversheet,whichyouwouldthenattachtothefrontofahardcopyofyouressaybeforesubmittingittothenominatedplace.Normallyyouareaskedtopresentahardcopy(withoutafolder)stapledintheleft-handcorner.CheckyourfacultyorsubjectessaywritingguideorLMSsiteonthecorrectprocedureforsubmissions.
Itisessentialthatyoumakeahard-and/orsoft-copybackupofyouressaybeforesubmittingit!
Whenyougetyouressayback,lookoverthefeedbackfromtheassessor.Usethistoimproveanddevelopyouressaywritingskills.Ifyouhavefurtherquestionsaboutessaywriting,considermakingtimetotakeoneoftheASU’swritingworkshops,enrolinan
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onlinemoderatedacademicwritingcourseinAIRport(https://airport.unimelb.edu.au/),ormakeanappointmentwiththeASUorequivalentlearningsupportserviceinyourfacultytodiscussthedraftofyournextessay.
Masteringtheskillsofwritingagoodacademicessaytakestime,butfollowingthestepsintheprocessoutlinedhereshouldsetyouontheway!
11. resourCesfurther readingBailey,S.(2006).Academic writing: a handbook for international students(2nded.).NewYork:Routledge.
Behrens,L.,Beedles,B.,&Rosen,L.J.(2005).A sequence for academic writing(2nded.).NewYork:Pearson/Longman.
Behrens,L.,&Rosen,L.J.(2005).Writing and reading across the curriculum(9thed.).NewYork:Pearson/Longman.
Davis,J.,&Liss,R.(2006).Effective academic writing 3, The essay.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Johnson,A.P.(2003).A short guide to academic writing.Lanham,MD:UniversityPressofAmerica.
McMeniman,L.(1999).From inquiry to argument.NeedhamHeights,Mass:AllynandBacon.
Savage,A.,&Shafiei,M.(2006).Effective academic writing.1,Theparagraph.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Shiach,D.(2007).How to write essays: a step-by-step guide for all levels, with sample essays.Oxford:HowToBooks.
Williams,J.M.(2000).Style: ten lessons in clarity and grace(6thed.).NewYork:Longman.
useful Websites
AcademicSkillsUnitinformationandpublicationson
• writing:http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/asu/writing
• readingandresearch:http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/asu/reading
• style:http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/asu/language/style
Papers:Expectations,Guidelines,Advice,andGrading
bytwoEnglishprofessorsfromtheUniversityofToronto,Canada
http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/~dwhite/papers.htm
WritingLab
fromPurdueUniversity
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/writinglab/
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TheElementsofStyle
byWilliamStrunk
http://www.bartleby.com/141/
Writer’sHandbook
fromTheWritingCenterattheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison,USA
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/index.html
WritingaResearchPaper
http://larae.net/write/paper.html
WritingResources
fromtheWritingCenterattheUniversityofMichigan,USA
http://www.lsa.umich.edu/sweetland/studentservices/writingresourcesreferences
TenCommandmentsofWriting
byhistorianHughTrevor-Roper
http://blogs.ubc.ca/rmst221/files/2010/01/10comms-dacre.pdf
AcAdemic skills unit
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TertiaryEssay Writing
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